[1] The name is derived from the Slavonic word _Chrb_, which means
mountain-range. As _Chrawat_, it was first applied to the inhabitants
of the region, whence it passed in the form _Krapat_ or _Karpa_ as
the name of mountain system. In official Hungarian documents of the
13th and 14th centuries the Carpathians are named Thorchal or
Tarczal, and also _Montes Nivium_.
CARPATHUS (Ital. _Scarpanto_), an island about 30 m. south-west of
Rhodes, in that part of the Mediterranean which was called, after it,
the Carpathian Sea (_Carpathium Mare_). It was both in ancient and
medieval times closely connected with Rhodes; it was held by noble
families under Venetian suzerainty, notably the Cornari from 1306 to
1540, when it finally passed into the possession of the Turks. From its
remote position Carpathus has preserved many peculiarities of dress,
customs and dialect, the last resembling those of Rhodes and Cyprus.
See L. Ross, _Reisen auf den gr. Inseln_ (Halle, 1840-1845); T. Bent,
_Journal of Hellenic Studies_, vi. (1885), p. 235; R.M. Dawkins,
_Annual of British School at Athens_, ix. and x.
CARPEAUX, JEAN BAPTISTE (1827-1875), French sculptor, was born at
Valenciennes, France, on the 11th of May 1827. He was the son of a
mason, and passed his early life in extreme poverty. In 1842 he came to
Paris, and after working for two years in a drawing-school, was admitted
to the Ecole des Beaux-Arts on the 9th of September 1854. The Grand Prix
de Rome was awarded to his statue of "Hector bearing in his arms his son
Astyanax." His first work exhibited at the Salon, in 1853, did not show
the spirit of an innovator, and was very unlike the work of his master
Rude. At Rome he was fascinated by Donatello, and yet more influenced by
Michelangelo, to whom he owes his feeling for vehement and passionate
action. He sent from Rome a bust, "La Palombella," 1856; and a
"Neapolitan Fisherman," 1858. This work was again exhibited in the Salon
of 1859, and took a second-class medal; but it was not executed in
marble till 1863. In his last year in Rome he sent home a dramatic
group, "Ugolino and his Sons," and exhibited at the same time a "Bust of
Princess Mathilde." This gained him a second-class medal and the favour
of the Imperial family. In 1864 he executed the "Girl with a Shell," the
companion figure to the young fisherman; and although in 1865 he did not
exhibit at the Salon, busts of "Mme. A.E. Andre," of "Giraud" the
painter, and of "Mlle. Benedetti" showed that he was not idle. He was
working at the same time on the decorations of the Pavilion de Flore, of
which the pediment alone was seen at the Salon, though the bas-relief
below is an even better example of his style. After producing a statue
of the prince imperial, Carpeaux was made chevalier of the Legion of
Honour in 1866. Two years later he received an important commission to
execute one of the four groups for the facade of the new opera house.
His group, representing "Dancing," 1869, was greeted with indignant
protests; it is nevertheless a sound work, full of movement, with no
fault but that of exceeding the limitations prescribed. In 1869 he
exhibited a "Bust of M. Gamier," and followed this up with two pieces
intended for his native city: a statue of Watteau, and a bas-relief,
"Valenciennes repelling Invasion." During the Commune he came to
England, and made a "Bust of Gounod" in 1871. His last important work
was a fountain, the "Four Quarters of the World," in which the globe is
sustained by four female figures personifying Europe, Asia, Africa and
America. This fountain is now in the Avenue de l'Observatoire in Paris.
Carpeaux, though exhausted by illness, continued designing
indefatigably, till he died at the Chateau de Becon, near Courbevoie, on
the 12th of October 1875, after being promoted to the higher grade of
the Legion of Honour. Many of his best drawings have been presented by
Prince Stirbey to the city of Valenciennes.
See Ernest Chesneau, _Carpeaux, sa vie et son oeuvre_ (Paris, 1880);
Paul Foucart, _Catalogue du Musee Carpeaux, Valenciennes_ (Paris,
1882); Jules Claretie, _J. Carpeaux_ (1882); Francois Bournand, _J.B.
Carpeaux_ (1893).
CARPENTARIA, GULF OF, an extensive arm of the sea deeply indenting the
north coast of Australia, between 10 deg. 40' and 17 deg. 40' S., and
135 deg. 30' and 142 deg. E. Its length is 480 m. and its extreme
breadth (E. to W.) 420 m. It is bounded E. by Cape York Peninsula, and
W. by the Northern Territory of South Australia. Near its southern
extremity is situated a group of islands called Wellesley; and towards
the western side are the Sir Edward Pellew Islands, the Groote Eylandt
and others. A large number of rivers find their way to the gulf, and
some are of considerable size. On the eastern side there is the Mitchell
river; at the south-east corner the Gilbert, the Norman, the Flinders,
the Leichhardt and the Gregory; and on the west the Roper river. Jan
Carstensz, who undertook a voyage of discovery in this part of the globe
in 1623, gave the name of Carpentier to a small river near Cape Duyfhen
in honour of Pieter Carpentier, at that time governor-general of the
Dutch East Indies; and after the second voyage of Abel Tasman in 1644,
the gulf, which he had successfully explored, began to appear on the
charts under its present designation.
