FOOTNOTE:

[1] "To attach" is first used in English in the legal sense of arrest

or seizure, and the sense of "fasten to" is comparatively late. The

Old French _atachier_, modern _attacher_, from which the English

"attach" is derived, is from a word for a peg or nail, in English

"tack," which is found in many forms in Scandinavian and Celtic

languages, and is ultimately connected with the root seen in Latin

_tangere_, to touch. The Italian _attacare_, especially in the phrase

_attacare battaglia_, to join battle, gave the French _attaquer_,

whence the English "attack," which is therefore by origin a doublet

of "attach."

ATTAINDER (from the O. Fr. _ataindre, ateindre_, to attain, i.e. to

strike, accuse, condemn; Lat. _attingere, tangere_, to touch; the

meaning has been greatly affected by the confusion with Fr. _taindre,

teindre_, to taint, stain, Lat. _tingere_, to dye), in English law, was

the immediate and inseparable consequence from the common law upon the

sentence of death. When it was clear beyond all dispute that the

criminal was no longer fit to live he was called _attaint_, and could

not, before the Evidence Act 1843, be a witness in any court. This

attainder took place after judgment of death, or upon such circumstances

as were equivalent to judgment of death, such as judgment of outlawry on

a capital crime, pronounced for absconding from justice. Conviction

without judgment was not followed by attainder. The consequences of

attainder were (1) forfeiture, (2) corruption of blood. On attainder for

treason, the criminal forfeited to the crown his lands, rights of entry

on lands, and any interest he might have in lands for his own life or a

term of years. For murder, the offender forfeited to the crown the

profit of his freeholds during life, and in the case of lands held in

fee-simple, the lands themselves for a year and a day; subject to this,

the lands escheated to the lord of the fee. These forfeitures related

back to the time of the offence committed. Forfeitures of goods and

chattels ensued not only on attainder, but on conviction for a felony of

any kind, or on flight from justice, and had no relation backwards to

the time of the offence committed. By _corruption of blood_, "both

upwards and downwards," the attainted person could neither inherit nor

transmit lands. The lands escheated to the lord of the fee, subject to

the crown's right of forfeiture. The doctrine of attainder has, however,

ceased to be of much importance. The Forfeiture Act 1870 enacted that

henceforth no confession, verdict, inquest, conviction or judgment of or

for any treason or felony, or _felo de se_, should cause any attainder

or corruption of blood, or any forfeiture or escheat. Sentence of death,

penal servitude or imprisonment with hard labour for more than twelve

months, after conviction for treason or felony, disqualifies from

holding or retaining a seat in parliament, public offices under the

crown or otherwise, right to vote at elections, &c., and such disability

is to remain until the punishment has been suffered or a pardon

obtained. Provision was made for the due administration of convicts'

estates, in the interests of themselves and their families. Forfeiture

consequent on outlawry was exempted from the provisions of the act. The

United States constitution (Art. III. s. 3) says: "The Congress shall

have power to declare the punishment of treason, but no attainder of

treason shall work corruption of blood, or forfeiture except during the

life of the person attainted."

_Bills of Attainder_, in English legal procedure, were formerly a

parliamentary method of exercising judicial authority. They were

ordinarily initiated in the House of Lords and the proceedings were the

same as on other bills, but the parties against whom they were brought

might appear by counsel and produce witnesses in both Houses. In the

case of an impeachment (q.v.), the House of Commons was prosecutor and

the House of Lords judge; but such bills being _legislative_ in form,

the consent of crown, lords and commons was necessary to pass them.

Bishops, who do not exercise but who claim the right to vote in cases of

impeachment (q.v.), have a right to vote upon bills of attainder, but

their vote is not conclusive in passing judgment upon the accused. First

passed in 1459, such bills were employed, more particularly during the

reigns of the Tudor kings, as a species of extrajudicial procedure, for

the direct punishment of political offences. Dispensing with the

ordinary judicial forms and precedents, they took away from the accused

whatever advantages he might have gained in the courts of law; such

evidence only was admitted as might be necessary to secure conviction;

indeed, in many cases bills of attainder were passed without any

evidence being produced at all. In the reign of Henry VIII. they were

much used, through a subservient parliament, to punish those who had

incurred the king's displeasure; many distinguished victims who could

not have been charged with any offence under the existing laws being by

this means disposed of. In the 17th century, during the disputes with

Charles I., the Long Parliament made effective use of the same

procedure, forcing the sovereign to give his consent. After the

Restoration it became less frequent, though the Jacobite movement in

Scotland produced several instances of attainder, without, however, the

infliction of the extreme penalty of death. The last bill of attainder

passed in England was in the case of Lord Edward Fitzgerald, one of the

Irish rebel leaders of 1798.

A bill for reversing attainder took a form contrary to the usual rule.

It was first signed by the sovereign and presented by a peer to the

House of Lords by command of the crown, then passed through the ordinary

stages and on to the commons, to whom the sovereign's assent was

communicated before the first reading was taken, otherwise the whole

proceedings were null and void.

A _Bill of Pains and Penalties_ resembles a bill of attainder in object

and procedure, but imposes a lesser punishment than death. The most

notable instances of the passing of a bill of pains and penalties are

those of Bishop Atterbury in 1722, and of Queen Caroline, wife of George

IV., in 1820.

The constitution of the United States declares that "no bill of

attainder or _ex post facto_ law shall be passed."

ATTAINT, WRIT OF, an obsolete method of procedure in English law, for

inquiring by a jury of twenty-four whether a false verdict had been

given in a trial before an ordinary jury of twelve. If it were found

that an erroneous judgment had been given, the wrong was redressed and

the original jury incurred infamy, with imprisonment and forfeiture of

their goods, which punishments were, however, commuted later for a

pecuniary penalty. In criminal cases a writ of attaint was issued at

suit of the king, and in civil cases at the suit of either party. In

criminal cases it appears to have become obsolete by the end of the 15th

century. Procedure by attaint in civil cases had also been gradually

giving place to the practice of granting new trials, and after the

decision in Bushell's case in 1670 (see JURY) it became obsolete, and

was finally abolished by the Juries Act 1825, except as regards jurors

guilty of embracery (q.v.).

ATTALIA, an ancient city of Pamphylia, which derived its name from

Attalus II., king of Pergamum; the modern Adalia (q.v.). It was

important as the nearest seaport to the rich districts of south-west

Phrygia. A much-frequented "half-sea" route led through it to the Lycus

and Maeander valleys, and so to Ephesus and Smyrna. This was the natural

way from any part of central Asia Minor to Syria and Egypt, and

accordingly we hear of Paul and Barnabas taking ship at Attalia for

Antioch. Originally the port of Perga, Attalia eclipsed the old

Pamphylian capital in early Christian times and became the metropolis.

There are extensive remains of the ancient walls, including some

portions which go back to the foundation of the Pergamenian city. The

most conspicuous monument is the triple Gate of Hadrian, flanked by a

tower built by the empress Julia. This lies about half-way round the

_enceinte_ and formerly admitted the road from Perga.

ATTAR [or OTTO] OF ROSES (Pers. _'atar_, essence), a perfume consisting

of essential oil of roses, prepared by distilling, or, in some

districts, by macerating the flowers. The manufacture is chiefly carried

out in India, Persia and the Balkans; the last named supplying the bulk

of the European demand. It is used by perfumery manufacturers as an

ingredient. The genuine attar of roses is costly and it is frequently

adulterated.

ATTEMPT (Lat. _adtemptare, attentare_, to try), in law, an act done with

intent to commit a crime, and forming one of a series of acts which

would constitute its actual commission if it were not interrupted. An

attempt must proceed beyond mere preparation, but at the same time it

must fall short of the ultimate purpose in any part of it. The actual

point, however, at which an act ceases to be an attempt, and becomes

criminal, depends upon the circumstances of each particular case. A

person may be guilty of an attempt to commit a crime, even if its

commission in the manner proposed was impossible. Every attempt to

commit a treason, felony or indictable misdemeanour is in itself an

indictable misdemeanour, punishable by fine or imprisonment, unless the

attempt to commit is specifically punishable by statute as a felony, or

in a defined manner as a misdemeanour; and a person who has been

indicted for a felony or misdemeanour may, if the evidence so warrants,

be found guilty only of the attempt, provided that it too is a

misdemeanour.

ATTENTION (from Lat. _ad-tendo_, await, expect; the condition of being

"stretched" or "tense"), in psychology, the concentration of

consciousness upon a definite object or objects. The result is brought

about, not by effecting any change in the perceptions themselves, but

simply by isolating them from other objects. Since all consciousness

involves this isolation, attention may be defined generally as the

necessary condition of consciousness. Such a definition, however, throws

no light upon the nature of the psychological process, which is partly

explained by the general law that the greater the number of objects on

which attention is concentrated the less will each receive ("pluribus

intentus, minor est ad singula sensus"), and conversely. There are also

special circumstances which determine the amount of attention, e.g.

influences not subject to the will, such as the vividness of the

impression (e.g. in the case of a shock), strong change in pleasurable

or painful sensations. Secondly, an exercise of volition is employed in

fixing the mind upon a definite object. This is a purely voluntary act,

which can be strengthened by habit and is variable in different

individuals; to it the name "attention" is sometimes restricted. The

distinction is expressed by the words "reflex" or "passive," and

"volitional" or "active." It is important to notice that in every case

of attention to an object, there must be in consciousness an implicit

apprehension of surrounding objects from which the particular object is

isolated. These objects are known as the "psychic fringe," and are

essential to the systematic unity of the attention-process. Attempts

have been made to examine the attention-process from the physiological

standpoint by investigating the muscular and neural changes which

accompany it, and even to assign to it a specific local centre. It has,

for example, been remarked that uniformity of environment, resulting in

practically automatic activity, produces mental equilibrium and the

comparative disappearance of attention-processes; whereas the necessity

of adapting activity to abnormal conditions produces a comparatively

high degree of attention. In other words, attention is absent where

there is uniformity of activity in accordance with uniform, or uniformly

changing, environment. In spite of the progress made in this branch of

study, it has to be remembered that all psycho-physical experiments are

to some extent vitiated by the fact that the phenomena can scarcely

remain normal under inspection.

