Modern Carnivora are undoubtedly the descendants of the Creodonta
(q.v.), an extinct early Tertiary suborder. It has been observed that
as the Miocene is approached, some of these Carnivora Creodonta, or
Primitiva, begin to assume more and more of the characteristics of the
Carnivora Vera, till at last it is difficult to determine where the
one group ends and the other commences. The creodont genera
_Stypolophus_ and _Proviverra_ show some of these modern characters;
but it is not till we reach the European Oligocene genus _Amphictis_,
with the dental formula i. 3/3, c. 1/2, p. 4/4, m. 2/2, that we meet a
type in which the fourth upper premolar and the first lower molar
assume the truly sectorial character of the Carnivora Vera, while the
teeth behind them are proportionally reduced in size. From the
_Amphictidae_ are probably descended the _Viverridae_, the connecting
genus being the African _Nandinia_, which, as already mentioned,
retains the imperfectly ossified bulla of the ancestral forms. In
another direction, _Amphictis_, through the Old World Lower Pliocene
genus _Ictitherium_, has given rise to the _Hyaenidae_. The _Felidae_
have apparently an ancestral type in the creodont _Palaeonictis_,
which has been regarded as the direct ancestor of the sabre-toothed
cats, or _Machaerodontinae_ (see MACHAERODUS); but it is possible that
_Palaeonictis_ may be off the direct line, and that the _Felidae_ are
sprung from _Amphictis_. Be this as it may, from another group of
creodonts, represented by _Vulpavus_ (_Miacis_), _Viverravus_
(_Didymictis_), and _Uintacyon_, is probably derived the Oligocene
_Cynodictis_, with a dental formula like that of _Canis_ or _Cyon_, a
perforation to the humerus, and an apparently undivided auditory
bulla; and from _Cynodictis_ the transition is easy to the _Canidae_.
It should be mentioned, however, that there is a group of North
American Oligocene dog-like animals, such as _Daphaenus_,
_Protemnocyon_, and _Temnocyon_, which agree with _Cyon_ in the
shortness of the jaws, and with that genus and _Speothos_ in the
cutting-heel of the lower sectorial. Possibly these genera may be
nearly related to _Cyon_. Other dog-like North American types are
_Oligohinis_, _Enhydrocyon_ and _Hyaenocyon_.
By means of the _Amphicyonidae_, as represented by the Middle Tertiary
genera _Proamphicyon, Pseudamphicyon_, and _Amphicyon_, in which there
were three upper molars, we have a transition from the
_Cynodictis_-type to the bear-group; one of the later intermediate
forms being the Lower Pliocene Old World _Hyaenarctus_, in which the
two upper molars are squared and foreshadow those of _Ursus_ itself.
In some unknown manner _Hyaenarctus_ appears to be related to
_Aeluropus_. An allied type is found in _Arctotherium_ of the South
American Pleistocene.
By the loss of the third lower molar and certain modifications of the
other teeth and skull, the Miocene genus _Plesictis_ may be derived
from _Cynodictis_, its dental formula being i. 3/3, c. 1/1, p. 4/4, m.
(1 or 2)/2. Now _Plesictis_ is nothing more than a generalized
representative of the _Mustelidae_. We have thus traced three out of
the four modern arctoid families to the _Cynodictis_-type. The
_Procyonidae_, or fourth family (apart from the Asiatic _Aelurus_ and
_Aeluropus_) are connected with the last-named genus through the North
American Oligocene _Phlaeocyon_, which is stated to be in almost every
respect intermediate between _Procyon_ and _Cynodictis_ while the
living _Bassariscus_ is stated to show closer signs of affinity with
_Cynodictis_ than with _Phlaeocyon_.
To deal with fossil representatives of living genera, or extinct
genera nearly related to groups still existing, would here be
impracticable. It may be stated, however, that aberrant groups like
the otters are linked up with more normal types by means of extinct
forms (in this particular instance by the Miocene _Potamotherium_), so
that the gaps in the phylogeny of the Carnivora are comparatively few.
LITERATURE.--The above article is based on that by Sir W.H. Flower in
the 9th edition of this Encyclopaedia. The principal works on
Carnivora are the following: W.H. Flower, "On the Value of the Base of
the Cranium in the Classification of the Carnivora," _Proc. Zool. Soc.
