[1] The name of the fishes of the genus _Cyprinus_ is derived from
the island of Cyprus, the ancient sanctuary of Venus; this name is
supposed to have arisen from observations of the fecundity and
vivacity of carp during the spawning period.
CARPACCIO, VITTORIO, or VITTORE (c. 1465-c. 1522), Italian painter, was
born in Venice, cf an old Venetian family. The facts of his life are
obscure, but his principal works were executed between 1490 and 1519;
and he ranks as one of the finest precursors of the great Venetian
masters. The date of his birth is conjectural. He is first mentioned in
1472 in a will of his uncle Fra Ilario, and Dr Ludwig infers from this
that he was born c. 1455, on the ground that no one could enter into an
inheritance under the age of fifteen; but the inference ignores the
possibility of a testator making his will in prospect of the beneficiary
attaining his legal age. Consideration of the youthful style of his
earliest dated pictures ("St Ursula" series, Venice, 1490) makes it
improbable that at that time he had reached so mature an age as
thirty-five; and the date of his birth is more probably to be guessed
from his being about twenty-five in 1490. What is certain is that he was
a pupil (not, as sometimes thought, the master) of Lazzaro Bastiani,
who, like the Bellini and Vivarini, was the head of a large _atelier_ in
Venice, and whose own work is seen in such pictures as the "S.
Veneranda" at Vienna, and the "Doge Mocenigo kneeling before the Virgin"
and "Madonna and Child" (formerly attributed to Carpaccio) in the
National Gallery, London. In later years Carpaccio appears to have been
influenced by Cima da Conegliano (e.g. in the "Death of the Virgin,"
1508, at Ferrara). Apart from the "St Ursula" series, his scattered
series of the "Life of the Virgin" and "Life of St Stephen," and a "Dead
Christ" at Berlin, may be specially mentioned.
For an authoritative and detailed account, see the _Life and Works of
Vittorio Carpaccio_, by Pompeo Molmenti and Gustav Ludwig, Eng. trans,
by R.H. Cust (1907); and the criticism by Roger Fry, "A Genre Painter
and his Critics," in the _Quarterly Review_ (London, April 1908).
CARPATHIAN MOUNTAINS[1] (Lat. _Monies Sarmatici_; Med. Lat. _Montes
Nivium_), the eastern wing of the great central mountain system of
Europe. With the exception of the extreme southern and south-eastern
ramifications, which belong to Rumania, the Carpathians lie entirely
within Austrian and Hungarian territory. They begin on the Danube near
Pressburg, surround Hungary and Transylvania in a large semicircle, the
concavity of which is towards the south-west, and end on the Danube near
Orsova. The total length of the Carpathians is over 800 m., and their
width varies between 7 and 230 m., the greatest width of the Carpathians
corresponding with its highest altitude. Thus the system attains its
greatest breadth in the Transylvanian plateau, and in the meridian of
the Tatra group. It covers an area of 72,600 sq. m., and after the Alps
is the most extensive mountain system of Europe. The Carpathians do not
form an uninterrupted chain of mountains, but consist of several
orographically and geologically distinctive groups; in fact they present
as great a structural variety as the Alps; but as regards magnificence
of scenery they cannot compare with the Alps. The Carpathians, which
only in a few places attain an altitude of over 8000 ft., lack the bold
peaks, the extensive snow-fields, the large glaciers, the high
waterfalls and the numerous large lakes which are found in the Alps.
They are nowhere covered by perpetual snow, and glaciers do not exist,
so that the Carpathians, even in their highest altitude, recall the
middle region of the Alps, with which, however, they have many points in
common as regards appearance, structure and flora. The Danube separates
the Carpathians from the Alps, which they meet only in two points,
namely, the Leitha Mountains at Pressburg, and the Bakony Mountains at
Vacz (Waitzen), while the same river separates them from the Balkan
Mountains at Orsova. The valley of the March and Oder separates the
Carpathians from the Silesian and Moravian chains, which belong to the
middle wing of the great central mountain system of Europe. The
Carpathians separate Hungary and Transylvania from Lower Austria,
Moravia, Silesia, Galicia, Bukovina and Rumania, while its ramifications
fill the whole northern part of Hungary, and form the quadrangular mass
of the Transylvanian plateau. Unlike the other wings of the great
central system of Europe, the Carpathians, which form the watershed
between the northern seas and the Black Sea, are surrounded on all sides
by plains, namely the great Hungarian plain on the south-west, the plain
of the Lower Danube (Rumania) on the south, and the Galician plain on
the north-east.