CARPENTER, LANT (1780-1840), English Unitarian minister, was born at
Kidderminster on the 2nd of September 1780, the son of a carpet
manufacturer. After some months at a non-conformist academy at
Northampton, he proceeded to Glasgow University, and then joined the
ministry. After a short time as assistant master at a Unitarian school
near Birmingham, he was in 1802 appointed librarian at the Liverpool
Athenaeum. In 1805 he became pastor of a church in Exeter, removing in
1817 to Bristol. At both Bristol and Exeter he was also engaged in
school work, among his Bristol pupils being Harriet and James Martineau.
Carpenter did much to broaden the spirit of English Unitarianism. The
rite of baptism seemed to him a superstition, and he substituted for it
a form of infant dedication. His health, undermined by his constant
labours, broke down in 1839, and he was ordered to travel. He was
drowned on the night of the 5th of April 1840, having been washed
overboard from the steamer in which he was travelling from Leghorn to
Marseilles.
CARPENTER, MARY (1807-1877), English educational and social reformer,
was born on the 3rd of April 1807 at Exeter, where her father, Dr Lant
Carpenter, was Unitarian minister. In 1817 the family removed to
Bristol, where Dr Carpenter was called to the ministry of Lewin's Mead
Meeting. As a child Mary Carpenter was unusually earnest, with a deep
religious vein and a remarkable thoroughness in everything she
undertook. She was educated in her father's school for boys, learning
Latin, Greek and mathematics, and other subjects at that time not
generally taught to girls. She early showed an aptitude for teaching,
taking a class in the Sunday school, and afterwards helping her father
with his pupils. When Dr Carpenter gave up his school in 1829, his
daughters opened a school for girls under Mrs Carpenter's
superintendence. In 1833 the raja Rammohun Roy visited Bristol, and
inspired Miss Carpenter with a warm interest in India; and Dr Joseph
Tuckerman of Boston about the same time aroused her sympathies for the
condition of destitute children. Her life-work began with her taking
part in organizing, in 1835, a "Working and Visiting Society," of which
she was secretary for twenty years. In 1843 her interest in negro
emancipation was aroused by a visit from Dr S.G. Howe. Her interest in
general educational work was also growing. A bill introduced in this
year "to make provision for the better education of children in
manufacturing districts," as a first instalment of a scheme of national
education, failed to pass, largely owing to Nonconformist opposition,
and private effort became doubly necessary. So-called "Ragged Schools"
sprang up in many places, and Miss Carpenter conceived the plan of
starting one in Lewin's Mead. To this was added a night-school for
adults. In spite of many difficulties this was rendered a success,
chiefly owing to Miss Carpenter's unwearied enthusiasm and remarkable
organizing power. In 1848 the closing of their own private school gave
Miss Carpenter more leisure for philanthropic and literary work. She
published a memoir of Dr Tuckerman, and a series of articles on ragged
schools, which appeared in the _Inquirer_ and were afterwards collected
in book form. This was followed in 1851 by _Reformatory Schools for the
Children of the Perishing and Dangerous Classes, and for Juvenile
Offenders_. She sketched out three classes of schools as urgently
needed:--(1) good free day-schools; (2) feeding industrial schools; (3)
reformatory schools. This book drew public attention to her work, and
from that time onwards she was drawn into personal intercourse with
leading thinkers and workers. She was consulted in the drafting of
educational bills, and invited to give evidence before House of Commons
committees. To test the practical value of her theories, she herself
started a reformatory school at Bristol, and in 1852 she published
_Juvenile Delinquents, their Condition and Treatment_, which largely
helped on the passing of the Juvenile Offenders Act in 1854. Now that
the principle of reformatory schools was established, Miss Carpenter
returned to her plea for free day-schools, contending that the ragged
schools were entitled to pecuniary aid from the annual parliamentary
grant. At the Oxford meeting of the British Association (1860) she read
a paper on this subject, and, mainly owing to her instigation, a
conference on ragged schools in relation to government grants for
education was held at Birmingham (1861). In 1866 Miss Carpenter was at
last able to carry out a long-cherished plan of visiting India, where
she found herself an honoured guest. She visited Calcutta, Madras and
Bombay, inaugurated the Bengal Social Science Association, and drew up a
memorial to the governor-general dealing with female education,
reformatory schools and the state of gaols. This visit was followed by
others in 1868 and 1869. Her attempt to found a female normal school was
unsuccessful at the time, owing to the inadequate previous education of
the women, but afterwards such colleges were founded by government. A
start, however, was made with a model Hindu girls' school, and here she
had the co-operation of native gentlemen. Her last visit to India took
place in 1875, two years before her death, when she had the satisfaction
of seeing many of her schemes successfully established. At the meeting
of the prison congress in 1872 she read a paper on "Women's Work in the
Reformation of Women Convicts." Her work now began to attract attention
abroad. Princess Alice of Hesse summoned her to Darmstadt to organize a
Women's Congress. Thence she went to Neuchatel to study the prison
system of Dr Guillaume, and in 1873 to America, where she was
enthusiastically received. Miss Carpenter watched with interest the
increased activity of women during the busy 'seventies. She warmly
supported the movement for their higher education, and herself signed
the memorial to the university of London in favour of admitting them to
medical degrees. She died at Bristol on the 14th of June 1877, having
lived to see the accomplishment of nearly all the reforms for which she
had worked and hoped. (A. Z.)