London_, 1869; T.H. Huxley, "Cranial and Dental Characters of the
Canidae," _Proc. Zool. Soc. London_, 1880; St G. Mivart, "On the
Classification and Distribution of the Aeluroidea ... and Arctoidea",
_Proc. Zool. Soc. London_, 1882 and 1885; E.R. Lankester, "On the
Affinities of Aeluropus," _Trans. Linn. Soc. London_, vol. viii. part
iv., 1901; Miss A. Carlsson, "Uber die systematische Stellung von
Nandinia," _Zool. Jahrb. Syst._, vol. xiii., 1900, and "Ist Otocyon
die Ausgangsform des Hundegeschlechts oder nicht?" op. cit. vol.
xxii., 1905; J.L. Wortman and W.D. Matthew, "The Ancestry of Certain
Members of the Canidae, Viverridae, and Procyonidae," _Bull. Amer.
Mus._, vol. xii., 1899. (R. L.*)
CARNOT, LAZARE HIPPOLYTE (1801-1888), French statesman, the second son
of L.N.M. Carnot (q.v.), was born at Saint-Omer on the 6th of October
1801. Hippolyte Carnot lived at first in exile with his father,
returning to France only in 1823. Unable then to enter active political
life, he turned to literature and philosophy, publishing in 1828 a
collection of _Chants helleniques_ translated from the German of W.
Muller, and in 1830 an _Expose de la doctrine Saint-Simonienne_, and
collaborating in the Saint-Simonian journal _Le Producteur._ He also
paid several visits to England and travelled in other countries of
Europe. In March 1839, after the dissolution of the chamber by Louis
Philippe, he was elected deputy for Paris (re-elected in 1842 and in
1846), and sat in the group of the Radical Left, being one of the
leaders of the party hostile to Louis Philippe. On the 24th of February
1848 he pronounced in favour of the republic. Lamartine chose him as
minister of education in the provisional government, Carnot set to work
to organize the primary school systems, proposing a law for obligatory
and free primary instruction, and another for the secondary education of
girls. But he declared himself against purely secular schools, holding
that "the minister and the schoolmaster are the two columns on which
rests the edifice of the republic." By this attitude he alienated both
the Right and the Republicans of the Extreme Left, and was forced to
resign on the 5th of July 1848. He was one of those who protested
against the _coup d'etat_ of the 2nd of December 1851, but was not
proscribed by Louis Napoleon. He refused to sit in the _Corps
Legislatif_ until 1864, in order not to have to take the oath to the
emperor. From 1864 to 1869 he was in the republican opposition, taking a
very active part. He was defeated at the election of 1869. On the 8th of
February 1871 he was named deputy for the Seine et Oise, and
participated in the drawing up of the Constitutional Laws of 1875. On
the 16th of December 1875, he was named by the National Assembly senator
for life. He died on the 16th of March 1888, three months after the
election of his elder son, M.F.S. Carnot (q.v.), to the presidency of
the republic. He had published _Le Ministere de l'instruction publique
et des cultes du 24e fevrier au 5e juillet 1848_, (1849), _Memoires sur
Lazare Carnot_ (2 vols., 1861-1864), _Memoires de Barere_ (with David
Angers, 4 vols., 1842-1843). His second son, Marie Adolphe Carnot (b.
1839), became a distinguished mining-engineer and director of the Ecole
des Mines (1899), his studies in analytical chemistry placing him in the
front rank of French scientists. He was made a member of the Academy of
Sciences in 1895.
See Vermorel, _Les Hommes de 1848_, (3rd ed., 1869); E. Spuller,
_Histoire parlementaire de la Seconde Republique_ (1891); P. de la
Gorce, _Histoire du Second Empire_ (1894 et seq.).