The Carpathian system can be divided into two groups: the Carpathians
proper, and the mountains of Transylvania. The Carpathians proper
consist of an outer wall, which forms the frontier between Hungary and
the adjacent provinces of Austria, and of an inner wall which fills the
whole of Upper Hungary, and forms the central group. The outer wall is a
complex, roughly circular mass of about 600 m. extending from Pressburg
to the valley of the Viso, and the Golden Bistritza, and is divided by
the Poprad into two parts, the western Carpathians and the eastern or
wooded Carpathians. Orographically, therefore, the proper Carpathians
are divided into: (a) the western Carpathians, (b) the eastern or wooded
Carpathians, and (c) the central groups.
Ranges.
(a) The western Carpathians, which begin at the _Porta Hungarica_ on
the Danube, just opposite the Leitha Mountains, and extend to the
Poprad river, are composed of four principal groups: the Little
Carpathians (also called the Pressburg group) with the highest peak
Bradlo (2670 ft.); the White Carpathians or Miava group, with the
highest peak Javornik (3325 ft.), and the Zemerka (3445 ft.); the
Beskid proper or western Beskid group, which extends from a little
west of the Jablunka pass to the river Poprad, with the highest peaks,
Beskid (3115 ft.), Smrk (4395 ft.), Lissa Hora (4350 ft.) and Ossus
(5106 ft.); and the Magura or Arva Magura group, which extends to the
south of Beskid Mountains, and contains the Babia Gora (5650 ft.), the
highest peak in the whole western Carpathians.
(b) The eastern or wooded Carpathians extend from the river Poprad to
the sources of the river Viso and the Golden Bistritza, whence the
Transylvanian Mountains begin, and form the link between these
mountains and the central groups or High Carpathians. They are a
monotonous sandstone range, covered with extensive forests, which up
to the sources of the rivers Ung and San are also called the eastern
Beskids, and are formed of small parallel ranges. The northern
two-thirds of this range has a mean altitude of 3250 ft., and only in
its southern portion it attains a mean altitude of 5000 ft. The
principal peaks are Rusky Put (4264 ft.), Popadje (5690 ft.), Bistra
(5936 ft.), Pop Ivan (6214 ft.), Tomnatik (5035 ft.), Giumaleu (6077
ft.) and Cserna Gora (6505 ft.), the culminating peak of the whole
range. To the eastern Carpathians belongs also the range of mountains
extending between the Laborcza and the Upper Theiss, called Vihorlat,
which attains in the peak of the same name an altitude of 3495 ft. As
indicated by its name, which means "burnt," it is of volcanic origin,
and plays an important part in the folklore and in the superstitious
legends of the Hungarian people.
(c) The central groups or the High Carpathians extend from the
confluence of the rivers Arva and Waag to the river Poprad, and
include the highest group of the Carpathian system. They consist of
the High Tatra group (see TATRA MOUNTAINS), where is found the
Gerlsdorfer or Franz Josef peak (Hung. _Gerlachfalvi-Csucs_), with an
altitude of 8737 ft., the highest peak in the whole Carpathian
Mountains. On its west are the Liptauer Magura, with the highest peak
the Biela Szkala (6900 ft.), and on its east are the Zipser Magura,
which have a mean altitude of 3000 ft. South of the central groups
lies a widely extending mountain region, which fills the whole of
northern Hungary, and is known as the Hungarian highland. It is
composed of several groups, which are intersected by the valleys of
numerous rivers, and which descend in sloping terraces towards the
Danube and the Hungarian plain. The principal groups are: the Neutra
or Galgoc Mountains (4400 ft.), between the rivers Waag and Neutra;
the Low or Nizna Tatra, which extends to the south of the High Tatra,
and has its highest peaks, the Djumbir (6700 ft.) and the Kralova Hola
(6400 ft.); this group is continued towards the east up to the
confluence of the Gollnitz with the Hernad, by the so-called
Carpathian foot-hills, with the highest peak the Zelesznik (2675 ft.).