CARPENTER, WILLIAM BENJAMIN (1813-1885), English physiologist and
naturalist, was born at Exeter on the 29th of October 1813. He was the
eldest son of Dr Lant Carpenter. He attended medical classes at
University College, London, and then went to Edinburgh, where he took
the degree of M.D. in 1839. The subject of his graduation thesis, "The
Physiological Inferences to be Deduced from the Structure of the Nervous
System of Invertebrated Animals," indicates a line of research which had
fruition in his _Principles of General and Comparative Physiology_. His
work in comparative neurology was recognized in 1844 by his election to
the Royal Society, which awarded him a Royal medal in 1861; and his
appointment as Fullerian professor of physiology in the Royal
Institution in 1845 enabled him to exhibit his powers as a teacher and
lecturer, his gift of ready speech and luminous interpretation placing
him in the front rank of exponents, at a time when the popularization of
science was in its infancy. His manifold labours as investigator,
author, editor, demonstrator and lecturer knew no cessation through
life; but in assessing the value of his work, prominence should be given
to his researches in marine zoology, notably in the lower organisms, as
Foraminifera and Crinoids. These researches gave an impetus to deep-sea
exploration, an outcome of which was in 1868 the "Lightning," and later
the more famous "Challenger," expedition. He took a keen and laborious
interest in the evidence adduced by Canadian geologists as to the
organic nature of the so-called _Eozoon Canadense_, discovered in the
Laurentian strata, and at the time of his death had nearly finished a
monograph on the subject, defending the now discredited theory of its
animal origin. He was an adept in the use of the microscope, and his
popular treatise on _The Microscope and its Revelations_ (1856) has
stimulated a host of observers to the use of the "added sense" with
which it has endowed man. In 1856 Carpenter became registrar of the
university of London, and held the office for twenty-three years; on his
resignation in 1879 he was made a C.B. in recognition of his services to
education generally. Biologist as he was, Carpenter nevertheless made
reservations as to the extension of the doctrine of evolution to man's
intellectual and spiritual nature. In his _Principles of Mental
Physiology_ he asserted both the freedom of the will and the existence
of the "Ego," and one of his last public engagements was the reading of
a paper in support of miracles. He died in London, from injuries
occasioned by the accidental upsetting of a spirit-lamp, on the 19th of
November 1885.
CARPENTRAS, a town of south-eastern France, capital of an arrondissement
in the department of Vaucluse 16 m. N.E. of Avignon by rail. Pop. (1906)
town, 7775; commune, 10,721. The town stands on the left bank of the
Auzon on an eminence, the summit of which is occupied by the church of
St Siffrein, formerly a cathedral, and the adjoining law-court. St
Siffrein, in its existing state, dates from the 15th and 16th centuries
and is Gothic in style, but it preserves remains of a previous church of
Romanesque architecture. The rich sculpture of the southern portal and
the relics and works of art in the interior are of some interest. The
law-court, built in 1640 as the bishop's palace, contains in its
courtyard a small but well-preserved triumphal arch of the Gallo-Roman
period. Other important buildings are the hospital, an imposing
structure of the 18th century, opposite which is a statue of its
founder, Malachie d'Inguimbert, bishop of Carpentras; and the former
palace of the papal legate, which dates from 1640. Of the old
fortifications the only survival is the Porte d'Orange, a gateway
surmounted by a fine machicolated tower. Their site is now occupied by
wide boulevards shaded by plane-trees. Water is brought to the town by
an aqueduct of forty-eight arches, completed in 1734.
Carpentras is the seat of a sub-prefect and of a court of assizes, and
has a tribunal of first instance, communal college for girls and boys, a
large library and a museum. Felt hats, confectionery, preserved fruits
and nails are its industrial products, and there are silk-works,
tanneries and dye-works. There is trade in silk, wool, fruit, oil, &c.
The irrigation-canal named after the town flows to the east of it (see
VAUCLUSE).
Carpentras is identified with _Carpentoracte_, a town of Gallia
Narbonensis mentioned by Pliny, which appears to have been of some
importance during the Roman period. Its medieval history is full of
vicissitudes; it was captured and plundered by Vandal, Lombard and
Saracen. In later times, as capital of the Comtat Venaissin, it was
frequently the residence of the popes of Avignon, to whom that province
belonged from 1228 till the Revolution. Carpentras was the seat of a
bishopric from the 5th century till 1805.