CARNOT, LAZARE NICOLAS MARGUERITE(1753-1823), French general, was born
at Nolay in Burgundy in 1753. He received his training as an engineer at
Mezieres, becoming an officer of the Corps de Genie in 1773 and a
captain ten years later. He had then just published his first work, an
_Essai sur les machines en general_. In 1784 he wrote an essay on
balloons, and his. _Eloge_ of Vauban, read by him publicly, won him the
commendation of Prince Henry of Prussia. But as the result of a
controversy with Montalembert, Carnot abandoned the official, or Vauban,
theories of the art of fortification, and went over to the
"perpendicular" school of Montalembert. He was consequently imprisoned,
on the pretext of having fought a duel, and only released when selected
to accompany Prince Henry of Prussia in a visit to Vauban's
fortifications. In 1791 he married. The Revolution drew him into
political life, and he was elected a deputy for the Pas de Calais. In
the Assembly he took a prominent part in debates connected with the
army. Carnot was a stern and sincere republican, and voted for the
execution of the king. In the campaigns of 1792 and 1793 he was
continually employed as a commissioner in military matters, his greatest
service being in April 1793 on the north-eastern frontier, where the
disastrous battle of Neerwinden and the subsequent defection of
Dumouriez had thrown everything into confusion. After doing what was
possible to infuse energy into the operations of the French forces, he
returned to Paris and was made a member of the Committee of Public
Safety. He was charged with duties corresponding to those of the modern
chief of the general staff and adjutant-general. As a member of the
committee he signed its decrees and was thus at least technically
responsible for the acts of the Reign of Terror. His energies were,
however, directed to the organization, not yet of victory, but of
defence. His labours were incessant; practically every military document
in the archives of the committee was Carnot's own work, and he was
repeatedly in the field with the armies. His part in Jourdan's great
victory at Wattignies was so important that the credit of the day has
often been assigned to Carnot. The winter of 1793-1794 was spent in new
preparations, in instituting a severe discipline in the new and
ill-trained troops of the republic, and in improvising means and
material of war. He continued to visit the armies at the front, and to
inspire them with energy. He acquiesced in the fall of Robespierre in
1794, but later defended Barere and others among his colleagues,
declaring that he himself had constantly signed papers without reading
them, as it was physically impossible to do so in the press of business.
When Carnot's arrest was demanded in May 1795, a deputy cried "Will you
dare to lay hands on the man who has organized victory?" Carnot had just
accepted promotion to the rank of major in the engineers. Throughout
1793, when he had been the soul of the national defence, and 1794, in
which year he had "organized victory" in fourteen armies, he was a
simple captain.
Carnot was elected one of the five Directors in November 1795, and
continued to direct the war department during the campaign of 1796. Late
in 1796 he was made a member (1st class) of the Institute, which he had
helped to establish. He was for two periods president of the Directory,
but on the _coup d'etat_ of the 18th Fructidor (1797) was forced to take
refuge abroad. He returned to France after the 18th Brumaire (1799) and
was re-elected to the Institute in 1800. Early in 1800 he became
minister of war, and he accompanied Moreau in the early part of the
Rhine campaign. His chief work was, however, in reducing the expenses of
the armies. Contrary to the usual custom he refused to receive presents
from contractors, and he effected much-needed reforms in every part of
the military administration. He tendered his resignation later in the
year, but it was long before the First Consul would accept it. From 1801
he lived in retirement with his family, employing himself chiefly in
scientific pursuits. As a senator he consistently opposed the increasing
monarchism of Napoleon, who, however, gave him in 1809 a pension and
commissioned him to write a work on fortification for the school of
Metz. In these years he had published _De la correlation des figures de
geometrie_ (1801), _Geometrie de position_ (1803), and _Principes
fondamentaux de l'equilibre et du mouvement_ (1803), all of which were
translated into German. His great work on fortification appeared at
Paris in 1810 (_De la defense de places fortes_) and was translated for
the use of almost every army in Europe. He took Montalembert as his
ground-work. Without sharing Montalembert's antipathy to the bastioned
trace, and his predilection for high masonry caponiers, he followed out
the principle of retarding the development of the attack, and provided
for the most active defence. To facilitate sorties in great force he did
away with a counterscarp wall, providing instead a long gentle slope
from the bottom of the ditch to the crest of the glacis. This, he
imagined, would compel an assailant to maintain large forces in the
advanced trenches, which he proposed to attack by vertical fire from
mortars. Along the front of his fortress was built a heavy detached
wall, loop-holed for fire, and sufficiently high to be a most
formidable obstacle. This "Carnot wall," and, in general, Carnot's
principle of active defence, played a great part in the rise of modern
fortification.