West of the Low Tatra extend the Fatra group, with the highest peak,
the Great Fatra (5825 ft.), to the south and east of which lie the
Schemnitz group, the Ostrowsky group, and several other groups, all of
which are also called the Hungarian Ore Mountains, on account of their
richness in valuable ores. South-east of the Low Tatra extend the
Zips--Gomor Ore Mountains, while the most eastern group is the
Hegyalja Mountains, between the Topla, Tarcza and Hernad rivers, which
run southward from Eperjes to Tokaj. In their northern portion, they
are also called Sovar Mountains, and reach in their highest peak,
Simonka, an altitude of 3350 ft., while their southern portion, which
ends with the renowned Tokaj Hill (1650 ft.), is also called Tokaj
Mountains. The smaller groups of the Hungarian highland are: on the
south-west the Neograd Mountains (2850), whose offshoots reach the
Danube; to the east of them extends the Matra group, with the highest
peak the Sasko (3285 ft.). The Matra group is of volcanic origin,
rising abruptly in the great Hungarian plain, and constitutes one of
the most beautiful groups of the Carpathians; lastly, to its east
extend the thickly-wooded Bukk Mountains (3100 ft.).
Lakes.
Throughout the whole of the Carpathian system there are numerous
mountain lakes, but they cannot compare with the Alpine lakes either
in extension or beauty. The largest and most numerous are found in the
Tatra Mountains. These lakes are called by the people "eyes of the
sea," through their belief that they are in subterranean communication
with the sea.
Passes.
The western and central Carpathians are much more accessible than the
eastern Carpathians and the Transylvanian Mountains. The principal
passes in the western Carpathians are: Strany, Hrozinkau, Wlara, Lissa
and the Jablunka pass (1970 ft.), the principal route between Silesia
and Hungary, crossed by the Breslau-Budapest railway; and the Jordanow
pass. In the central Carpathians are: the road from Neumarkt to
Kesmark through the High Tatra, the Telgart pass over the Kralova Hola
from the Poprad to the Gran, and the Tylicz pass from Bartfeld to
Tarnow. In the eastern Carpathians are: the Dukla pass, the
Mezo-Laborcz pass crossed by the railway from Tokaj to Przemysl; the
Uszok pass, crossed by the road from Ungvar to Sambor; the Vereczke
pass, crossed by the railway from Lemberg to Munkacs; the Delatyn or
Korosmezo pass (3300 ft.), also called the Magyar route, crossed by
the railway from Kolomea to Debreczen; and the Stiol pass in Bukovina.
Geology.
The Carpathians consist of an outer zone of newer beds and an inner
zone of older rocks. Between the two zones lies a row of _Klippen_,
while towards the Hungarian plain the inner zone is bordered by a
fringe of volcanic eruptions of Tertiary age. The _outer zone_ is
continuous throughout the whole extent of the chain, and is remarkably
uniform both in composition and structure. It is formed almost
entirely of a succession of sandstones and shales of Cretaceous and
Tertiary age--the so-called Carpathian Sandstone--and these are thrown
into a series of isoclinal folds dipping constantly to the south. The
folding of this zone took place during the Miocene period. The _inner
zone_ is not continuous, and is much more complex in structure. It is
visible only in the west and in the east, while in the central
Carpathians, between the Hernad and the headwaters of the Theiss, it
is lost beneath the modern deposits of the Hungarian plain. In the
western Carpathians the inner zone consists of a foundation of
Carboniferous and older rocks, which were folded and denuded before
the deposition of the succeeding strata. In the outer portion of the
zone the Permian and Mesozoic beds are crushed and folded against the
core of ancient rocks; in the inner portion of the zone they rest upon
the old foundation with but little subsequent disturbance. In the
eastern Carpathians also, the Permian and Mesozoic beds are not much
folded except near the outer margin of the zone. The _Klippen_ are
isolated hills, chiefly of Jurassic limestone, rising up in the midst
of the later and softer deposits on the inner border of the sandstone
zone. Their relations to the surrounding beds are still obscure. They
may be "rootless" masses brought upon the top of the later beds by
thrustplanes. They may be the pinched-up summits of sharp anticlinals,
which in the process of folding have been forced through the softer
rocks which lay upon them. Or, finally, they may have been islands
rising above the waters, in which were deposited the later beds which
now surround them. The so-called _Klippen_ of the Swiss Alps are now
usually supposed to rest upon thrustplanes, but they are not strictly
analogous, either in structure or in position, with those of the
Carpathians. Of all the peculiar features of the Carpathian chain,
perhaps the most remarkable is the fringe of volcanic rocks which lies
along its inner margin. The outbursts began in the later part of the
Eocene period, and continued into the Pliocene, outlasting the period
of folding. They appear to be associated with faulting upon the inner
margin of the chain. Trachytes, rhyolites, andesites and basalts
occur, and a definite order of succession has been made out in several
areas; but this order is not the same throughout the chain.