See G.F. Stout, _Analytic Psychology_ (London, 1896), especially part

ii. chap. 2; also PSYCHOLOGY, BRAIN, &c.

ATTERBOM, PER DANIEL AMADEUS (1790-1855), Swedish poet, son of a country

parson, was born in the province of Ostergotland on the 19th of January

1790. He studied in the university of Upsala from 1805 to 1815, and

became professor of philosophy there in 1828. He was the first great

poet of the romantic movement which, inaugurated by the critical work of

Lorenzo Hammerskold, was to revolutionize Swedish literature. In 1807,

when in his seventeenth year, he founded at Upsala an artistic society,

called the Aurora League, the members of which included V.F. Palmblad,

A.A. Grafstrom (d. 1870), Samuel Hedborn (d. 1849), and other youths

whose names were destined to take a foremost rank in the literature of

their generation. Their first newspaper, _Polyfem_, was a crude effort,

soon abandoned, but in 1810 there began to appear a journal, _Fosforos_,

edited by Atterbom, which lasted for three years and finds a place in

classic Swedish literature. It consisted entirely of poetry and

aesthetico-polemical essays; it introduced the study of the newly arisen

Romantic school of Germany, and formed a vehicle for the early works,

not of Atterbom only, but of Hammerskold, Dahlgren, Palmblad and others.

Later, the members of the Aurora League established the _Poetisk

Kalender_ (1812-1822), in which their poems appeared, and a new critical

organ, _Svensk Litteraturtidning_ (1813-1824). Among Atterbom's

independent works the most celebrated is _Lycksalighetens O_ (_The

Fortunate Island_), a romantic drama of extraordinary beauty, published

in 1823. Before this he had published a somewhat in the manner of

Novalis. Of a dramatized fairy tale, _Fagel bla (The Blue Bird_), only a

fragment, which is among the most exquisite of his writings, is

preserved. As a purely lyrical poet he has not been excelled in Sweden,

but his more ambitious works are injured by his weakness for allegory

and symbolism, and his consistent adoption of the mannerisms of Tieck

and Novalis. In his later years he became less violent in literary

controversy. He became in 1835 professor of aesthetics and literature at

Upsala, and four years later he was admitted to the Swedish Academy. He

died on the 21st of July 1855. His _Svenska Siare och Skalder_ (6 vols.,

1841-1855, supplement, 1864) consists of a series of biographies of

Swedish poets and men of letters, which forms a valuable history of

Swedish letters down to the end of the "classical" period. Atterbom's

works were collected (13 vols., Orebro) in 1854-1870.

ATTERBURY, FRANCIS (1662-1732), English man of letters, politician and

bishop, was born in the year 1662, at Milton or Middleton Keynes in

Buckinghamshire, a parish of which his father was rector. He was

educated at Westminster school and at Christ Church, Oxford, where he

became a tutor. In 1682 he published a translation of _Absalom and

Ahithophel_ into Latin verse; but neither the style nor the

versification was that of the Augustan age. In English composition he

succeeded much better. In 1687 he published _An Answer to some

Considerations on the Spirit of Martin Luther and the Original of the

Reformation_, a reply to Obadiah Walker, who, elected master of

University College in 1676, had printed in a press set up by him there

an attack on the Reformation, written by Abraham Woodhead. Atterbury's

treatise, though highly praised by Bishop Burnet, is perhaps more

distinguished for the vigour of his rhetoric than for the soundness of

his arguments, and the Papists were so much galled by his sarcasms and

invectives that they accused him of treason, and of having, by

implication, called King James a Judas.

After the Revolution, Atterbury, though bred in the doctrines of

non-resistance and passive obedience, readily swore fealty to the new

government. He had taken holy orders in 1687, preached occasionally in

London with an eloquence which raised his reputation, and was soon

appointed one of the royal chaplains. But he ordinarily resided at

Oxford, where he was the chief adviser and assistant of Dean Aldrich,

under whom Christ Church was a stronghold of Toryism. Thus he became the

inspirer of his pupil, Charles Boyle, in the attack (1698) on the Whig

scholar, Richard Bentley (q.v.), arising out of Bentley's impugnment of

the genuineness of the _Epistles of Phalaris_. He was figured by Swift

in the _Battle of the Books_ as the Apollo who directed the fight, and

was, no doubt, largely the author of Boyle's essay. Bentley spent two

years in preparing his famous reply, which proved not only that the

letters ascribed to Phalaris were spurious, but that all Atterbury's

wit, eloquence and skill in controversial fence was only a cloak for an

audacious pretence of scholarship.

Atterbury was soon occupied, however, in a dispute about matters still

more important and exciting. The rage of religious factions was extreme.

High Church and Low Church divided the nation. The great majority of the

clergy were on the High Church side; the majority of King William's

bishops were inclined to latitudinarianism. In 1700 Convocation, of

which the lower house was overwhelmingly Tory, had not been suffered to

meet for ten years. This produced a lively controversy, into which

Atterbury threw himself with characteristic energy, publishing a series

of treatises written with much wit, audacity and acrimony. By the mass

of the clergy he was regarded as the most intrepid champion that had

ever defended their rights against the oligarchy of Erastian prelates.

In 1701 he was rewarded with the archdeaconry of Totnes and a prebend in

Exeter cathedral. The lower house of Convocation voted him thanks for

his services; the university of Oxford created him a doctor of divinity;

and in 1704, soon after the accession of Anne, while the Tories still

had the chief weight in the government, he was promoted to the deanery

of Carlisle.

Soon after he had obtained this preferment the Whig party came into

power. From that party he could expect no favour. Six years elapsed

before a change of fortune took place. At length, in the year 1710, the

prosecution of Sacheverell produced a formidable explosion of High

Church fanaticism. At such a moment Atterbury could not fail to be

conspicuous. His inordinate zeal for the body to which he belonged, his

turbulent and aspiring temper, his rare talents for agitation and for

controversy, were again signally displayed. He bore a chief part in

framing that artful and eloquent speech which the accused divine

pronounced at the bar of the Lords, and which presents a singular

contrast to the absurd and scurrilous sermon which had very unwisely

been honoured with impeachment. During the troubled and anxious months

which followed the trial, Atterbury was among the most active of those

pamphleteers who inflamed the nation against the Whig ministry and the

Whig parliament. When the ministry had been changed and the parliament

dissolved, rewards were showered upon him. The lower house of

Convocation elected him prolocutor, in which capacity he drew up, in

1711, the often-cited _Representation of the State of Religion_; and, in

August 1711, the queen, who had selected him as her chief adviser in

ecclesiastical matters, appointed him dean of Christ Church on the death

of his old friend and patron Aldrich.

At Oxford he was as conspicuous a failure as he had been at Carlisle,

and it was said by his enemies that he was made a bishop because he was

so bad a dean. Under his administration Christ Church was in confusion,

scandalous altercations took place, and there was reason to fear that

the great Tory college would be ruined by the tyranny of the great Tory

doctor. In 1713 he was removed to the bishopric of Rochester, which was

then always united with the deanery of Westminster. Still higher

dignities seemed to be before him. For, though there were many able men

on the episcopal bench, there was none who equalled or approached him in

parliamentary talents. Had his party continued in power it is not

improbable that he would have been raised to the archbishopric of

Canterbury. The more splendid his prospects the more reason he had to

dread the accession of a family which was well known to be partial to

the Whigs, and there is every reason to believe that he was one of those

politicians who hoped that they might be able, during the life of Anne,

to prepare matters in such a way that at her decease there might be

little difficulty in setting aside the Act of Settlement and placing the

Pretender on the throne. Her sudden death confounded the projects of

these conspirators, and, whatever Atterbury's previous views may have

been, he acquiesced in what he could not prevent, took the oaths to the

house of Hanover, and did his best to ingratiate himself with the royal

family. But his servility was requited with cold contempt; and he became

the most factious and pertinacious of all the opponents of the

government. In the House of Lords his oratory, lucid, pointed, lively

and set off with every grace of pronunciation and of gesture, extorted

the attention and admiration even of a hostile majority. Some of the

most remarkable protests which appear in the journals of the peers were

drawn up by him; and, in some of the bitterest of those pamphlets which

called on the English to stand up for their country against the aliens

who had come from beyond the seas to oppress and plunder her, critics

easily detected his style. When the rebellion of 1715 broke out, he

refused to sign the paper in which the bishops of the province of

Canterbury declared their attachment to the Protestant succession, and

in 1717, after having been long in indirect communication with the

exiled family, he began to correspond directly with the Pretender.