CARPENTRY, the art and work of a carpenter (from Lat. _carpentum_, a
carriage), a workman in wood, especially for building purposes. The
labour of the sawyer is applied to the division of large pieces of
timber or logs into forms and sizes to suit the purposes of the
carpenter and joiner. His working-place is called a sawpit, and his most
important tool is a pit-saw. A cross-cut saw, axes, dogs, files,
compasses, lines, lampblack, blacklead, chalk and a rule may also be
regarded as necessary to him. But this method of sawing timber is now
only used in remote country places, and in modern practice logs, &c.,
are converted into planks and small pieces at saw-mills, which are
equipped with modern machinery to drive all kinds of circular saws by
electricity, steam or gas.
Carpentry or carpenters' work has been divided into three principal
branches--descriptive, constructive and mechanical. The first shows the
lines or method for forming every species of work by the rules of
geometry; the second comprises the practice of reducing the timber into
particular forms, and joining the forms so produced in such a way as to
make a complete whole according to the intention or design; and the
third displays the relative strength of the timbers and the strains to
which they are subjected by their disposition. Here we have merely to
describe the practical details of the carpenter's work in the operations
of building. He is distinguished from the joiner by his operations being
directed to the mere carcass of a building, to things which have
reference to structure only. Almost everything the carpenter does to a
building is absolutely necessary to its stability and efficiency,
whereas the joiner does not begin his operations until the carcass is
complete, and every article of joiners' work might at any time be
removed from a building without undermining it or affecting its most
important qualities. Certainly in the practice of building a few things
do occur regarding which it is difficult to determine to whose immediate
province they belong, but the distinction is sufficiently broad for
general purposes.
The carpenter frames or combines separate pieces of timber by scarfing,
notching, cogging, tenoning, pinning and wedging, &c. The tools he uses
are the rule, axe, adze, saws, mallet, hammers, chisels, gouges, augers,
pincers, set squares, bevel, compasses, gauges, level, plumb rule, jack,
trying and smoothing planes, rebate and moulding planes, and gimlets and
wedges. The carpenter has little labour to put on to the stuff; his
chief work consists in fixing and cutting the ends of timbers, the
labour in preparing the timber being done by machinery.
[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Lapped Joint.]
[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Fished Joint.]
[Illustration: FIGS. 3, 4 and 5.--Scarf Joints.]
_Joints._--The joints in carpentry are various, and each is designed
according to the thrust or strain put upon it. Those principally used
are the following: lap, fished, scarf, notching, cogging, dovetailing,
housing, halving, mortice and tenon, stub tenon, dovetailed tenon, tusk
tenon, joggle, bridle, foxtail wedging, mitre, birdsmouth, built-up,
dowel. Illustrations are given of the most useful joints in general use,
and these, together with the descriptions, will enable a good idea to be
formed of their respective merits and methods of application.
The lapped joint (fig. 1) is used for temporary structures in
lengthening timbers and is secured with iron straps and bolts; a very
common use of the lap joint is seen in scaffolding secured with cords
and wedges.
The fished joint (fig. 2) is used for lengthening beams and is
constructed by butting the ends of two pieces of timber together with an
iron plate on top and bottom, and bolting through the timber; these iron
connecting-plates are usually about 3 ft. long and 1/4 in. and 1/2 in. in
thickness. This joint provides a good and cheap method of accomplishing
its purpose.
The scarf joint (figs. 3, 4 and 5) is used for lengthening beams, and is
made by cutting and notching the ends of timbers and lapping and fitting
and bolting through. This method cuts into the timber, but is very
strong and neat; in addition for extra strong work an iron fish-plate is
used as in the fished joint.
[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Notching.]
[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Cogging.]
The ends of floor joints and rafters are usually _notched_ (fig. 6) over
plates to obtain a good bearing and bring them to the required levels.
Where one timber crosses another as in purlins, rafters, wood floor
girders, plates, &c, both timbers are notched so as to fit over each
other; this _cogging_ (fig. 7) serves instead of fastenings. The timbers
are held together with a spike. In this way they are not weakened, and
the joint is a very good one for keeping them in position.
[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Dovetail.]
[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Housing.]
[Illustration: FIG. 10.--Halving.]
Dovetailing (fig. 8) is used for connecting angles of timber together,
such as lantern curbs or linings, and is the strongest form. When an end
of timber is let entirely into another timber it is said to be _housed_
(fig. 9). Where timbers cross one another and require to be flush on one
or both faces, sinkings are cut in each so as to fit over each other
(_halving_); these can either be square (fig. 10), bevelled (fig. 11) or
dovetailed sinkings (fig. 12). The end of one piece of timber cut so as
to leave a third of the thickness forms a _tenon_, and the piece of
timber which is to be joined to it has a mortice or slot cut through it
to receive the tenon; the two are then wedged or pinned with wood pins
(fig. 13).
[Illustration: FIG. 11.--Bevelled Halving.]
[Illustration: FIG. 12.--Dovetailed Halving.]
[Illustration: FIG. 13.--Mortice and Tenon.]
[Illustration: FIG. 14.--Stub Tenon or Joggle.]
[Illustration: FIG. 15.--Dovetailed Tenon.]
[Illustration: FIG. 16.--Tusk Tenon.]
[Illustration: FIG. 17.---Bridle Joint.]
