[1] In architecture, the term "carol" (also wrongly spelled "carrel"
or "carrol") is used, in the sense of an enclosure, of a small chapel
or oratory enclosed by screens, and also sometimes of the rails of
the screens themselves. It is more particularly applied to the
separate seats near the windows of a cloister (q.v.), used by the
monks for the purposes of study, &c. The term "carol" has, by a
mistake, been sometimes used of a scroll bearing an inscription of a
text, &c.
CAROLINE (1683-1737), wife of George II., king of Great Britain and
Ireland, was a daughter of John Frederick, margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach
(d. 1686). Born at Ansbach on the 1st of March 1683, the princess passed
her youth mainly at Dresden and Berlin, where she enjoyed the close
friendship of Sophie Charlotte, wife of Frederick I. of Prussia; she
married George Augustus, electoral prince of Hanover, in September 1705.
The early years of her married life were spent in Hanover. She took a
continual interest in the approaching accession of the Hanoverian dynasty
to the British throne, was on very friendly terms with the old electress
Sophia, and corresponded with Leibnitz, whose acquaintance she had made in
Berlin. In October 1714 Caroline followed her husband and her
father-in-law, now King George I., to London. As princess of Wales she was
accessible and popular, and took the first place at court, filling a
difficult position with tact and success. When the quarrel between the
prince of Wales and his father was attaining serious proportions, Caroline
naturally took the part of her husband, and matters reached a climax in
1717. Driven from court, ostracized by the king, deprived even of the
custody of their children, the prince and princess took up their residence
in London at Leicester House, and in the country at Richmond. They
managed, however, to surround themselves with a distinguished circle;
Caroline had a certain taste for literature, and among their attendants
and visitors were Lord Chesterfield, Pope, Gay, Lord Hervey and his wife,
the beautiful Mary Lepel. A formal reconciliation with George I. took
place in 1720. In October 1727 George II. and his queen were crowned.
During the rest of her life Queen Caroline's influence in English politics
was very chiefly exercised in support of Sir Robert Walpole; she kept this
minister in power, and in control of church patronage. She was exceedingly
tolerant, and the bishops appointed by her were remarkable rather for
learning than for orthodoxy. During the king's absences from England she
was regent of the kingdom on four occasions. On the whole, Caroline's
relations with her husband, to whom she bore eight children, were
satisfactory. A clever and patient woman, she was very complaisant towards
the king, flattering his vanity and acknowledging his mistresses, and she
retained her influence over him to the end. She died on the 20th of
November 1737.
Caroline appears in Scott's _Heart of Midlothian_; see also Lord
Hervey, _Memoirs of the Reign of George II._, ed. by J.W. Croker
(1884); W.H. Wilkins, _Caroline the Illustrious_ (1904); and A.D.
Greenwood, _Lives of the Hanoverian Queens of England_, vol. i.
(1909).
CAROLINE AMELIA AUGUSTA (1768-1821), queen of George IV. of Great
Britain, second daughter of Charles William Ferdinand, duke of
Brunswick-Wolfenbuttel, was born on the 17th of May 1768. She was
brought up with great strictness, and her education did not fit her well
for her subsequent station in life. In 1795 she was married to the then
prince of Wales (see GEORGE IV.), who disliked her and separated from
her after the birth of a daughter in January 1796. The princess resided
at Blackheath; and as she was thought to have been badly treated by her
profligate husband, the sympathies of the people were strongly in her
favour. About 1806 reports reflecting on her conduct were circulated so
openly that it was deemed necessary for a commission to inquire into the
circumstances. The princess was acquitted of any serious fault, but
various improprieties in her conduct were pointed out and censured. In
1814 she left England and travelled on the continent, residing
principally in Italy. On the accession of George in 1820, orders were
given that the English ambassadors should prevent the recognition of the
princess as queen at any foreign court. Her name also was formally
omitted from the liturgy. These acts stirred up a strong feeling in
favour of the princess among the English people generally, and she at
once made arrangements for returning to England and claiming her rights.