In 1721, on the discovery of the plot for the capture of the royal

family and the proclamation of King James, Atterbury was arrested with

the other chief malcontents, and in 1722 committed to the Tower, where

he remained in close confinement during some months. He had carried on

his correspondence with the exiled family so cautiously that the

circumstantial proofs of his guilt, though sufficient to produce entire

moral conviction, were not sufficient to justify legal conviction. He

could be reached only by a bill of pains and penalties. Such a bill the

Whig party, then decidedly predominant in both Houses, was quite

prepared to support, and in due course a bill passed the Commons

depriving him of his spiritual dignities, banishing him for life, and

forbidding any British subject to hold intercourse with him except by

the royal permission. In the Lords the contest was sharp, but the bill

finally passed by eighty-three votes to forty-three.

Atterbury took leave of those whom he loved with a dignity and

tenderness worthy of a better man, to the last protesting his innocence

with a singular disingenuousness. After a short stay at Brussels he went

to Paris, and became the leading man among the Jacobite refugees there.

He was invited to Rome by the Pretender, but Atterbury felt that a

bishop of the Church of England would be out of place at the Vatican,

and declined the invitation. During some months, however, he seemed to

stand high in the good graces of James. The correspondence between the

master and the servant was constant. Atterbury's merits were warmly

acknowledged, his advice was respectfully received, and he was, as

Bolingbroke had been before him, the prime minister of a king without a

kingdom. He soon, however, perceived that his counsels were disregarded,

if not distrusted. His proud spirit was deeply wounded. In 1728 he

quitted Paris, fixed his residence at Montpelier, gave up politics, and

devoted himself entirely to letters. In the sixth year of his exile he

had so severe an illness that his daughter, Mrs Morice, herself very

ill, determined to run all risks that she might see him once more. She

met him at Toulouse, received the communion from his hand, and died that

night.

Atterbury survived the severe shock of his daughter's death two years.

He even returned to Paris and to the service of the Pretender, who had

found out that he had not acted wisely in parting with one who, though a

heretic, was the most able man of the Jacobite party. In the ninth year

of his banishment he published a luminous, temperate and dignified

vindication of himself against John Oldmixon, who had accused him of

having, in concert with other Christ Church men, garbled the new edition

of Clarendon's _History of the Rebellion_. The charge, as respected

Atterbury, had not the slightest foundation; for he was not one of the

editors of the _History_, and never saw it till it was printed. A copy

of this little work he sent to the Pretender, with a letter singularly

eloquent and graceful. It was impossible, the old man said, that he

should write anything on such a subject without being reminded of the

resemblance between his own fate and that of Clarendon. They were the

only two English subjects who had ever been banished from their country

and debarred from all communication with their friends by act of

parliament. But here the resemblance ended. One of the exiles had been

so happy as to bear a chief part in the restoration of the royal house.

All that the other could now do was to die asserting the rights of that

house to the last. A few weeks after this letter was written Atterbury

died, on the 22nd of February 1732. His body was brought to England, and

laid, with great privacy, under the nave of Westminster Abbey. No

inscription marks his grave.

It is agreeable to turn from Atterbury's public to his private life. His

turbulent spirit, wearied with faction and treason, now and then

required repose, and found it in domestic endearments, and in the

society of the most illustrious literary men of his time. Of his wife,

Katherine Osborn, whom he married while at Oxford, little is known; but

between him and his daughter there was an affection singularly close and

tender. The gentleness of his manners when he was in the company of a

few friends was such as seemed hardly credible to those who knew him

only by his writings and speeches. Though Atterbury's classical

attainments were not great, his taste in English literature was

excellent; and his admiration of genius was so strong that it

overpowered even his political and religious antipathies. His fondness

for Milton, the mortal enemy of the Stuarts and of the Church, was such

as to many Tories seemed a crime; and he was the close friend of

Addison. His favourite companions, however, were, as might have been

expected, men whose politics had at least a tinge of Toryism. He lived

on friendly terms with Swift, Arbuthnot and Gay. With Prior he had a

close intimacy, which some misunderstanding about public affairs at

last dissolved. Pope found in Atterbury not only a warm admirer, but a

most faithful, fearless and judicious adviser.

See F. Williams, _Memoirs and Correspondence of Atterbury with Notes_,

&c. (1869); _Stuart Papers_, vol. i.: _Letters of Atterbury to the

Chevalier St George_, &c. (1847); J. Nichols, _Epistolary

Correspondence_, &c. (1783-1796); and H.C. Beeching, _Francis

Atterbury_, (1909).

ATTESTATION (Lat. _adtestare, attestare_, to bear witness, _testis_, a

witness), the verification of a deed, will or other instrument by the

signature to it of a witness or witnesses, who endorse or subscribe

their names under a memorandum, to the effect that it was signed or

executed in their presence. The essence of attestation is to show that

at the execution of the document there was present some disinterested

person capable of giving evidence as to what took place. The clause at

the end of the instrument, immediately preceding the signatures of the

witnesses to the execution, and stating that they have witnessed it, is

known as the attestation clause. In Scots law, the corresponding clause

is called the testing-clause (see DEED; WILL OR TESTAMENT; WITNESS).

ATTHIS (an adjective meaning "Attic"), the name given to a monograph or

special treatise on the religious and political history, antiquities and

topography of Attica and Athens. During the 4th and 3rd centuries B.C.,

a class of writers arose, who, making these subjects their particular

study, were called atthidographi, or compilers of atthides. The first of

these was Clidemus or Clitodemus (about 378 B.C.); the last, Ister of

Cyrene (died 212 B.C.); the most important was Philochorus (first half

of the 3rd century B.C.), of whose work considerable fragments have been

preserved. The names of the other atthidographi known to us are

Phanodemus, Demon, Androtion, Andron, Melanthius. They laid no claim to

literary skill; their style was monotonous and soon became wearisome.

They were in fact chroniclers or annalists--not historians. Their only

object was to set down, in plain and simple language, all that seemed

worthy of note in reference to the legends, history, constitution,

religion and civilization of Attica. They followed the order of the

olympiads and archons, and their work was supported by the authority of

original documents, monuments and inscriptions. Their writings were much

used by historians, as well as by the scholiasts and grammarians.

Fragments in Muller, _Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorum_, i.

ATTIC (i.e. "in the Attic style"), an architectural term given to the

masonry rising above the main cornice of a building, the earliest

example known being that of the monument of Thrasyllus at Athens. It was

largely employed by the Romans, who in their arches of triumph utilized

it for inscriptions or for bas-relief sculpture. It was used also to

increase the height of enclosure walls such as those of the Forum of

Nerva. By the Italian revivalists it was utilized as a complete storey,

pierced with windows, as found in Palladio's work at Vicenza and in

Greenwich hospital. The largest attic in existence is that which

surmounts the entablature of St Peter's at Rome, which measures 39 ft.

in height. The term is also employed in modern terminology to designate

an upper storey in a roof, and the feature is sometimes introduced to

hide a roof behind.

ATTICA, a district of ancient Greece, triangular in shape, projecting in

a south-easterly direction into the Aegean Sea, the base line being

formed by the continuous chain of Mounts Cithaeron and Parnes, the apex

by the promontory of Sunium. It was washed on two sides by the sea, and

the coast is broken up into numerous small bays and harbours, which,

however, are with few exceptions exposed to the south wind. The surface

of Attica, as of the rest of Greece, is very mountainous, and between

the mountain chains lie several plains of no great size, open on one

side to the sea. On the west its natural boundary is the Corinthian

Gulf, so that it would include Megaris; indeed, before the Dorian

invasion, which resulted in the foundation of Megara, the whole country

was politically one, in the hands of the Ionian race. This is proved by

the column which, as we learn from Strabo, once stood on the Isthmus of

Corinth, bearing on one side in Greek the inscription, "This land is

Peloponnesus, not Ionia," and on the other, "This land is not

Peloponnesus, but Ionia."

The position of Attica was one main cause of its historical importance.

Hence in part arose the maritime character of its inhabitants; and when

they had once taken to the sea, the string of neighbouring islands,

Ceos, Cythnos and others, some of which lay within sight of their

coasts, and from one to another of which it was possible to sail without

losing sight of land, served to tempt them on to further enterprises.

Similarly on land, the post it occupied between northern Greece and the

Peloponnese materially influenced its relation to other states, both in

respect of its alliances, such as that with Thessaly, towards which it

was drawn by mutual hostility to Boeotia, which lay between them; and

also in respect of offensive combinations of other powers, as that

between Thebes and Sparta, which throughout an important part of Greek

history were closely associated in their politics, through mutual dread

of their powerful neighbour.

Mountains.