He did not seek employment in the field in the aggressive wars of
Napoleon, remaining a sincere republican, but in 1814, when France
itself was once more in danger, Carnot at once offered his services. He
was made a general of division, and Napoleon sent him to the important
fortress of Antwerp as governor. His defence of that place was one of
the most brilliant episodes of the campaign of 1814. On his return to
Paris he addressed a political memoir to the restored king of France,
which aroused much attention both in France and abroad. He joined
Napoleon during the Hundred Days and was made minister of the interior,
the office carrying with it the dignity of count, and on the 2nd of June
he was made a peer of France. On the second Restoration he was
proscribed. He lived thenceforward in Magdeburg, occupying himself still
with science. But his health rapidly declined, and he died at Magdeburg
on the 2nd of August 1823. His remains were solemnly removed to the
Pantheon in 1889. Long before this, in 1836, Antwerp had erected a
statue to its defender of 1814. In 1837 Arago pronounced his _eloge_
before the Academie des Sciences. The sincerity of his patriotism and
his political convictions was proved in 1801-1804 and in 1814. The
memory of his military career is preserved in the title, given to him in
the Assembly, of "The organizer of victory." His sons, Sadi and L.
Hippolyte, are separately noticed.
AUTHORITIES.--Baron de B..., _Vie privee, politique, et morale de
L.N.M. Carnot_ (Paris, 1816); Serieys, _Carnot, sa vie politique et
privee_ (Paris, 1816); Mandar, _Notice biographique sur le general
Carnot_, &c. (Paris, 1818); W. Korte, _Das Leben L.N.M. Carnots_
(Leipzig, 1820); P.F. Tissot, _Memoires historiques et militaires sur
Carnot_ (Paris, 1824); Arago, _Biographie de Carnot_ (Paris, 1850);
Hippolyte Carnot, _Memoires sur Carnot_ (Paris, 1863); C. Remond,
_Notice biographique sur le grand Carnot_ (Dijon 1880); A. Picaud,
_Carnot, l'organisateur de la victoire_ (Paris, 1885 and 1887); A.
Burdeau, _Une Famille de patriotes_ (Paris, 1888); L. Hennet, _Lazare
Carnot_ (Paris, 1888); G. Hubbard, _Une Famille republicaine_ (Paris,
1888); M. Dreyfous, _Les Trois Carnot_ (Paris, 1888); M. Bonnal,
_Carnot, d'apres les archives_, &c. (Paris, 1888); and memoir by E.
Charavaray in _La Grande Encyclopedie._
CARNOT, MARIE FRANCOIS SADI (1837-1894), fourth president of the third
French Republic, son of L. Hippolyte Carnot, was born at Limoges on the
11th of August 1837. He was educated as a civil engineer, and after
having highly distinguished himself at the Ecole Polytechnique and the
Ecole des Ponts et Chaussees, obtained an appointment in the public
service. His hereditary republicanism recommended him to the government
of national defence, by which he was entrusted in 1870 with the task of
organizing resistance in the departments of the Eure, Calvados and Seine
Inferieure, and made prefect of the last named in January 1871. In the
following month he was elected to the National Assembly by the
department Cote d'Or. In August 1878 he was appointed secretary to the
minister of public works. In September 1880 he became minister, and
again in April 1885, passing almost immediately to the ministry of
finance, which he held under both the Ferry and the Freycinet
administrations until December 1886. When the Wilson scandals occasioned
the downfall of Grevy in December 1887, Carnot's high character for
integrity marked him out as a candidate for the presidency, and he
obtained the support of Clemenceau and of all those who objected to the
candidatures of men who have been more active in the political arena, so
that he was elected by 616 votes out of 827. He assumed office at a
critical period, when the republic was all but openly attacked by
General Boulanger. President Carnot's ostensible part during this
agitation was mainly confined to augmenting his popularity by well-timed
appearances on public occasions, which gained credit for the presidency
and the republic. When early in 1889, Boulanger was finally driven into
exile, it fell to President Carnot's lot to appear at the head of the
state on two occasions of especial interest, the celebration of the
centenary of 1789 and the opening of the Paris Exhibition of that year.