She rejected a proposal that she should receive an annuity of L50,000 a
year on condition of renouncing her title and remaining abroad. Further
efforts at compromise proved unavailing; Caroline arrived in England on
the 6th of June, and one month later a bill to dissolve her marriage
with the king on the ground of adultery was brought into the House of
Lords. The trial began on the 17th of August 1820, and on the 10th of
November the bill, after passing the third reading, was abandoned. The
public excitement had been intense, the boldness of the queen's counsel,
Brougham and Denman, unparalleled, and the ministers felt that the
smallness of their majority was virtual defeat. The queen was allowed to
assume her title, but she was refused admittance to Westminster Hall on
the coronation day, July 19, 1821. Mortification at this event seems to
have hastened her death, which took place on the 7th of August of the
same year.
See _A Queen of Indiscretions, the Tragedy of Caroline of Brunswick,
Queen of England_, translated by F. Chapman from the Italian of
Graziano Paolo Clerici (London, 1907), with numerous portraits, &c. Of
contemporary authorities the _Creevy Papers_ (1905) throw the most
interesting sidelights on the subject.
CAROLINE ISLANDS, a widely-scattered archipelago in the Pacific Ocean,
E. of the Philippines and N. of New Guinea, included in Micronesia,
between 5 deg. and 10 deg. N., and 135 deg. and 165 deg. E., belonging
to Germany. They fall into three main groups, the Western, Central and
Eastern Carolines, the central being the most numerous, while the
western include the Pelew group. The total land area is about 380 sq.
m., and out of this, 307 sq. m. is covered by the four main islands,
Ponape and Kusaie in the eastern group, Truk or Hogolu in the central,
and Yap in the western. These islands are of considerable elevation (the
highest point of Ponape approaches 3000 ft.), but the rest are generally
low coral islets. The climate is equable and moist, but healthy; but the
islands are subject to heavy storms. The total population is estimated
at 36,000. The natives, who are Micronesian hybrids of finer physique
than their kinsmen of the Pelew Islands, have a comparatively high
mental standard, being careful agriculturists, and peculiarly clever
boatbuilders and navigators. The Germans divide the whole archipelago
into two administrative districts, eastern and western, having the seats
of government at Ponape and Yap respectively. The principal article of
export is copra. The islands were discovered (at least in part) by the
Portuguese Diego da Rocha in 1527, and called by him the Sequeira
Islands. In 1686 Admiral Francesco Lazeano, who made further
explorations, renamed them the Carolines in honour of Charles II. of
Spain. The islands were subsequently visited by a few travellers; but
the natives have only in modern times been reconciled to the presence of
foreigners; an early visit of missionaries (1731) resulted in one of
several murderous attacks on white men which darken the history of the
islands; and it was only in 1875 that Spain, claiming the group, made
some attempt to assert her rights. These were contested by Germany,
whose flag was hoisted on Yap, and the matter was referred to the
arbitration of Pope Leo XIII. in 1885. He decided in favour of Spain,
but gave Germany free trading rights; and in 1899 Germany took over the
administration of the islands from Spain, paying 25,000,000 pesetas
(nearly L1,000,000 sterling).
_Ancient Stone Buildings._--In Ponape and Kusaie, massive stone
structures, similar to those which occur in several other parts of the
Pacific Ocean, have long been known to exist. They have been closely
explored by Herr Kubary, Mr F.J. Moss, and later Mr F.W. Christian. None
of the colossal structures hitherto described appears to have been
erected by the present Melanesian or Polynesian peoples, while their
wide diffusion, extending as far as Easter Island, within 400 m. of the
New World, points to the occupation of the Pacific lands by a
prehistoric race which had made some advance in general culture. The
Funafuti borings (1897) show almost beyond doubt that Polynesia is an
area of comparatively recent subsidence. Hence the land connexions must
have formerly been much easier and far more continuous than at present.