The mountains of Attica, which form its most characteristic feature, are

a continuation of that chain which, starting from Tymphrestus at the

southern extremity of Pindus, passes through Phocis and Boeotia under

the names of Parnassus and Helicon; from this proceeds the range which,

as Cithaeron in its western and Parnes in its eastern portion, separates

Attica from Boeotia, throwing off spurs southward towards the Saronic

Gulf in Aegaleos and Hymettus, which bound the plain of Athens. Again,

the eastern extremity of Parnes is joined by another line of hills,

which, separating from Mount Oeta, skirts the Euboic Gulf, and, after

entering Attica, throws up the lofty pyramid of Pentelicus, overlooking

the plain of Marathon, and then sinks towards the sea at Sunium to rise

once more in the outlying islands. Finally, at the extreme west of the

whole district, Cithaeron is bent round at right angles in the direction

of the isthmus, at the northern approach to which it abuts against the

mighty mass of Mount Geraneia, which is interposed between the

Corinthian and the Saronic Gulf. Both Cithaeron and Parnes are about

4600 ft. high, Pentelicus 3635, and Hymettus 3370, while Aegaleos does

not rise higher than 1534 ft. At the present day they are extremely

bare, and in this respect almost repellent; but the lack of colour is

compensated by the delicacy of the outlines, the minute articulation of

the minor ridges and valleys, and the symmetrical grouping of the

several mountains.

Soil.

The soil is light and thin, and requires very careful agriculture not

only on the rocky mountain sides but to some extent also in the maritime

plains. This fact had considerable influence on the inhabitants, both by

enforcing industrious habits and by leading them at an early period to

take to the sea. Still, the level ground was sufficiently fertile to

form a marked contrast to the rest of the district. Thucydides

attributes to the nature of the soil (i. 2 [Greek: to leptogeon]), which

presented no attraction to invaders, the permanence of the same

inhabitants in the country, whence arose the claim to indigenousness on

which the Athenians so greatly prided themselves; while at the same time

the richer ground fostered that fondness for country life, which is

proved by the enthusiastic terms in which it is always spoken of by

Aristophanes. That we are not justified in judging of the ancient

condition of the soil by, the aridity which prevails at the present day,

is shown by the fact that out of the 182 demes (see CLEISTHENES) into

which Attica was divided, one-tenth were named from trees or plants.

Climate.

The climate of Attica has always been celebrated. In approaching Attica

from Boeotia a change of temperature is felt as soon as a person

descends from Cithaeron or Parnes, and the sea breeze, which in modern

times is called [Greek: ho embates], or that which sets towards shore,

moderates the heat in summer. The Attic comedians and Plato speak with

enthusiasm of their native climate, and the fineness of the Athenian

intellect was attributed to the clearness of the Attic atmosphere. It

was in the neighbourhood of Athens itself that the air was thought to

be purest. So Euripides describes the inhabitants as "ever walking

gracefully through the most luminous ether" (_Med._ 829); and Milton--

"Where, on the Aegean shore, a city stands,

Built nobly, pure the air, and light the soil--

Athens, the eye of Greece."

Or again Xenophon says "one would not err in thinking that this city is

placed near the centre of Greece--nay, of the civilized world--because,

the farther removed persons are from it, the severer is the cold or heat

they meet with" (_Vectigal._ i. 6). The air is so clear that one can see

from the Acropolis the lines of white marble that streak the sides of

Pentelicus. The brilliant colouring which is so conspicuous in an

Athenian sunset is due to the same cause. The epithet "violet-crowned,"

used of Athens by Pindar, is due either to the blue haze on the

surrounding hills, or to the use of violets (or irises) for festal

wreaths. This otherwise perfect climate is slightly marred by the

prevalence of the north wind. This is expressed on the Horologium of

Andronicus Cyrrhestes, called the Temple or Tower of the Winds, at

Athens, where Boreas is represented as a bearded man of stern aspect,

thickly clad, and wearing strong buskins; he blows into a conch shell,

which he holds in his hand as a sign of his tempestuous character.

Vegetation.

Minerals.

Of the flora of Attica, the olive is the most important. This tree, we

learn from Herodotus (v. 82), was thought at one time to have been found

in that country only; and the enthusiastic praises of Sophocles (_Oed.

Col._ 700) teach us that it was the land in which it flourished best. So

great was the esteem in which it was held, that in the early legend of

the struggle between the gods of sea and land, Poseidon and Athena, for

the patronage of the country, the sea-god is represented as having to

retire vanquished before the giver of the olive; and at a later period

the evidences of this contention were found in an ancient olive tree in

the Acropolis, together with three holes in the rock, said to have been

made by the trident of Poseidon, and to be connected with a salt well

hard by. The fig also found its favourite home in this country, for

Demeter was said to have bestowed it as a gift on the Eleusinian

Phytalus, i.e. "the gardener." Both Cithaeron and Parnes must have been

wooded in former times; for on the former are laid the picturesque

silvan scenes in the _Bacchae_ of Euripides, and it was from the latter

that the wood came which caused the neighbouring deme of Acharnae to be

famous for its charcoal--the [Greek: anthrakes Parnesioi] of the

_Acharnians_ of Aristophanes (348). From the thymy slopes of Hymettus

came the famous Hymettian honey. Among the other products we must notice

the marble--both that of Pentelicus, which afforded a material of

unrivalled purity and whiteness for building the Athenian temples, and

the blue marble of Hymettus--the _trabes Hymettiae_ of Horace--which

used to be transported to Rome for the construction of palaces. But the

richest of all the sources of wealth in Attica was the silver mines of

Laurium, the yield of which was so considerable as to render silver the

principal medium of exchange in Greece, so that "a silver piece"

([Greek: argurion]) was the Greek equivalent term for money. Hence

Aeschylus speaks of the Athenians as possessing a "fountain of silver"

(_Pers._ 235), and Aristophanes makes his chorus of birds promise the

audience that, if they show him favour, owls from Laurium (i.e. silver

pieces with the emblem of Athens) shall never fail them (_Birds_, 1106).

The reputation of these coins for purity of metal and accuracy of weight

was so great that they had a very wide circulation, and in consequence

it was thought undesirable to make any alteration in the types lest

their genuineness should be doubted. This accounts for the somewhat

inartistic character which the Athenian coins maintained to the last

(see further NUMISMATICS: _Greek_, S Athens). In Strabo's time, though

the mines had almost ceased to yield, silver was obtained in

considerable quantities from the scoriae; and at the present day a large

amount of lead is got in the same way, the work being chiefly carried on

by two companies, one of which is French and the ether Greek. In the

ancient workings, many of which are in the same condition as they were

left 1800 years ago, there are in all 2000 shafts and galleries.

Plain of Megara.

It has been already mentioned that the base line of Attica is formed by

the chain of Cithaeron and Parnes, running from west to east; and that

from this transverse chains run southward, dividing Attica into a

succession of plains. The westernmost of these, which is separated from

the innermost bay of the Corinthian Gulf, called the Mare Alcyonium, by

an offshoot of Cithaeron, and is bounded on the east by a ridge which

ends towards the Saronic Gulf in a striking two-horned peak called

Kerata, is the plain of Megara. It is only for geographical purposes

that we include this district under Attica, for both the Dorian race of

the inhabitants, and its dangerous proximity to Athens, caused it to be

at perpetual feud with that city; but its position as an outpost for the

Peloponnesians, together with the fact of its having once been Ionian

soil, sufficiently explains the bitter hostility of the Athenians

towards the Megarians. The great importance of Megara arose from its

commanding all the passes into the Peloponnese. These were three in

number: one along the shores of the Corinthian Gulf, which, owing to the

nature of the ground, makes a long detour; the other two starting from

Megara, and passing, the one by a lofty though gradual route over the

ridge of Geraneia, the other along the Saronic Gulf, under the dangerous

precipices of the Scironian rocks.

Plain of Eleusis.

To the east of the plain of Megara lies that of Eleusis, bounded on the

one side by the chain of Kerata, and on the other by that of Aegaleos,

through a depression in which was the line of the sacred way, where the

torchlight processions from Athens used to descend to the coast, the

"brightly gleaming shores" ([Greek: lampades aktai]) of Sophocles (_Oed.

Col._ 1049). The deep bay which here runs into the land is bounded on

its southern side by the rocky island of Salamis, which was at all times

an important possession to the Athenians on account of its proximity to

their city; and the winding channel which separates that island from the

mainland in the direction of the Peiraeus was the scene of the battle of

Salamis, while on the last declivities of Mt. Aegaleos, which here

descends to the sea, was the spot where, as Byron wrote--

"A king sate on the rocky brow

Which looks o'er sea-born Salamis."

The eastern portion of the plain of Eleusis was called the Thriasian

plain, and the city itself was situated in the recesses of the bay just

mentioned.

Plain of Athens.

Next in order to the plain of Eleusis came that of Athens, which is the

most extensive of all, reaching from the foot of Parnes to the sea, and

bounded on the west by Aegaleos, and on the east by Hymettus. Its most

conspicuous feature is the broad line of dark green along its western

side, formed by the olive-groves of Colonus and the gardens of the

Academy, which owe their fertility to the waters of the Cephisus. This

river is fed by copious sources on the side of Mt. Parnes, and thus,

unlike the other rivers of Attica, has a constant supply of water, which

was diverted in classical times, as it still is, into the neighbouring

plantations (cf. Sophocles, _Oed. Col._ 685). The position of Colonus

itself is marked by two bare knolls of light-coloured earth, which

caused the poet in the same chorus to apply the epithet "white" ([Greek:

argeta]) to that place. On the opposite side of the plain runs the other

river, the Ilissus, which rises from two sources on the side of Mt.