[Illustration: FIG. 18.--Foxtail Wedging.]
[Illustration: FIG. 19.--Dowelling.]
A stub tenon or joggle (fig. 14) is used for fixing a post to a sill; a
sinking is cut in the sill and a tenon is cut on the foot of the post to
fit into the sinking to keep the post from sliding.
The purpose of a dovetailed tenon (fig. 15) is to hold two pieces of
wood together with mortice and tenon so that it can be taken apart when
necessary. The tenon is cut dovetail shape, and a long mortice permits
the wide part of the tenon to go through, and it is secured with wood
wedges. Where the floor joists or rafters are trimmed round fires,
wells, &c., the tusk tenon joint (fig. 16) is used for securing the
trimmer joist. It is formed by cutting a tenon on the trimmer joist and
passing it through the side of the trimming joist and fixing it with a
wood key. Where large timbers are tusk tenoned together, the tenons do
not pass right through, but are cut in about 4 in. and spiked.
A bridle joint or birdsmouth (fig. 17) is formed by cutting one end of
timber either V shape or segmental, and morticing the centre of this
shaped end. Similar sinkings are cut on the adjoining timber to fit one
into the other; these are secured with pins and also various other forms
of fastenings. Foxtail wedging (fig. 18) is a method very similar to
mortice and tenon. But the tenon does not go through the full thickness
of the timber; and also on the end of the tenon are inserted two wedges,
so that when the tenon is driven home the wedges split it and wedge
tightly into the mortice. This joint is used mostly in joinery. The
mitre is a universal joint, used for connecting angles of timber as in
the case of picture frames. Built-up joints involve a system of lapping
and bolting and fishing, as in the case of temporary structures, for
large spans of centering for arches, and for derrick cranes. Dowels are
usually 3 or 4 in. long and driven into a circular hole in the foot of a
door frame or post; the other end is let into a hole in the sill (fig.
19).
[Illustration: FIG. 20.--Method of supporting Centering for Concrete.]
_Centering._--Centering is temporary timber or framing erected so as to
carry concrete floors or arches of brick or stone, &c.; when the work
has set the centering is removed gradually. The centering for concrete
floors is usually composed of scaffold boards resting on wood bearers
(fig 20). One wood bearer rests along on top of the steel joists;
through this bearer long bolts are suspended, and to the bottom of these
bolts a second bearer is fixed, and on the bottom bearer the scaffold
boards rest. Another method, not much used now, is to fit the boards to
the size of the floor and prop them up on legs, but among other
disadvantages this process takes up much space and is more costly.
[Illustration: FIG. 21.]
Turning piece is a name given to centering required for turning an arch
over (fig. 21); it is only 4-1/2 in. wide on the soffit or bed, and is
generally cut out of a piece of 3 or 4 in. stuff, the top edge being
made circular to the shape of the arch. It is kept in position whilst
the arch is setting with struts from ground or sills and is nailed to
the reveals, a couple of cross traces being wedged between. In the case
of a semicircular or elliptical arch with 4-1/2 in. soffit this turning
piece would be constructed of ribs cut out of 4 in. stuff with ties and
braces. Or the ribs could be cut out of 1 in. stuff, in which case there
must be one set of ribs outside and one inside secured with ties and
braces; each set of ribs when formed of thin stuff is made of two
thicknesses nailed together so as to lap the joints. For spans up to 15
ft. the thin ribs would be used, and for spans above 15 ft. ribs out of
4 in. stuff and upwards. For arches with 9 in. soffit and upwards,
whether segmental or semicircular or elliptical, the centres are formed
with the thin ribs and laggings up to 15 ft. span; above 15 ft. with 4
in. ribs and upwards (fig. 22). The lower member of centres is called
the tie, and is fixed so as to tie the extremities together and to keep
the centre from spreading. Where the span is great, these ties, instead
of being fixed straight, are given a rise so as to allow for access or
traffic underneath. Braces are necessary to support the ribs from
buckling in, and must be strong enough and so arranged as to withstand
all stresses. Laggings are small pieces or strips of wood nailed on the
ribs to form the surface on which to build the arch, and are spaced 1
in. apart for ordinary arches; for gauged arches they are nailed close
together and the joints planed off. When centres are required to be
taken down, the wedges upon which the centre rests are first removed so
as to allow the arch to take its bearing gradually. Centres for brick
sewers and vault arching are formed in the same way as previously
mentioned, with ribs and laggings, but the thickness of the timbers
depends upon the weight to be carried.
[Illustration: FIG. 22.--Centering for Stone Arch.]
[Illustration: FIG. 23.--Single Floor.]
_Floors._--For ordinary residential purposes floors are chiefly
constructed of timber. Up to about the year 1895 nearly every modern
building was constructed with wood joists, but because of evidence
adduced by fire brigade experts and the serious fires that have occurred
fire-resisting floors have been introduced. These consist of steel
girders and joists, filled in with concrete or various patented brick
materials in accordance with such by-laws as those passed by the London
County Council and other authorities. The majority of the floors of
public buildings, factories, schools, and large residential flats are
now constructed of fire-resisting materials. There are two descriptions
of flooring, single and double.