The dolmen-builders of the New Stone Age are now known to have long
occupied both Korea and Japan, from which advanced Asiatic lands they
may have found little difficulty in spreading over the Polynesian world,
just as in the extreme west they were able to range over Scandinavia,
Great Britain and Ireland. To Neolithic man, still perhaps represented
by some of the more light-coloured and more regular-featured Polynesian
groups, may therefore not unreasonably be attributed these astonishing
remains, which assume so many different forms according to the nature of
the locality, but seem generally so out of proportion with the present
restricted areas on which they stand. With the gradual subsidence of
these areas their culture would necessarily degenerate, although echoes
of sublime theogonies and philosophies are still heard in the oral
traditions and folklore of many Polynesian groups. In the islet of Lele,
close to Kusaie, at the eastern extremity of Micronesia, the ruins
present the appearance of a citadel with cyclopean ramparts built of
large basaltic blocks. There are also numerous canals, and what look
like artificial harbours constructed amid the shallow lagoons.
In Ponape the remains are of a somewhat similar character, but on a much
larger scale, and with this difference, that while those of Lele all
stand on the land, those of Ponape are built in the water. The whole
island is strewn with natural basaltic prisms, some of great size: and
of this material, brought by boats or rafts from a distance of 30 m. and
put together without any mortar, but sustained by their own weight, are
built all the massive walls and other structures on the east side of the
island. The walls of the main building near the entrance of Metalanim
harbour form a massive quadrangle 200 ft. on all sides, with inner
courts, vault and raised platform with walls 20 to 40 ft. high and from
8 to 18 ft. thick. Some of the blocks are 25 ft. long and 8 ft. in
circumference, and many of them weigh from 3 to 4 tons. There are also
numerous canals from 30 to 100 ft. wide, while a large number of islets,
mainly artificial, covering an area of 9 sq. m., have all been built up
out of the shallow waters of the lagoon round about the entrance of the
harbour, with high sea-walls composed of the same huge basaltic prisms.
In, some places the walls of this "Pacific Venice" are now submerged to
some depth, as if the land had subsided since the construction of these
extensive works. Elsewhere huge breakwaters had been constructed, the
fragments of which may still be seen stretching away for a distance of
from 2 to 3 m. Most observers, such as Admiral Sir Cyprian Bridge and
Mr. Le Hunte, agree that these structures could not possibly be the work
of any of the present Polynesian peoples, and attribute them to a now
extinct prehistoric race, the men of the New Stone Age from the Asiatic
mainland.
_Stone Money._--The inhabitants of Yap are noted for possessing the most
extraordinary currency, if it can be so called, in the whole world.
Besides the ordinary shell money, there is a sort of stone coinage,
consisting of huge calcite or limestone discs or wheels from 6 in. to 12
ft. in diameter, and weighing up to nearly 5 tons. These are all
quarried in the Pelew Islands, 200 m. to the south, and are now brought
to Yap in European vessels. But some were in the island long before the
arrival of the whites, and must consequently have been brought by native
vessels or on rafts. The stones, which are rather tokens than money, do
not circulate, but are piled up round about the chief's treasure-house,
and appear to be regarded as public property, although it is hard to say
what particular use they can serve. They appear to be kept rather for
show and ornament than for use.
See F.W. Christian, _The Caroline Islands_ (London, 1899); G. Volkens,
"Uber die Karolinen Insel Yap," in _Verhandlungen Gesellschaft
Erdkunde Berlin_., xxviii. (1901); J.S. Kubary, _Ethnographische
Beitrage zur Kentniss des Karolinen-Archipel_ (Leiden, 1889-1892); De
Abrade, _Historia del conflicto de las Carolinas, &c._ (Madrid, 1886).