Hymettus, and skirts the eastern extremity of the city of Athens; but

this, notwithstanding its celebrity, is a mere brook, which stands in

pools a great part of the year, and in summer is completely dry. The

situation of Athens relatively to the surrounding objects is singularly

harmonious; for, while it forms a central point, so as to be the eye of

the plain, and while the altar-rock of the Acropolis and the hills by

which it is surrounded are conspicuous from every point of view, there

is no such exactness in its position as to give formality, since it is

nearer to the sea than to Parnes, and nearer to Hymettus than to

Aegaleos. The most striking summit in the neighbourhood of the city is

that of Lycabettus, on the north-eastern side; and the variety is still

further increased by the continuation of the ridge which it forms for

some distance northwards through the plain. Three roads lead to Athens

from the Boeotian frontier over the intervening mountain barrier--the

easternmost over Parnes, from Delium and Oropus by Decelea, which was

the usual route of the invading Lacedaemonians during the Peloponnesian

War; the westernmost over Cithaeron, by the pass of Dryoscephalae, or

the "Oakheads," leading from Thebes by Plataea to Eleusis, and so to

Athens, which we hear of in connexion with the battle of Plataea, and

with the escape of the Plataeans at the time of the siege of that city

in the Peloponnesian War; the third, midway between the two, by the pass

of Phyle, near the summit of which, on a rugged height overlooking the

Athenian plain, is the fort occupied by Thrasybulus in the days of the

Thirty Tyrants. On the sea-coast to the south-west of Athens rises the

hill of Munychia, a mass of rocky ground, forming the acropolis of the

town of Peiraeus. It was probably at one time an island; this was

Strabo's opinion, and at the present day the ground which joins it to

the mainland is low and swampy, and seems to have been formed by

alluvial soil brought down by the Cephisus. On one side of this, towards

Hymettus, lay the open roadstead of Phalerum, on the other the harbour

of Peiraeus, a completely land-locked inlet, safe, deep and spacious,

the approach to which was still further narrowed by moles. The eastern

side of the hill was further indented by two small but commodious

havens, which were respectively called Zea and Munychia.

Eastern Attica.

The north-eastern boundary of the plain of Athens is formed by the

graceful pyramid of Pentelicus, which received its name from the deme of

Pentele at its foot, but was far more commonly known as Brilessus in

ancient times. This mountain did not form a continous chain with

Hymettus, for between them intervenes a level space of ground 2 m. in

width, which formed the entrance to the Mesogaea, an elevated undulating

plain in the midst of the mountains, reaching nearly to Sunium. At the

extremity of Hymettus, where it projects into the Saronic Gulf, was the

promontory of Zoster ("the Girdle"), which was so called because it

girdles and protects the neighbouring harbour; but in consequence of the

name, a legend was attached to it, to the effect that Latona had loosed

her girdle there. From this promontory to Sunium there runs a lower line

of mountains, and between these and the sea a fertile strip of land

intervenes, which was called the Paralia. Beyond Sunium, on the eastern

coast, were two safe ports, that of Thoricus, which is defended by the

island of Helene, forming a natural breakwater in front of it, and that

of Prasiac, now called Porto Raphti ("the Tailor"), from a statue at the

entrance to which the natives have given that name. In the north-east

corner is the little plain of Marathon (q.v.), the scene of the battle

against the Persians (490 B.C.). It lies between Parnes, Pentelicus and

the sea. The bay in front is sheltered by Euboea, and on the north by a

projecting tongue of land, called Cynosura. The mountains in the

neighbourhood were the home of the Diacrii or Hyperacrii, who, being

poor mountaineers, and having nothing to lose, were the principal

advocates of political reform; while, on the other hand, the Pedieis, or

inhabitants of the plains, being wealthy landholders, formed the strong

conservative element, and the Parali, or occupants of the sea-coast,

representing the mercantile interest, held an intermediate position

between the two (see CLEISTHENES). Finally, there was one district of

Attica, the territory of Oropus, which properly belonged to Boeotia, as

it was situated to the north of Parnes; but on this the Athenians always

endeavoured to retain a firm hold, because it facilitated their

communications with Euboea. The command of that island was of the utmost

importance to them; for, if Aegina could rightly be called "the eyesore

of the Peiraeus," Euboea was quite as truly a thorn in the side of

Attica; for we learn from Demosthenes (_De Cor._ p. 307) that at one

period the pirates that made it their headquarters so infested the

neighbouring sea as to prevent all navigation.

Excavations.

The place in Attica which has been the chief scene of excavations

(independently of Athens and its vicinity) is Eleusis (q.v.), where

the remains of the sanctuary of Demeter, the home of the Eleusinian

Mysteries, together with other buildings in its neighbourhood, were

cleared by the Greek Archaeological Society in 1882-1887 and 1895-1896.

Of the other classical ruins in Attica the best-known is the temple of

Athena at Sunium, which forms a conspicuous object on the headland, to

which it gave the name of Cape Colonnae, still used by the peasants. It

is in the Doric style, of white marble, and eleven columns of the

peristyle and one of the pronaos are now standing. At Thoricus there is

a theatre, which was cleared of earth by the archaeologists of the

American School in 1886. In the neighbourhood of Rhamnus are the remains

of two temples that stood side by side, the larger of which was

dedicated to Nemesis, the smaller probably to Themis, of which goddess a

fine statue was discovered in its ruins in the course of the excavations

of the Greek Archaeological Society in 1890. The same Society, in

1884,1886 and 1887, excavated the sanctuary of Amphiaraus, 4 m. from

Oropus; in ancient times this was the resort of numerous invalids, who

came thither to consult the healing divinity. Within it were found a

temple of Amphiaraus, a large altar, and a long colonnade, which may

have been the dormitory where the patients slept in hope of obtaining

counsel in dreams. There were also baths and a small theatre, and

numerous inscriptions relating to the arrangement and observances of the

sanctuary and oracle. The walls and towers also of the city of

Eleutherae and the fortress of Phyle are fine specimens of Hellenic

fortifications.

Of the condition of Attica in medieval and modern times little need be

said, for it has followed for the most part the fortunes of Athens. The

population, however, has undergone a great change, independently of the

large admixture of Slavonic blood that has affected the Greeks of the

mainland generally, by the immigration of Albanian colonists, who now

occupy a great part of the country. The district formed part of the

_nome_ (administrative division) of Boeotia and Attica until 1899, when

it became a separate _nome_.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--J.G. Frazer, _Pausanias's Description of Greece_, vols.

ii. and v. (London, 1898); W.M. Leake, _The Demi of Attica_ (2nd ed.,

London, 1841); Chr. Wordsworth, _Athens and Attica_ (4th ed., London,

1869); C. Bursian, _Geographic von Griechenland_, vol. i. (Leipzig,

1862); Baedeker's _Greece_ (4th Eng. ed., Leipzig, 1908); _Karten von

Attica_, published by the German Archaeological Institute of Athens,

with explanatory text, chiefly by Professor Milchhofer (1875-1903);

see also ATHENS, ELEUSIS and GREECE: _Topography_. (H. F. T.)

ATTIC BASE, the term given in architecture to the base of the Roman

Ionic order, consisting of an upper and lower torus, separated by a

scotia (q.v.) and fillets. It was the favourite base of the Romans,

and was employed by them for columns of the Corinthian and Composite

orders, and in Byzantine and Romanesque work would seem to have been

generally adopted as a model.

ATTICUS, TITUS POMPONIUS (109-32 B.C.), Roman patron of letters, was

born at Rome three years before Cicero, with whom he and the younger

Marius were educated. His name was Titus Pomponius, that of Atticus, by

which he is known, being given him afterwards from his long residence in

Athens (86-65) and his intimate acquaintance with the Greek literature

and language. His family is said to have been of noble and ancient

descent; his father belonged to the equestrian order, and was very

wealthy. When Pomponius was still a young man his father died, and he at

once took the prudent resolution of transferring himself and his fortune

to Athens, in order to escape the dangers of the civil war, in which he

might have been involved through his connexion with the murdered

tribune, Sulpicius Rufus. Here he lived in retirement, devoting himself

entirely to study. On his return to Rome, he took possession of an

inheritance left him by his uncle and assumed the name of Quintus

Caecilius Pomponianus. From this time he kept aloof from political

strife, attaching himself to no particular party, and continuing on

intimate terms with men so opposed as Caesar and Pompey, Antony and

Octavian. His most intimate friend, however, was Cicero, whose

correspondence with him extended over many years, and who seems to have

found his prudent counsel and sympathy a remedy for all his many

troubles. His private life was tranquil and happy. He did not marry till

he was fifty-three years of age, and his only child became the wife of

Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, the distinguished minister of Augustus. In 32,

being seized with an illness believed to be incurable, he starved

himself to death. Of his writings none is extant, but mention is made of

two: a Greek history of Cicero's consulship, and some annals, in Latin,

an epitome of the events of Roman history down to the year 54. His most

important work was his edition of the letters addressed to him by

Cicero. He also formed a large library at Athens, and engaged a staff of

slaves to make copies of valuable works.