[Illustration: FIG. 24.--Floor pugged to resist passage of sound.]
Single flooring.
Single flooring (fig. 23) consists of one row of wood joists resting on
a wall or partition at each end without any intermediate support, and
receiving the floor boards on the upper surface and the ceiling on the
underside. Joists should never be less than 2 in. thick, or they are
liable to split when the floor brads are driven in; the thickness varies
from 2 to 4 in. and the depth from 5 to 11 in. (see _By-laws_, below),
the distance between each joist is usually 12 in. in the clear, but
greater strength is obtained in a floor by having deep joists and
placing them closer together. These floors are made firm and prevented
from buckling by the use of strutting as mentioned hereafter.
The efficiency of single flooring is materially affected by the
necessity which constantly occurs in practice of trimming round
fireplaces and flues, and round well holes such as lifts, staircases,
&c. Trimming is a method of supporting the end of a joist by tenoning it
into timber crossing it; the timber so tenoned is called the trimmer
joist, and the timber morticed for the tenon of the trimmer is called
the trimming joist, while the intermediate timbers tenoned into the
trimmer are known as the trimmed joists. This system has to be resorted
to when it is impossible to get a bearing on the wall.
[Illustration: FIG. 25.--Double Floor, with Steel Binders.]
A trimmer requires for the most part to be carried or supported at one
or both ends by the trimming joists, and both the trimmer and the
trimming joists are necessarily made stouter than if they had to bear no
more than their own share of the stress. In the usual practice the
trimmer and trimming joists are 1 in. thicker than the common joists,
but there are special regulations and by-laws set out in the various
districts and boroughs (see _By-laws_, below) to which attention must be
given.
[Illustration: FIG. 26.]
[Illustration: FIG. 27.--Construction of a Medieval Floor.]
The principal objection to single flooring is that the sound passes
through from floor to floor, so that, in some cases, conversation in one
room can almost be understood in another. To stop the sound from passing
through floors the remedy is to pug them (fig. 24). This consists in
using rough boarding resting on fillets nailed to the sides of the
joists about half-way up the depth of the joists, and then filling in on
top of the boarding with slag wool usually 3 in. thick. Also to further
prevent sound from passing through floors the flooring should be tongued
and the ceiling should have a good thick floating coat, in poor work the
stuff on ceilings is very stinted. In days gone by, ceiling joists were
put at right angles to the floor joists, but this took up head room and
was costly, and the arrangement is obsolete.
[Illustration: FIG. 28.--Herring-bone Strutting.]
[Illustration: FIG. 29.--Solid Strutting.]
Double flooring.
Double flooring (fig. 25) consists of single fir joists trimmed into
steel girders; in earlier times a double floor consisted of fir joists
called binding, bridging and ceiling joists, but these are very little
used now and the single fir joists and steel girders have taken their
place. Steel girders span from wall to wall, and on their flanges are
bolted wood plates to receive the ends of the single joists which are
notched over plates and run at right angles to the girders (fig. 26).
The bearings of the joists on the wall also rest on wall plates, so as
to get a level bed, and are sometimes notched over them. Wall plates,
which are usually 4-1/2 in. X 3 in. and are bedded on walls in motar, take
the ends of joists and distribute the weight along the wall. The plates
bolted on the side of girders are of sizes to suit the width of the
flanges.
The medieval floor (fig. 27) consisted of the framed floor with wood
girders, binding, bridging and ceiling joists; and the underside of all
the timbers was usually wrought, the girders and binders being boldly
moulded and the other timbers either square or stop chamfered.
Flooring is strengthened by the use of strutting, either herring-bone
(fig. 28) or solid (fig. 29). Herring-bone strutting consists of two
pieces of timber, usually 2 in. X 2 in., fixed diagonally between each
joist in continuous rows, the rows being about 6 ft. apart. Solid
strutting consists of 1-1/4 in. boards, nearly the same depth as the
joists and fitted tightly between the joists, and nailed in continuous
rows 6 ft. apart. Where heavy weights are likely to be put on floors
long bolts are passed through the centre of joists at the side of
strutting; since this draws the strutting tightly together and does not
produce any forcing stress on the walls, it is undoubtedly the best
method.
Floors are usually constructed to carry the following loads (including
weight of floor):--
Residences, 1-1/4 cwt. per foot super of floor space.
Public buildings, 1-1/2 cwt. per foot super of floor space.
Factories, 2-1/2 to 4 cwt. per foot super of floor space.
_Local By-laws._--With regard to floor joists in domestic buildings,
the following are required in the Hornsey district, in the north of
London. The size of every common bearing floor joist up to 3 ft. long
in clear shall be 3 in. X 2-1/2 in.; from 3 ft. to 6 ft. in clear it
shall be 4-1/2 in. X 3 in.; from 6 ft. to 8 ft., 6-1/2 in. X 2-1/2
in.; from 8 ft. to 12 ft., 7 in. X 2-1/2 in., and so on according to
the clear span. The Hornsey by-laws with regard to trimmers are as
follows:--A trimmer joist shall not receive more than six common
joists, and the thickness of a trimming joist receiving a trimmer at
not more than 3 ft. from one end and of every trimmer joist shall be
1/8th of an inch greater than the thickness for a common joist of the
same bearing for every common joist carried by a trimmer. For example,
if the common joists are 7 in. X 2-1/2 in. and the trimmer has six
joists trimmed into same, the size of trimmer would have to be 7 in. X
3-1/4 in. The Hornsey council also requires that the floor boards
shall not be less than 7/8ths of an inch thick.