The perfect success of both was regarded, not unreasonably, as a popular
ratification of the republic, and though continually harassed by the
formation and dissolution of ephemeral ministries, by socialist
outbreaks, and the beginnings of anti-Semitism, Carnot had but one
serious crisis to surmount, the Panama scandals of 1892, which, if they
greatly damaged the prestige of the state, increased the respect felt
for its head, against whose integrity none could breathe a word. Carnot
seemed to be arriving at the zenith of popularity, when on the 24th of
June 1894, after delivering at a public banquet at Lyons a speech in
which he appeared to imply that he nevertheless would not seek
re-election, he was stabbed by an Italian anarchist named Caserio and
expired almost immediately. The horror and grief excited by this tragedy
were boundless, and the president was honoured with a splendid funeral
in the Pantheon, Paris.
His son, FRANCOIS CARNOT, was first elected deputy for the Cote d'Or in
1902.
See E. Zevort, _Histoire de la Troisieme Republique_, tome iv., "La
Presidence de Carnot" (Paris, 1901).
CARNOT, SADI NICOLAS LEONHARD (1796-1832), French physicist, elder son
of L.N.M. Carnot, was born at Paris on the 1st of June 1796. He was
admitted to the Ecole Polytechnique in 1812, and late in 1814 he left
with a commission in the Engineers and with prospects of rapid
advancement in his profession. But Waterloo and the Restoration led to a
second and final proscription of his father; and though not himself
cashiered, Sadi was purposely told off for the merest drudgeries of his
service. Disgusted with an employment which afforded him neither leisure
for original work nor opportunities for acquiring scientific
instruction, he presented himself in 1819 at the examination for
admission to the staff corps (_etat-major_) and obtained a lieutenancy.
He then devoted himself with astonishing ardour to mathematics,
chemistry, natural history, technology and even political economy. He
was an enthusiast in music and other fine arts; and he habitually
practised as an amusement, while deeply studying in theory, all sorts of
athletic sports, including swimming and fencing. He became captain in
the Engineers in 1827, but left the service altogether in the following
year. His naturally feeble constitution, further weakened by excessive
study, broke down finally in 1832. An attack of scarlatina led to brain
fever, and he had scarcely recovered when he fell a victim to cholera,
of which he died in Paris on the 24th of August 1832. He was one of the
most original and profound thinkers who have ever devoted themselves to
science. The only work he published was his _Reflexions sur la puissance
motrice du feu et sur les machines propres a developper cette puissance_
(Paris, 1824). This contains but a fragment of his scientific
discoveries, but it is sufficient to put him in the very foremost rank,
though its full value was not recognized until pointed out by Lord
Kelvin in 1848 and 1849. Fortunately his manuscripts had been preserved,
and extracts were appended to a reprint of his _Puissance motrice_ by
his brother, L.H. Carnot, in 1878. These show that he had not only
realized for himself the true nature of heat, but had noted down for
trial many of the best modern methods of finding its mechanical
equivalent, such as those of J.P. Joule with the perforated piston and
with the friction of water and mercury. Lord Kelvin's experiment with a
current of gas forced through a porous plug is also given. "Carnot's
principle" is fundamental in the theory of thermodynamics (q.v.).
CARNOUSTIE, a police burgh and watering-place of Forfarshire, Scotland.
Pop. (1901) 5204. It lies on the North Sea, 10-3/4 m. E.N.E. of Dundee by
the North British railway. Bathing and golfing are good. Barry Links, a
triangular sandy track occupying the south-eastern corner of the shire,
are used as a camping and manoeuvring ground for the artillery and
infantry forces of the district, and occasionally of Scotland. Its most
extreme point is called Buddon Ness, off which are the dangerous shoals
locally known as the Roaring Lion, in consequence of the deep boom of
the waves. On the Ness two lighthouses have been built at different
levels, the lights of which are visible at 13 and 16 m.
CARNUNTUM ([Greek: Karnous] in Ptolemy), an important Roman fortress,
originally belonging to Noricum, but after the 1st century A.D. to
Pannonia. It was a Celtic town, the name, which is nearly always found
with K on monuments, being derived from _Kar, Karn_ ("rock," "cairn").