See Life by Cornelius Nepos; Berwick, _Lives of Messalla Corvinus and

T.P.A._ (1813); Fialon, _Thesis in T.P.A._ (1861); Boissier, _Ciceron

et ses amis_ (1888: Eng. trans. A.D. Jones, 1897); Peter,

_Historicorum Romanorum Fragmenta._

ATTICUS HERODES, TIBERIUS CLAUDIUS (c. A.D. 101-177), Greek rhetorician,

was born at Marathon in Attica. He belonged to a wealthy and

distinguished family, and received a careful education under the most

distinguished masters of the time, especially in rhetoric and

philosophy. His talents gained him the favourable notice of Hadrian, who

appointed him praefect of the free towns in the province of Asia (125).

On his return to Athens, he attained great celebrity as an orator and

teacher of rhetoric, and was elected to the office of archon. In 140 he

was summoned by Antoninus Pius to undertake the education of Marcus

Aurelius and Lucius Verus, and received many marks of favour, amongst

them the consulship (143). He is principally celebrated, however, for

the vast sums he expended on public purposes. He built at Athens a great

race-course of Pentelic marble, and a splendid musical theatre, called

the Odeum in memory of his wife Regilla, which still exists. At Corinth

he built a theatre, at Delphi a stadium, at Thermopylae hot baths, at

Canusium in Italy an aqueduct. He even contemplated cutting a canal

through the Isthmus of Corinth, but was afraid to carry out his plan

because the same thing had been unsuccessfully attempted before by the

emperor Nero. Many of the partially ruined cities of Greece were

restored by Atticus, and numerous inscriptions testify their gratitude

to their benefactor. His latter years were embittered by family

misfortune, and having incurred the enmity of the Athenians, he withdrew

from Athens to his villa near Marathon, where he died. He enjoyed a very

high reputation amongst his contemporaries, and wrote numerous works, of

which the only one to come down to us is a rhetorical exercise _On the

Constitution_ (ed. Hass, 1880), advocating an alliance of the Thebans

and Peloponnesians against Archelaus, king of Macedonia. The genuineness

of this speech, which is of little merit, has been disputed.

Philostratus, _Vit. Soph._ ii. 1; Fiorillo, _Herodis Attici quae

supersunt_ (1801); _A Biographical Notice of A.H._ (London, 1832),

privately printed; Fuelles, _De Herodis Attici Vita_ (1864);

Vidal-Lablache, _Herode Atticus_ (1871).

ATTILA (d. 453), king of the Huns, became king in 433, along with his

brother Bleda, on the death of his uncle Roua. We hear but little as to

Bleda, who died about 445, possibly slain by his brother's orders. In

the first eight years of his reign Attila was chiefly occupied in the

wars with other barbarian tribes, by which he made himself virtually

supreme in central Europe. His own special kingdom comprised the

countries which are now called Hungary and Transylvania, his capital

being possibly not far from the modern city of Buda-Pest; but having

made the Ostrogoths, the Gepidae and many other Teutonic tribes his

subject-allies, and having also sent his invading armies into Media, he

seems for nearly twenty years to have ruled practically without a rival

from the Caspian to the Rhine. Very early in his reign, Honoria,

grand-daughter of the emperor Theodosius II., being subjected to severe

restraint on account of an amorous intrigue with one of the chamberlains

of the palace, sent her ring to the king of the Huns and called on him

to be her husband and her deliverer. Nothing came of the proposed

engagement, but the wrongs of Honoria, his affianced wife, served as a

convenient pretext for some of the constantly recurring embassies with

which Attila, fond of trampling on the fallen majesty of Rome, worried

and bullied the two courts of Constantinople and Ravenna. Another

frequent subject of complaint was found in certain sacred vessels which

the bishop of Sirmium had sent as a bribe to the secretary of Attila,

and which had been by him, fraudulently, as his master contended, pawned

to a silversmith at Rome. There were also frequent and imperious demands

for the surrender of fugitives who had sought shelter from the wrath of

Attila within the limits of the empire. One of the return embassies from

Constantinople, that sent in 448, had the great advantage of being

accompanied by a rhetorician named Priscus, whose minute journalistic

account of the negotiations, including as it does a vivid picture of the

great Hun in his banquet-hall, is by far the most valuable source of

information as to the court and camp of Attila. What lends additional

interest to the story is the fact that in the ambassador's suite there

was an interpreter named Vigilas, who for fifty pounds of gold had

promised to assassinate Attila. This base design was discovered by the

Hunnish king, but had never been revealed to the head of the embassy or

to his secretary. The situations created by this strange combination of

honest diplomacy and secret villainy are described by Priscus with real

dramatic power.

In 450 Theodosius II., the incapable emperor of the East, died, and his

throne was occupied by a veteran soldier named Marcian, who answered the

insulting message of Attila in a manlier tone than his predecessor.

Accordingly the Hun, who had something of the bully in his nature, now

turned upon Valentinian III., the trembling emperor of the West, and

demanded redress for the wrongs of Honoria, and one-half of

Valentinian's dominions as her dowry. Allying himself with the Franks

and Vandals, he led his vast many-nationed army to the Rhine in the

spring of 451, crossed that river, and sacked, apparently, most of the

cities in Belgic Gaul. Most fortunately for Europe, the Teutonic races

already settled in Gaul rallied to the defence of the empire against

invaders infinitely more barbarous than themselves. Prominent in this

new coalition was Theodoric, king of the Visigoths, whose capital city

was Toulouse. His firm fighting alliance with the Roman general Aetius,

with whom he had had many a conflict in previous years, was one of the

best auguries for the new Europe that was to arise out of the ruins of

the Roman empire. Meanwhile Attila had reached the Loire and was

besieging the strong city of Orleans. The citizens, under the leadership

of their bishop Anianus, made a heroic defence, but the place was on the

point of being taken when, on the 24th of June, the allied Romano-Gothic

army was seen on the horizon. Attila, who knew the difficulty that he

should have in feeding his immense army if his march was further

delayed, turned again to the north-east, was persuaded by the venerable

bishop Lupus to spare the city of Troyes, but halted near that place in

the Catalaunian plains and offered battle to his pursuers Aetius and

Theodoric. The battle which followed--certainly one of the decisive

battles of the world--has been well described by the Gothic historian

Jordanes as "ruthless, manifold, immense, obstinate." It lasted for the

whole day, and the number of the slain is variously stated at 175,000

and 300,000. All such estimates are, of course, untrustworthy, but there

is no doubt that the carnage was terrible. The Visigothic king was

slain, but the victory, though hardly earned, remained with his people

and his allies. Attila did not venture to renew the engagement on the

morrow, but retreated, apparently in good order, on the Rhine, recrossed

that river and returned to his Pannonian home. From thence in the spring

of 452 he again set forth to ravage or to conquer Italy. Her great

champion Aetius showed less energy in her cause than he had shown in his

defence of Gaul. After a stubborn contest, Attila took and utterly

destroyed Aquileia, the chief city of Venetia, and then proceeded on his

destructive course, capturing and burning the cities at the head of the

Adriatic, Concordia, Altinum and Patavium (Padua). The fugitives from

these cities, but especially from the last, seeking shelter in the

lagoons of the Adriatic, laid the foundations of that which was one day

to become the glorious city of Venice. Upon Milan and the cities of

western Lombardy the hand of Attila seems to have weighed more lightly,

plundering rather than utterly destroying; and at last when Pope Leo I.,

at the head of a deputation of Roman senators, appeared in his camp on

the banks of the Mincio, entreating him not to pursue his victorious

career to the gates of Rome, he yielded to their entreaties and

consented to cross the Alps, with a menace, however, of future return,

should the wrongs of Honoria remain unredressed. As he himself jokingly

said: he knew how to conquer men, but the Lion and the Wolf (Leo and

Lupus) were too strong for him. No further expeditions to Italy were

undertaken by Attila, who died suddenly in 453, in the night following a

great banquet which celebrated his marriage with a damsel named Ildico.

Notwithstanding some rumours of violence it is probable that his death

was natural and due to his own intemperate habits.

Under his name of Etzel, Attila plays a great part in Teutonic legend

(see NIBELUNGENLIED) and under that of Atli in Scandinavian Saga, but

his historic lineaments are greatly obscured in both. He was short of

stature, swarthy and broad-chested, with a large head which early turned

grey, snub nose and deep-set eyes. He walked with proud step, darting a

haughty glance this way and that as if he felt himself lord of all.

The chief authorities for the life of Attila are Priscus, Jordanes,

the _Historia Miscella_, Apollonius Sidonius and Gregory of Tours.

(T. H.)

ATTIS, or ATYS, a deity worshipped in Phrygia, and later throughout the

Roman empire, in conjunction with the Great Mother of the Gods. Like

Aphrodite and Adonis in Syria, Baal and Astarte at Sidon, and Isis and

Osiris in Egypt, the Great Mother and Attis formed a duality which

symbolized the relations between Mother Earth and her fruitage. Their

worship included the celebration of mysteries annually on the return of

the spring season. Attis was also known as Papas, and the Bithynians and

Phrygians, according to evidence of the time of the late Empire, called

him Zeus. He was never worshipped independently, however, though the

worship of the Great Mother was not always accompanied by his. He was

confused with Pan, Sabazios, Men and Adonis, and there were resemblances

between the orgiastic features of his worship and that of Dionysus. His

resemblance to Adonis has led to the theory that the names of the two

are identical, and that Attis is only the Semitic companion of Syrian

Aphrodite grafted on to the Phrygian Great Mother worship (Haakh,

_Stuttgarter-Philolog.-Vers._, 1857, 176 ff.). It is likely, however,

that Attis, like the Great Mother, was indigenous to Asia Minor, adopted

by the invading Phrygians, and blended by them with a deity of their

own.