CAROLINGIANS, the name of a family (so called from Charlemagne, its most
illustrious member) which gained the throne of France A.D. 751. It
appeared in history in 613, its origin being traced to Arnulf (Arnoul),
bishop of Metz, and Pippin, long called Pippin of Landen, but more
correctly Pippin the Old or Pippin I. Albeit of illustrious descent, the
genealogies which represent Arnulf as an Aquitanian noble, and his
family as connected--by more or less complicated devices--with the
saints honoured in Aquitaine, are worthless, dating from the time of
Louis the Pious in the 9th century. Arnulf was one of the Austrasian
nobles who appealed to Clotaire II., king of Neustria, against
Brunhilda, and it was in reward for his services that he received from
Clotaire the bishopric of Metz (613). Pippin, also an Austrasian noble,
had taken a prominent part in the revolution of 613. These two men
Clotaire took as his counsellors; and when he decided in 623 to confer
the kingdom of Austrasia upon his son Dagobert, they were appointed
mentors to the Austrasian king, Pippin with the title of mayor of the
palace. Before receiving his bishopric, Arnulf had had a son
Adalgiselus, afterwards called Anchis; Pippin's daughter, called Begga
in later documents, was married to Arnulf's son, and of this union was
born Pippin II. Towards the end of the 7th century Pippin II., called
incorrectly Pippin of Heristal, secured a preponderant authority in
Austrasia, marched at the head of the Austrasians against Neustria, and
gained a decisive victory at Tertry, near St Quentin (687). From that
date he may be said to have been sole master of the Frankish kingdom,
which he governed till his death (714). In Neustria Pippin gave the
mayoralty of the palace to his son Grimoald, and afterwards to
Grimoald's son Theodebald; the mayoralty in Austrasia he gave to his son
Drogo, and subsequently to Drogo's children, Arnulf and Hugh. Charles
Martel, however, a son of Pippin by a concubine Chalpaida, seized the
mayoralty in both kingdoms, and he it was who continued the Carolingian
dynasty. Charles Martel governed from 714 to 741, and in 751 his son
Pippin III. took the title of king. The Carolingian dynasty reigned in
France from 751 to 987, when it was ousted by the Capetian dynasty. In
Germany descendants of Pippin reigned till the death of Louis the Child
in 911; in Italy the Carolingians maintained their position until the
deposition of Charles the Fat in 887. Charles, duke of Lower Lorraine,
who was thrown into prison by Hugh Capet in 991, left two sons, the last
male descendants of the Carolingians, Otto, who was also duke of Lower
Lorraine and died without issue, and Louis, who after the year 1000
vanishes from history.
See P.A.F. Gerard and L.A. Warnkonig, _Histoire des Carolingiens_
(Brussels, 1862); H.E. Bonnell, _Anfange des Karoling. Hauses_
(Berlin, 1866); J.F. Bohmer and E. Muhlbacher, _Regesten d.
Kaiserreichs unter d. Karolingern_ (Innsbruck, 1889 seq.); E.
Muhlbacher, _Deutsche Gesch. unter d. Karolingern_ (Stuttgart, 1896);
F. Lot, _Les Derniers Carolingiens_ (Paris, 1891). (C. Pf.)
CAROLUS-DURAN, the name adopted by the French painter Charles Auguste
Emile Durand (1837- ), who was born at Lille on the 4th of July 1837.
He studied at the Lille Academy and then went to Paris, and in 1861 to
Italy and Spain for further study, especially devoting himself to the
pictures of Velasquez. His subject picture "Murdered," or "The
Assassination" (1866), was one of his first successes, and is now in the
Lille museum, but he became best known afterwards as a portrait-painter,
and as the head of one of the principal ateliers in Paris, where some of
the most brilliant artists of a later generation were his pupils. His
"Lady with the Glove" (1869), a portrait of his own wife, was bought for
the Luxembourg. In 1889 he was made a commander of the Legion of Honour.
He became a member of the Academie des Beaux-arts in 1904, and in the
next year was appointed director of the French academy at Rome in
succession to Eugene Guillaume.
CARORA, an inland town of the state of Lara, Venezuela, on the Carora, a
branch of the Tocuyo river, about 54 m. W. by S. of the city of
Barquisimeto, and 1128 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1908 estimate) 6000.
The town is comparatively well-built and possesses a fine parish
church, and a Franciscan convent and hermitage. It was founded in 1754,
and its colonial history shows considerable prosperity, its population
at that time numbering 9000 to 10,000. The neighbouring country is
devoted principally to raising horses, mules and cattle; and in addition
to hides and leather, it exports rubber and other forest products.