Its extensive ruins may still be seen near Hainburg, between
Deutsch-Altenburg and Petronell, in lower Austria. Its name first occurs
in history during the reign of Augustus (A.D. 6), when Tiberius made it
his base of operations in the campaigns against Maroboduus (Marbod). A
few years later it became the centre of the Roman fortifications along
the Danube from Vindobona (Vienna) to Brigetio (O-Szony), and (under
Trajan or Hadrian) the permanent quarters of the XIV legion. It was also
a very old mart for the amber brought to Italy from the north. It was
created a municipium by Hadrian (Aelium Carnuntum). Marcus Aurelius
resided there for three years (172-175) during the war against the
Marcomanni, and wrote part of his _Meditations_. Septimius Severus, at
the time governor of Pannonia, was proclaimed emperor there by the
soldiers (193). In the 4th century it was destroyed by the Germans, and,
although partly restored by Valentinian I., it never regained its former
importance, and Vindobona became the chief military centre. It was
finally destroyed by the Hungarians in the middle ages.
A special society (_Carnuntumverein_) exists for the exploration of
the numerous ruins, the results of which will be found in J.W.
Kubitschek and S. Frankfurter, _Fuhrer durch Carnuntum_ (3rd ed.,
1894); see also E. von Sacken, "Die romische Stadt Carnuntum," in
_Sitzungsberichte der k. Akad. der Wissenschaften_, ix. (Vienna,
1852); article by Kubitschek in Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencydopadie_,
iii. part ii. (1899); _Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum_, iii., part i.
p. 550.
CARNUTES (Carnuti, Carnutae, [Greek: Karnoutinoi] in Plutarch), a Celtic
people of central Gaul, between the Sequana (Seine) and the Liger
(Loire). Their territory corresponded to the dioceses of Chartres,
Orleans and Blois, that is, the greater part of the modern departments
of Eure-et-Loir, Loiret, Loir-et-Cher. It was regarded as the political
and religious centre of the Gallic nation. The chief towns were Cenabum
(not Genabum; Orleans) and Autricum (Chartres). According to Livy (v.
34) the Carnutes were one of the tribes which accompanied Bellovesus in
his invasion of Italy during the reign of Tarquinius Priscus. In the
time of Caesar they were dependents of the Remi, who on one occasion
interceded for them. In 52 they joined in the rebellion of
Vercingetorix. As a punishment for the treacherous murder of some Roman
merchants and one of Caesar's commissariat officers at Cenabum, the town
was burnt and the inhabitants put to the sword or sold as slaves. During
the war they sent 12,000 men to relieve Alesia, but shared in the defeat
of the Gallic army. Having attacked the Bituriges Cubi, who appealed to
Caesar for assistance, they were forced to submit. Under Augustus, the
Carnutes, as one of the peoples of Lugdunensis, were raised to the rank
of _civitas socia_ or _foederata_, retaining their own institutions, and
only bound to render military service to the emperor. Up to the 3rd
century Autricum (later Carnutes, whence Chartres) was the capital, but
in 275 Aurelian changed Cenabum from a _vicus_ into a _civitas_ and
named it Aurelianum or Aurelianensis urbs (whence Orleans).
See Caesar, _Bell. Gall._ v. 25, 29, vii. 8, 11, 75, viii. 5, 31;
Strabo iv. pp. 191-193; R. Boutrays, _Urbis gentisque Carnutum
historia_ (1624); A. Desjardins, _Geographie historique de la Gaule_,
ii. (1876-1893); article and bibliography in _La Grande Encyclopedie_,
T.R. Holmes, _Caesar's Conquest of Gaul_ (1899), p. 402, on Cenabum.
CARO, ANNIBALE (1507-1566), Italian poet, was born at Civita Nuova, in
Ancona, in 1507. He became tutor in the family of Lodovico Gaddi, a rich
Florentine, and then secretary to his brother Giovanni, by whom he was
presented to a valuable ecclesiastical preferment at Rome. At Gaddi's
death, he entered the service of the Farnese family, and became
confidential secretary in succession to Pietro Lodovico, duke of Parma,
and to his sons, duke Ottavio and cardinals Ranuccio and Alexander.
Caro's most important work was his translation of the _Aeneid_ (Venice,
1581; Paris, 1760). He is also the author of _Rime, Canzoni_, and
sonnets, a comedy named _Gli Straccioni_, and two clever _jeux
d'esprit_, one in praise of figs, _La Ficheide_, and another in eulogy
of the big nose of Leoni Ancona, president of the Academia della Vertu.