_Legends._--According to Pausanias (vii. 17), Attis was a beautiful

youth born of the daughter of the river Sangarius, who was descended

from the hermaphroditic Agdistis, a monster sprung from the earth by the

seed of Zeus. Having become enamoured of Attis, Agdistis struck him with

frenzy as he was about to wed the king's daughter, with the result that

he deprived himself of manhood and died. Agdistis in repentance

prevailed upon Zeus to grant that the body of the youth should never

decay or waste. In Arnobius (v. 5-8) Attis emasculates himself under a

pine tree, which the Great Mother bears into her cave as she and

Agdistis together wildly lament the death of the youth. Zeus grants the

petition as in the version of Pausanias, but permits the hair of Attis

to grow, and his little finger to move. The little finger, _digitus_,

[Greek: daktylos], is interpreted as the phallus by Georg Kaibel

(_Gottinger Nachrichten_, 1901, p. 513). In Diodorus (in. 58, 59) the

Mother is the carnal lover of Attis, and, when her father the king

discovers her fault and kills her lover, roams the earth in wild grief.

In Ovid (_Fasti_, iv. 223 ff.) she is inspired with chaste love for him,

which he pledges himself to reciprocate. On his proving unfaithful, the

Great Mother slays the nymph with whom he has sinned, whereupon in

madness he mutilates himself as a penalty. Another form of the legend

(Paus. vii. 17), showing the influence of the Aphrodite-Adonis myth,

relates that Attis, the impotent son of the Phrygian Calaust Lydia to

institute the worship of the Great Mother, and was there slain by a boar

sent by Zeus.

See GREAT MOTHER OF THE GODS; J.G. Frazer, _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_

(1906). (G. Sn.)

ATTLEBOROUGH, a township of Bristol county, in south-east Massachusetts,

U.S.A. Pop. (1890) 7577; (1900) 11,335, of whom 3237 were foreign-born;

(1910 census) 16,215 It is traversed by the New York, New Haven &

Hartford railway, and by inter-urban electric lines. It has an area of

28 sq. m. The population is largely concentrated in and about the

village which bears the name of the township. In Attleborough are the

Attleborough Home Sanitarium, and a public library (1885). The principal

manufactures of the township are jewelry, silverware, cotton goods,

cotton machinery, coffin trimmings, and leather. In 1905 the total value

of the township's factory products was $10,050,384, of which $5,544,285

was the value of jewelry, Attleborough ranking fourth among the cities

of the country in this industry, and producing 10.4% of the total

jewelry product of the United States. Attleborough was incorporated in

1694, though settled soon after 1661 (records since 1672) as part of

Rehoboth. In 1887 the township was divided in population, wealth and

area by the creation of the township of NORTH ATTLEBOROUGH--pop. (1890)

6727; (1900) 7253, of whom 1786 were foreign-born; (1905, state census)

7878. This township produced manufactured goods in 1900 to the value of

$3,990,731, jewelry valued at $2,785,567; it maintains the Richards

memorial library.

See J. Daggett, _A Sketch of the History of Attleborough to 1887_

(Boston, 1894).

ATTOCK, a town and fort of British India, in the Rawalpindi district of

the Punjab, 47 m. by rail from Peshawar, and situated on the eastern

bank of the Indus. Pop. (1901) 2822. The place is of both political and

commercial importance, as the Indus is here crossed by the military and

trade route through the Khyber Pass into Afghanistan. Alexander the

Great, Tamerlane and Nadir Shah are believed to have successively

crossed the Indus at or about this spot in their respective invasions of

India. The river runs past Attock in a deep rapid channel about 200 yds.

broad, but is easily crossed in boats or on inflated skins of oxen. The

rocky gorges through which it flows, with a distant view of the Hindu

Kush, form some of the finest scenery in the world. In 1883 an iron

girder bridge of five spans was opened, which carries the North-Western

railway to Peshawar, and has also a subway for wheeled traffic and foot

passengers. The fort of Attock was built by the emperor Akbar in 1581,

on a low hillock beside the river. The walls are of polished stone, and

the whole structure is handsome; but from a military point of view it is

of little importance, being commanded by a hill, from which it is

divided only by a ravine. On the opposite side of the river is the

village of Khairabad, with a fort, also erected by Akbar according to

some, or by Nadir Shah according to others. The military importance of

Attock has diminished, but it still has a small detachment of British

troops.

ATTORNEY (from O. Fr. _atorne_ a person appointed to act for another,

from _atourner_, legal Lat. _attornare_, attorn, literally to turn over

to another or commit business to another), in English law, in its widest

sense, any substitute or agent appointed to act in "the turn, stead or

place of another." Attorneys are of two kinds, attorneys-in-fact and

attorneys-at-law. An attorney-in-fact is simply an agent, the extent of

whose capacity to act is bounded only by the powers embodied in his

authority, his _power of attorney_. An attorney-at-law was a public

officer, conducting legal proceedings on behalf of others, known as his

clients, and attached to the supreme courts of common law at

Westminster. Attorneys-at-law corresponded to the solicitors of the

courts of chancery and the proctors of the admiralty, ecclesiastical,

probate and divorce courts. Since the passing of the Judicature Act of

1873, however, the designation "attorney" has become obsolete in

England, all persons admitted as solicitors, attorneys or proctors of

an English court being henceforth called "solicitors of the supreme

court" (see SOLICITOR).

In the United States an attorney-at-law exercises all the functions

distributed in England between barristers, attorneys and solicitors, and

his full title is "attorney and counsellor-at-law." When acting in a

court of admiralty he is styled "proctor" or "advocate." Formerly, in

some states, there existed a grade among lawyers of attorneys-at-law,

which was inferior to that of counsellors-at-law, and in colonial times

New Jersey established a higher rank still--that of serjeant-at-law. Now

the term attorney-at-law is precisely equivalent to that of lawyer.

Attorneys are admitted by some court to which the legislature confides

the power, and on examination prescribed by the court, or by a board of

state examiners, as the case may be. The term of study required is

generally two or three years, but in some states less. In one no

examination is required. College graduates are often admitted to

examination after a shorter term of study than that required from those

not so educated. In the courts of the United States, admission is

regulated by rules of court and based upon a previous admission to the

state bar. In almost all states aliens are not admitted as attorneys,

and in many states women are ineligible, but during recent years several

states have passed statutes permitting them to practise. Since 1879

women have been eligible to practise before the U.S. Supreme Court, if

already admitted to practise in some state court, under the same

conditions as men. A _state attorney_ or _district attorney_ is the

local public prosecutor. He is either elected by popular vote at the

state elections for the district in which he resides and goes out of

office with the political party for which he was elected, or he is

appointed by the governor of the state for that district and for the

same term. He represents the state in criminal prosecutions and also in

civil actions within his district. There is a _United States district

attorney_ in each federal district, similarly representing the federal

government before the courts.

An attorney is an officer of the court which admits him to practise, and

he is subject to its discipline. He is liable to his client in damages

for failure to exercise ordinary care and skill, and he can bring action

for the value of his services. He has a lien on his client's papers, and

usually on any judgment in favour of his client to secure the payment of

his fees. (See also under BAR, THE.)

ATTORNEY-GENERAL, in England, the chief law officer appointed to manage

all the legal affairs and suits in which the crown is interested. He is

appointed by letters-patent authorizing him to hold office during the

sovereign's pleasure. He is _ex officio_ the leader of the bar, and only

counsel of the highest eminence are appointed to the office. The origin

of the office is uncertain, but as far back as 1277 we find an

_attornatus regis_ appointed to look after the interests of the crown,

in proceedings affecting it before the courts. He has precedence in all

the courts, and in the House of Lords he has precedence of the lord

advocate, even in Scottish appeals, but unlike the lord advocate and the

Irish attorney-general he is not necessarily made a privy councillor. He

is a necessary party to all proceedings affecting the crown, and has

extensive powers of control in matters relating to charities, lunatics'

estates, criminal prosecutions, &c. The attorney-general and the

solicitor-general are always members of the House of Commons (except for

temporary difficulties in obtaining a seat) and of the ministry, being

selected from the party in power, and their advice is at the disposal of

the government and of each department of the government, while in the

House of Commons they defend the legality of ministerial action if

called in question. Previously to 1895 there was no restriction placed

on the law officers as to their acceptance of private practice, but

since that date this privilege has been withdrawn, and the salary of the

attorney-general is fixed at L7000 a year and in addition such fees

according to the ordinary professional scales as he may receive for any

litigious business he may conduct on behalf of the crown. The crown has

also as a legal adviser an attorney-general in Ireland. In Scotland he

is called lord advocate (q.v.). There is also an attorney-general in

almost all the British colonies, and his duties are very similar to

those of the same officer in England. In the self-governing colonies he

is appointed by the administration of the colony, and in the crown

colonies by royal warrant under the signet and sign-manual. There is an

attorney-general for the duchy of Cornwall and also one for the duchy of

Lancaster, each of whom sues in matters relating to that duchy.