There is little difference in the requirements of the various
localities. For example, the regulations of the Croydon council
require that every common bearing joist for lengths up to 3 ft. 4 in.
in clear shall be 3 in. X 2-1/2 in.; for lengths between 3 ft. 4 in.
and 5 ft. 4 in., 4 in. X 2 in.; for lengths between 5 ft. 4 in. and 7
ft. 4 in., 4 in. X 3 in.; and so on according to the clear span. The
Croydon by-laws with regard to trimmers are as follows:--A trimmer
joist shall not receive more than six common joists, and the thickness
of a trimming joist shall be 1-1/2 in. thicker than that for common
joists of the same bearing, and the thickness of a trimmer joist shall
be 1/4 in. thicker for every joist trimmed into same than the common
joist. For example, if the common joists are 4 in. X 3 in. the
trimming joists would have to be 4 in. X 4-1/4 in., and the trimmer
joist would have to be 4 in. X 4-1/2 in.
_Partitions._--Partitions are screens used to divide large floor
spaces into smaller rooms and are sometimes constructed to carry the
floors above by a system of trussing. They are built of various
materials; those in use now are common stud partitions, bricknogged
partitions, and solid deal and hardwood partitions, 4-1/2 in. brick
walls or bricks laid on their sides, so making a 3 in. partition, and
various patent partitions such as coke breeze concrete or hollow brick
partitions (see BRICKWORK), iron and wire partitions, and plaster slab
partitions (see PLASTERWORK).
There are two kinds of stud or quarter partitions, common and trussed.
[Illustration: FIG. 30.--Common Partition.]
Common partitions.
Common partitions (fig. 30) simply act as a screen to divide one room
from another, and do not carry any weight. They weigh about 25 lb. per
foot superficial including plastering on both sides, and are composed of
4 in. X 3 in. head and sill and 4 in. X 2 in. upright studs; 4 in. X 2
in. nogging pieces are fitted between the studs to keep them from
bending in, and are placed parallel with the head, usually 4 ft. apart.
Where door-openings occur in these partitions the studs next the opening
are 4 in. X 3 in. Should the floor boards have been laid, the sill of
the partition would be laid direct on them, but if the partitions are
erected at the time of building the structure the sill should either
rest directly over a joist, if parallel with it, or at right angles to
the joists; should the position of the sill come between two joists,
that is, parallel with them, then short pieces called bridging pieces of
4 in. X 2 in. stuff are wedged between the two joists and nailed to
carry the sill.
[Illustration: FIG. 31.--Trussed Partition.]
Trussed partitions.
Trussed partitions (fig. 31) are very similar to the last, but they are
so built as to carry their own weight and also to support floors, and in
addition have braces; the head and sill are larger, and calculated
according to the clear bearing and the weight put upon them. There are
two forms of trussing, namely, queen post (fig. 32) and king post (fig.
33).
Bricknogged partitions.
Bricknogged partitions are formed in the same manner as the common stud
partition, except that the studs are placed usually 18 or 27 in. apart
in the clear instead of 12 in., and the 18 and 27 in. widths being
multiples of a brick dimension, they are filled in with brickwork 4-1/2
in. thick and always built in cement. These are used to prevent sound
from passing from one room to another, and also to prevent fire from
spreading, and are vermin-proof. Another method is to fill the space
between the studs with coke breeze concrete instead of brickwork.
Timber partitions have the advantages that they are light and cheap and
substantial, and the disadvantages that they are not fire-resisting or
sound-resisting or vermin-proof; they should never be erected in damp
positions such as the lower floors of buildings.
[Illustration: FIG. 32.--Queen Post Trussed Partition.]
[Illustration: FIG. 33.--King Post Trussed Partition.]
Solid wood partitions are used in offices and classrooms of schools, the
upper portions usually being glazed; where these partitions enclose a
staircase in a public building the London Building Act requires them to
be of 2 in. hardwood, with only small panels of fire-resisting glass.
_Timber Work._--Half timber work consists of a framework of timber; the
upper storeys of suburban and country residences are often thus treated,
and the spaces between the timbers are filled in with brickwork and
plastered inside, and rough cast outside, though sometimes tiles are
hung on the outside. In some instances in country places there is no
filling between the timbers, and both sides are lath and plastered, and
in others the timbers are solid, or facing pieces are simply plugged to
the walls, the joints being pinned with hardwood pins. Half timber work
(fig. 34) well designed has a very pleasing, homely and rural effect.