Caro's poetry is distinguished by very considerable ability, and
particularly by the freedom and grace of its versification; indeed he
may be said to have brought the _verso sciolto_ to the highest
development it has reached in Italy. His prose works consist of
translations from Aristotle, Cyprian and Gregory Nazianzen; and of
letters, written in his own name and in those of the cardinals Farnese,
which are remarkable both for the baseness they display and for their
euphemistic polish and elegance. His fame has been greatly damaged by
the virulence with which he attacked Lodovico Castelvetro in one of his
canzoni, and by his meanness in denouncing him to the Holy Office as
translator of some of the writings of Melanchthon. He died at Rome about
1566.
CARO, ELME MARIE (1826-1887), French philosopher, was born on the 4th of
March 1826 at Poitiers. His father, a professor of philosophy, gave him
an excellent education at the Stanislas College and the Ecole Normale,
where he graduated in 1848. After being professor of philosophy at
several provincial universities, he received the degree of doctor, and
came to Paris in 1858 as master of conferences at the Ecole Normale. In
1861 he became inspector of the Academy of Paris, in 1864 professor of
philosophy to the Faculty of Letters, and in 1874 a member of the French
Academy. He married Pauline Cassin, the authoress of the _Peche de
Madeleine_ and other well-known novels. He died in Paris on the 13th of
July 1887. In his philosophy he was mainly concerned to defend
Christianity against modern Positivism. The philosophy of Cousin
influenced him strongly, but his strength lay in exposition and
criticism rather than in original thought. Besides important
contributions to _La France_ and the _Revue des deux mondes_, he wrote
_Le Mysticisme au XVIII^e siecle_ (1852-1854), _L'Idee de Dieu_ (1864),
_Le Materialisme et la science_ (1868), _Le Pessimisme au XIX^e siecle_
(1878), _Jours d'epreuves_ (1872), _M. Littre et le positivisme_ (1883),
_George Sand_ (1887), _Melanges et portraits_ (1888), _La Philosophie de
Goethe_ (2nd ed., 1880).
CAROL (O. Fr. _carole_), a hymn of praise, especially such as is sung at
Christmas in the open air. The origin of the word is obscure. Diez
suggests that the word is derived from _chorus_. Others ally it with
_corolla_, a garland, circle or coronet,[1] the earliest sense of the
word being apparently "a ring" or "circle," "a ring dance." Stonehenge,
often called the Giants' Dance, was also frequently known as the Carol;
thus Harding, _Chron._ lxx. x., "Within (the) Giauntes Carole, that so
they hight, The (Stone hengles) that nowe so named been." The Celtic
forms, often cited as giving the origin of the word, are derivatives of
the English or French. The crib set up in the churches at Christmas was
the centre of a dance, and some of the most famous of Latin Christmas
hymns were written to dance tunes. These songs were called
_Wiegenlieder_ in German, _noels_ in French, and carols in English. They
were originally modelled on the songs written to accompany the choric
dance, which were probably the starting-point of the lyric poetry of the
Germanic peoples. Strictly speaking, therefore, the word should be
applied to lyrics written to dance measures; in common acceptation it is
applied to the songs written for the Christmas festival. Carolling, i.e.
the combined exercise of dance and song, found its way from pagan ritual
into the Christian church, and the clergy, however averse they might be
from heathen survivals, had to content themselves in this, as in many
other cases, with limiting the practice. The third council of Toledo
(589) forbade dancing in the churches on the vigils of saints' days, and
secular dances in church were forbidden by the council of Auxerre in the
next year. Even as late as 1209 it was necessary for the council of
Avignon to forbid theatrical dances and secular songs in churches.
Religious dances persisted longest on Shrove Tuesday, and a castanet
dance by the choristers round the lectern is permitted three times a
year in the cathedral of Seville. The Christmas festival, which
synchronized with and superseded the Latin and Teutonic feasts of the
winter solstice, lent itself especially to gaiety. The "crib" of the
Saviour was set up in the churches or in private houses, in the
traditional setting of the stable, with earthen figures of the Holy
Family, the ox and the ass; and carols were sung and danced around it.
The "rocking of the cradle" was the occasion of dialogue between Joseph
and Mary which was not without elements of comedy, and gave rise to
lullabies such as the well-known German _Dormi fili_. The adoration of
the shepherds and the visit of the Magi also provided matter for
dramatic and choral representation. The singing of the carol has
survived in places where the institution of the "crib," said to have
been originated by St Francis of Assisi to inculcate the doctrine of the
incarnation, has been long in disuse, but in the West Riding of
Yorkshire the children who go round carol-singing still carry
"milly-boxes" (My Lady boxes) containing figures which represent the
Virgin and Child.