Climate, Flora, Fauna.
The Carpathians, like the Alps, form a protective wall to the regions
south of them, which enjoy a much milder climate than those situated
to the north. The vegetation of these regions is naturally subjected
to the different climateric conditions. The mountains themselves are
mostly covered with forests, and their vegetation presents four zones:
that of the beech extends to an altitude of 4000 ft.; that of the
Scottish fir to 1000 ft. higher. Above this grows a species of pine,
which becomes dwarfed and disappears at an altitude of about 6000 ft.,
beyond which is a zone of lichen and moss covered or almost bare rock.
The highest parts in the High Tatra and in the Transylvanian Mountains
have a flora similar to that of the Alps, more specially that of the
middle region. Remarkable is the sea-shore flora, which is found in
the numerous salt-impregnated lakes, ponds and marshes in
Transylvania. As regards the fauna, the Carpathians still contain
numerous bears, wolves and lynxes, as well as birds of prey. It
presents a characteristic feature in its mollusc fauna, which contains
many species not found in the neighbouring regions, and only found in
the Alpine region. Cattle and sheep are pastured in great numbers on
its slopes.
Minerals.
The Carpathian system is richer in metallic ores than any other
mountain system of Europe, and contains large quantities of gold,
silver, copper, iron, lead, coal, petroleum, salt, zinc, &c., besides
a great variety of useful mineral. A great number of mineral springs
and thermal waters are found in the Carpathians, many of which have
become frequented watering-places.
History.
The systematic and scientific exploration of the Carpathians dates
only from the beginning of the 19th century. The first ascension of
the Lomnitzer peak in the High Tatra was made by one David or Johann
Frohlich in 1615. The first account of the Tatra Mountains was written
by Georg Buchholz, a resident of Kesmark in 1664. The English
naturalist, Robert Townson, explored the Tatra in 1793 and 1794, and
was the first to make a few reliable measurements. The results of his
exploration appeared in his book, _Travels in Hungary_, published in
1797. But the first real important work was undertaken by the Swedish
naturalist, Georg Wablenberg (1780-1851), who in 1813 explored the
central Carpathians as a botanist, but afterwards also made
topographical and geological studies of the system. The results of all
the former explorations were embodied by A. von Sydow in an extensive
work published in 1827. During the 19th century the measurements of
the various parts of the Carpathians was undertaken by the ordnance
survey of the Austrian army, which published their first map of the
central Carpathians in 1870. A great stimulus to the study of this
mountain system was given by the foundation of the Hungarian
Carpathian Society in 1873, and a great deal of information has been
added to our knowledge since. In 1880 two new Carpathian societies
were formed: a Galician and a Transylvanian.
AUTHORITIES.--F.W. Hildebrandt, _Karpathenbilder_ (Glogau, 1863); E.
Sagorski and G. Schneider, _Flora Carpatorum Centralium_ (2 vols.,
Leipzig, 1891); Muriel Dowie, _A Girl in the Carpathians_ (London,
1891); _Orohydrographisches Tableau der Karpathen_ (Vienna, 1886), in
six maps of scale 1:750,000; V. Uhlig, "Bau und Bild der Karpaten," in
_Bau und Bild Osterreichs_ (Vienna, 1903). (O. Br.; P. La.)