The best and most durable wood to use is English oak worked smooth on
the external face and usually painted; the by-laws of various
authorities differ considerably as to the method of construction and in
the restrictions as to its use. Some very fine early examples are to be
seen in England, as at Holborn Bars, London, in the old parts of
Bristol, and at Moreton Old Hall, near Congleton, Cheshire (see HOUSE,
Plate IV. fig. 13).
[Illustration: FIG. 34.--Half Timber Construction.]
Timber-framed permanent buildings are not used in the towns of England,
not being allowed by the by-laws. In some English villages timber
bungalows are allowed, plastered inside, and either rough cast outside,
or with tiles, or with sheet iron painted. At the garden city of
Letchworth, in Hertfordshire, there are a few timber-framed bungalows
(erected about 1904 and originally intended to be used as week-end
cottages), the outsides of which are covered with sheet iron and
painted. Other instances of the temporary use of this kind of building
are found in soldiers' barracks, offices and chapels.
In America and the British colonies this class of building is very
largely erected on the outskirts of the cities. In American practice in
framing the walls of wooden buildings two distinct methods are used and
are distinguished as "braced" and "balloon."
The Braced (fig. 35) was the only kind in use previous to about the year
1850. In this method of framing the sills, posts, girts and plates are
made of heavy timber morticed and pinned together and braced with 4 in.
X 4 in. or 4 in. X 6 in. braces and common studding. To frame a building
in this way it is necessary to cut all the pieces and make all the
mortice holes on the ground, and then fit them together and raise a
whole side at a time or at least one storey of it. The common studs are
only one storey high.
The Balloon frame (fig. 36) is composed of much smaller scantlings and
is more rapidly erected and less expensive. The method is to first lay
the sill, generally 4 in. X 6 in., halved at the angles. After the floor
is laid, the corner posts, usually 4 in. X 6 in., are erected and
temporarily secured in place with the aid of stays. The common studs are
then set up and spiked to the sill, and a temporary board nailed across
their face on the inside. These common studs are the full height from
sill to roof plate, and the second tier of floor joists are supported by
notching a 1-1/4 in. X 7 in. board, called a false girt or ribbon, into
their inside edge at the height to receive the floor joists. The ends of
the joists are also placed against a stud and spiked. The tops of the
studs are cut to a line, and a 2 in. X 4 in. plate is spiked on top, an
additional 2 in. X 4 in. plate being placed on the top of the last
breaking joint. Should the studs not be long enough to reach the plate,
then short pieces are fished on with pieces of wood spiked on both
sides. The diagram shows a portion of the framework of a two-storey
house constructed in the manner described. In the balloon frame the
timbers are held together entirely by nails and spikes, thus permitting
them to be put up rapidly. The studs are doubled where windows or
openings occur. In both these methods dwarf brick foundations should be
built, upon which to rest the sill. For buildings of a superior kind a
combination of the braced and balloon frames is sometimes adopted.
[Illustration: FIG. 35.--Braced Frame.]
[Illustration: FIG. 36.--Balloon Frame.]
The sides of frame buildings are covered with siding, which is fastened
to a sheathing of rough boards nailed to the studs. The siding may
consist of matched boards placed diagonally, or of clapboards or weather
boards--which are thin boards thicker at one edge than the other, and
arranged horizontally with the thick edge downwards and overlapping the
thin edge of the board below. Shingles or wooden tiles are also
employed.
AUTHORITIES.--The following are the principal publications on
carpentry: T. Tredgold, _Carpentry_; Peter Nicholson, _Carpenter and
Joiner_; J. Newlands, _Carpenter's Assistant_; J. Gwilt,
_Encyclopaedia of Architecture_; Rivington, _Building Construction_
(elementary and advanced); E.L. Tarbuck, _Encyclopaedia of Practical
Carpentry and Joinery_; A.W. Pugin, _Details of Ancient Timber
Houses_; Beresford Pite, _Building Construction_; J.P. Allen,
_Building Construction_; H. Adams. _Notes on Building_; C.F. Mitchell,
_Building Construction_ (elementary and advanced); Burrell, _Building
Construction_; F.E. Kidder, _Building Construction_ (U.S.A.); E.E.
Viollet le Duc, _Dictionnaire_; J.K. Krafft, _L'Art de la charpente_.
(J. Bt.)
CARPET, the name given to any kind of textile covering for the ground or
the floor, the like of which has also been in use on couches and seats
and sometimes even for wall or tent hangings or curtains. In modern
times, however, carpet usually means a patterned fabric woven with a
raised surface of tufts (either cut or looped), and used as a floor
covering. Other floor coverings are and have been made also without such
a tufted surface, and of these some are simple shuttle-woven materials
plain or enriched with needlework or printed with patterns, others are
woven after the manner of tapestry-weaving (see TAPESTRY) or in
imitation of it, and a further class of carpets is made of felt (see
FELT). This last material is entirely different from that of shuttle or
tapestry weaving. Although carpet weaving by hand is, and for centuries
has been, an Oriental industry, it has also been, and is still, pursued
in many European countries. Carpet-weaving by steam-driven machinery is
solely European in origin, and was not brought to the condition of
meeting a widespread demand until the 19th century.