That carol-singing early became a pretext for the asking of alms is
obvious from an Anglo-Norman carol preserved in the British Museum (MS.
Reg. 16 E. viii.), _Seigneurs ore entendey a nus_, which is little more
than a drinking song. Carols were an important element in the mystery
plays of the Nativity, and one of these, included in the _Marguerites de
la Marguerite des princesses, tres-illustre reine de Navarre_ (Lyons,
1547), incidentally gives evidence of the connexion of dancing and
carol-singing, for the shepherds and shepherdesses open their chorus at
the manger with "_Dansons, chantons, faisons rage_." There is a long
English carol relating the chief incidents of the life of Christ, which
is a curious example of the mixture of the sacred and profane common in
this species of composition. It begins "To-morrow shall be my dancing
day," and has for refrain--
"Sing, oh! my love, oh! my love, my love, my love;
This have I done for my true love."
There are extant numerous carols dating from the 15th century which have
the characteristic features of folksong. The famous Cherry-tree Carol,
"Joseph was an old man," is based on an old legend which is related in
the Coventry mystery plays. "I saw three ships come sailing in," and
"The Camel and the Crane," though of more modern date, preserve curious
legends. Numerous entries in the household accounts of the Tudor
sovereigns show that carol-singing was popular throughout the 16th
century, and the literature of Christmas was enriched in the next
century by poems which are often included in collections of carols,
though they were probably written to be read rather than sung. Milton,
Crashaw, Southwell, Ben Jonson, George Herbert and George Wither all
produced Christmas poems, but the richest collection by any one poet is
to be found in the poems of Herrick, whose "Come, bring with a noise" is
a typical carol of the jovial kind, and may well have been written to a
dance tune. Among 18th-century religious carols perhaps the most famous
is Charles Wesley's "Hark, how all the welkin rings," better known in
the variant, "Hark, the herald angels sing." The artificial modern
revival of carol-singing has produced a quantity of new carols, the best
of which are perhaps mostly derived from medieval Latin Christmas hymns.
Among the many modern Christmas poems one of the most striking is
Swinburne's "Three Damsels in the Queen's Chamber," which is, however, a
ballad rather than a carol.
The earliest printed collection of carols was issued by Wynkyn de Worde
in 1521. It contained the famous Boar's Head carol, _Caput apri defero,
Reddens laudes Domino_, which in a slightly altered form is sung at
Queen's College, Oxford, on the bringing in of the boar's head. Modern
collections of ancient carols are derived chiefly from three tracts
belonging to the collection of Anthony a Wood, preserved in the Bodleian
library, from a 15th-century MS. (Sloane 2593), a 16th-century MS. with
the music (Add. 5665), and other MSS. in the British Museum, and from
oral tradition. In the 15th century T. Bloomer of Birmingham published a
number of carols in the form of broad-sides. Among the numerous
collections of French carols is _Noei Borguignon de Gui Barozai_ (1720),
giving the words and the music of thirty-four _noels_, many of them very
free in character. The term _noel_ passed into the English carol as a
favourite refrain, "nowell," and seems to have been in common use in
France as an equivalent for _vivat_.
Among the more important modern collections of Christmas carols are:
_Songs and Carols_ (1847), edited by T. Wright for the Percy Society
from Sloane MS. 2593; W. Sandys, _Christmastide, its History,
Festivities and Carols_ (1852); _Christmas with the Poets_ (edited by
V.H., 4th ed., 1872); T. Helmore and J.M. Neale, _Carols for
Christmastide_ (1853-1854), with music; R.R. Chope, _Carols_ (new and
complete edition, 1894), a tune-book for church use, with an
introduction by S. Baring-Gould; H.R. Bramley, _Christmas Carols, New
and Old_, the music by Dr Stainer; A.H. Bullen, _Carols and Poems_
(1885); J.A. Fuller Maitland and W.S. Rockstro, _Thirteen Carols of
the Fifteenth Century_, from a Trinity Coll., Cambridge, MS. (1891).
See also Julian's _Dictionary of Hymnology_, s.v. "Carol"; E. Cortet,
_Essai sur les fetes religieuses_ (1867).