CARP, the typical fish of a large family (_Cyprimdae_) of Ostariophysi,
as they have been called by M. Sagemehl, in which the air-bladder is
connected with the ear by a chain of small bones (so-called Weberian
ossicles). The mouth is usually more or less protractile and always
toothless; the lower pharyngeal bones, which are large and falciform,
subparallel to the branchial arches, are provided with teeth, often
large and highly specialized, in one, two or three series (pharyngeal
teeth), usually working against a horny plate attached to a vertical
process of the basioccipital bone produced under the anterior vertebrae,
mastication being performed in the gullet. These teeth, adapted to
various requirements, vary according to the genus, being conical,
hooked, spoon-shaped, molariform, &c.
The species are extremely numerous, about 1400 being known, nearly
entirely confined to fresh water, and feeding on vegetable substances or
small animals. They are dispersed over the whole world with the
exception of South America, Madagascar, Papuasia, and Australasia.
Remains of several of the existing genera have been found in Oligocene
and later beds of Europe, Sumatra and North America. One member of the
_Cyprinidae_ is at present known to be viviparous, but no observations
have as yet been made on its habits. It is a small barbel discovered in
Natal by Max Weber, and described by him under the name _Barbus
viviparus_.
The _Cyprinidae_[1] are divided into four subfamilies:--_Catostominae_
(mostly from North America, with a few species from China and eastern
Siberia), in which the maxillary bones take a share in the border of the
mouth, and the pharyngeal teeth are very numerous and form a single,
comb-like series; _Cyprininae_, the great bulk of the family, more or
less conforming to the type of the carp; _Cobitinae_, or loaches
(Europe, Asia, Abyssinia), which are dealt with in a separate article
(see LOACH); and the _Homalopterinae_ (China and south-eastern Asia),
mountain forms allied to the loaches, with a quite rudimentary
air-bladder.
For descriptions of other Cyprinids than the carp, see GOLDFISH, BARBEL,
GUDGEON, RUDD, ROACH, CHUB, DACE, MINNOW, TENCH, BREAM, BLEAK,
BITTERLING, MAHSEER.
[Illustration: The Common Carp.]
The carp itself, _Cyprinus carpio_, has a very wide distribution, having
spread, through the agency of man, over nearly the whole of Europe and a
part of North America, where it lives in lakes, ponds, canals, and
slow-running rivers with plenty of vegetation. The carp appears to be a
native of temperate Asia and perhaps also of south-eastern Europe, and
to have been introduced into other parts in the 12th and 13th century;
it was first mentioned in England in 1496. The acclimatization of the
carp in America has been a great success, especially in the northern
waters, where, the growth continuing throughout the entire year, the
fish soon attains a remarkable size. The presence of carp in Indo-China
and the Malay Archipelago is probably also to be ascribed to human
agency. In the British Isles the carp seldom reaches a length of 2-1/2
ft., and a weight of 20 lb., whilst examples of that size are quite
frequent on the continent, and others measuring 4-1/2 ft. and weighing 60
lb or more are on record. The fish is characterized by its large scales
(34 to 40 in the lateral line), its long dorsal fin, the first ray of
which is stiff and serrated, and the presence of two small barbels on
each side of the mouth. But it varies much in form and scaling, and some
most aberrant varieties have been fixed by artificial selection, the
principal being the king-carp or mirror-carp, in which the scales are
enlarged and reduced in number, forming more or less regular
longitudinal series on the sides, and the leather-carp, in which the
scales have all but disappeared, the fish being covered with a thick,
leathery skin. Deformed examples are not of rare occurrence.
Although partly feeding on worms and other small forms of animal life,
the carp is principally a vegetarian, and the great development of its
pharyngeal apparatus renders it particularly adapted to a graminivorous
regime. The longevity of the fish has probably been much exaggerated,
and the statements of carp of 200 years living in the ponds of
Pont-Chartrain and other places in France and elsewhere do not rest on
satisfactory evidence.
A close ally of the carp is the Crucian carp, _Cyprinus carassius_,
chiefly distinguished by the absence of barbels. It inhabits Europe and
northern and temperate Asia, and is doubtfully indigenous to Great
Britain. It is a small fish, rarely exceeding a length of 8 or 9 in. It
has many varieties. One of these, remarkable for its very short, thick
head and deep body, is the so-called Prussian carp, _C. gibelio_, often
imported into English ponds, whilst the best known is the goldfish
(q.v.), _C. auralus_, first produced in China. (G. A. B.)