The United States has an officer of this name, who has a seat in the

cabinet. His duties are in general to represent the federal government

before the United States Supreme Court, to advise the president on

questions of law, and to advise similarly the heads of the state

departments with reference to matters affecting their department. His

opinions are published by the government periodically for the use of its

officials and they are frequently cited by the courts. Every state but

one or two has a similar officer. He represents the state in important

legal matters, and is often required to assist the local prosecutor in

trials for capital offences. He appears for the public interest in suits

affecting public charities. He is generally elected by the people for

the same term as the governor and on the same ticket.

ATTORNMENT (from Fr. _tourner_, to turn), in English real property law,

the acknowledgment of a new lord by the tenant on the alienation of

land. Under the feudal system, the relations of landlord and tenant were

to a certain extent reciprocal. So it was considered unreasonable to the

tenant to subject him to a new lord without his own approval, and it

thus came about that alienation could not take place without the consent

of the tenant. Attornment was also extended to all cases of lessees for

life or for years. The necessity for attornment was abolished by an act

of 1705. The term is now used to indicate an acknowledgment of the

existence of the relationship of landlord and tenant. An

attornment-clause, in mortgages, is a clause whereby the mortgagor

attorns tenant to the mortgagee, thus giving the mortgagee the right to

distrain, as an additional security.

ATTRITION (Lat. _attritio_, formed from _atterere_, to rub away), a

rubbing away; a term used in pathology and geology. Theologians have

also distinguished "attrition" from "contrition" in the matter of sin,

as an imperfect stage in the process of repentance; attrition being due

to servile fear of the consequences of sin, contrition to filial fear of

God and hatred of sin for His sake. It has been held among the Roman

Catholics that in the sacrament of penance attrition becomes contrition.

ATTWOOD, THOMAS (1765-1838), English composer, the son of a coal

merchant who had musical tastes, was born in London on the 23rd of

November 1765. At the age of nine he became a chorister in the Chapel

Royal, where he remained for five years. In 1783 he was sent to study

abroad at the expense of the prince of Wales (afterwards George IV.),

who had been favourably impressed by his skill at the harpsichord. After

spending two years at Naples, Attwood proceeded to Vienna, where he

became a favourite pupil of Mozart. On his return to London in 1787 he

held for a short time an appointment as one of the chamber musicians to

the prince of Wales. In 1796 he was chosen organist of St Paul's, and in

the same year he was made composer to the Chapel Royal. His court

connexion was further confirmed by his appointment as musical instructor

to the duchess of York, and afterwards to the princess of Wales. For the

coronation of George IV. he composed the anthem, "The King shall

rejoice," a work of high merit. The king, who had neglected him for some

years on account of his connexion with the princess of Wales, now

restored him to favour, and in 1821 appointed him organist to his

private chapel at Brighton. Soon after the institution of the Royal

Academy of Music in 1823, Attwood was chosen one of the professors. He

was also one of the original members of the Philharmonic Society,

founded in 1813. He wrote the anthem, "O Lord, grant the King a Long

Life," which was performed at the coronation of William IV., and he was

composing a similar work for the coronation of Queen Victoria when he

died at his house in Cheyne Walk, Chelsea, on the 24th of March 1838. He

was buried under the organ in St Paul's cathedral. His services and

anthems were published in a collected form after his death by his pupil

Walmisley. Of his secular compositions several songs and glees are well

known and popular. The numerous operas which he composed in early life

are now practically forgotten. Of his songs the most popular was "The

Soldier's Dream," and the best of his glees were "In peace Love tunes

the shepherd's reed," and "To all that breathe the air of Heaven."

Attwood was a friend of Mendelssohn, for whom he professed an admiration

at a time when the young German's talent was little appreciated by the

majority of English musicians.

ATTWOOD, THOMAS (1783-1856), English political reformer, was born at

Halesowen, Worcestershire, on the 6th of October 1783. In 1800 he

entered his father's banking business in Birmingham, where he was

elected high bailiff in 1811. He took a leading part in the public life

of the city, and became very popular with the artisan class. He is now

remembered for his share in the movement which led to the carrying of

the Reform Act of 1832. He was one of the founders, in January 1830, of

the Political Union, branches of which were soon formed throughout

England. Under his leadership vast crowds of working-men met

periodically in the neighbourhood of Birmingham to demonstrate in favour

of reform of the franchise, and Attwood used his power over the

multitude to repress any action on their part which might savour of

illegality. His successful exertions in favour of reform made him a

popular hero all over the country, and he was presented with the freedom

of the city of London. After the passing of the Reform Act in 1832 he

was elected one of the members for the new borough of Birmingham, for

which he sat till 1839. He failed in the House of Commons to maintain

the reputation which he had made outside it, for in addition to an eager

partisanship in favour of every ultra-democratic movement, he was

wearisomely persistent in advocating his peculiar monetary theory. This

theory, which became with him a monomania, was that the existing

currency should be rectified in favour of state-regulated and

inconvertible paper-money, and the adoption of a system for altering the

standard of value as prices fluctuated. His waning influence with his

constituents led him to retire from parliament in 1837, and, though

invited to re-enter political life in 1843, he had by that time become a

thoroughly spent force. He died at Great Malvern on the 6th of March

1856.

His grandson, C.M. Wakefield, wrote his life "for private circulation"

(there is a copy in the British Museum), and his economic theories are

set forth in a little book, _Gemini_, by T.B. Wright and J. Harlow,

published in 1844.

ATWOOD, GEORGE (1746-1807), English mathematician, was born in the early

part of the year 1746. He entered Westminster school, and in 1759 was

elected to a scholarship at Trinity College, Cambridge. He graduated in

1769, with the rank of third wrangler and first Smith's prizeman.

Subsequently he became a fellow and a tutor of the college, and in 1776

was elected a fellow of the Royal Society of London. In the year 1784 he

left Cambridge, and soon afterwards received from William Pitt the

office of a patent searcher of the customs, which required but little

attendance, and enabled him to devote a considerable portion of his time

to his special studies. He died in July 1807. Atwood's published works,

exclusive of papers contributed to the _Philosophical Transactions_, for

one of which he obtained the Copley medal, are as follows:--_Analysis of

a Course of Lectures on the Principles of Natural Philosophy_

(Cambridge, 1784); _Treatise on the Rectilinear Motion and Rotation of

Bodies_ (Cambridge, 1784), which gives some interesting experiments, by

means of which mechanical truths can be ocularly exhibited and

demonstrated, and describes the machine, since called by Atwood's name,

for verifying experimentally the laws of simple acceleration of motion;

_Review of the Statutes and Ordinances of Assize which have been

established in England from the 4th year of King John, 1202, to the 37th

of his present Majesty_ (London, 1801), a work of some historical

research; _Dissertation on the Construction and Properties of Arches_

(London, 1801), with supplement, pt. i., 1801, pt. ii., 1804, an

elaborate work, now completely superseded.

AUBADE (a French word from _aube_, the dawn), the dawn-song of the

troubadours of Provence, developed by the Minnesingers (q.v.) of Germany

into the _Tagelied_, the song of the parting at dawn of lovers at the

warning of the watchman. In France in modern times the term is applied

to the performance of a military band in the early morning in honour of

some distinguished person.

AUBAGNE, a town of south-eastern France, in the department of

Bouches-du-Rhone on the Huveaune, 11 m. E. of Marseilles by rail. Pop.

(1906) 6039. The town carries on the manufacture of earthenware and

pottery, leather, &c. and the cultivation of fruit and wine. There is a

fountain to the memory of the statesman, F. Barthelemy (d. 1830), born

at Aubagne.

AUBE, a department of north-eastern France, bounded N. by the department

of Marne, N.W. by Seine-et-Marne, W. by Yonne, S. by Yonne and

Cote-d'Or, and E. by Haute-Marne; it was formed in 1790 from

Basse-Champagne, and a small portion of Burgundy. Area, 2326 sq. m. Pop.

(1906) 243,670. The department belongs to the Seine basin, and is

watered chiefly by the Seine and the Aube. These rivers follow the

general slope of the department, which is from south-east, where the

Bois du Mont (1200 ft.), the highest point, is situated, to north-west.

The southern and eastern districts are fertile and well wooded. The

remainder of the department, with the exception of a more broken and

picturesque district in the extreme north-west, forms part of the

sterile and monotonous plain known as Champagne Pouilleuse. The climate

is mild but damp. The annual rainfall over the greater part varies from

24 to 28 in.; but in the extreme south-east it at times reaches a height

of 36 in. Aube is an agricultural department; more than one third of its

surface consists of arable land of which the chief products are wheat

and oats, and next to them rye, barley and potatoes; vegetables are

extensively cultivated in the valleys of the Seine and the Aube. The

vine flourishes chiefly on the hills of the south-east; the wines of Les

Riceys, Bar-sur-Aube, Bouilly and Laines-aux-Bois are most esteemed. The

river valleys abound in natural pasture, and sainfoin, lucerne and other

forage crops are largely grown; cattle-raising is an important source of

wealth, and the cheeses of Troyes are well known. There are excellent

nurseries and orchards in the neighbourhood of Troyes, Bar-sur-Seine,

Mery-sur-Seine and Brienne. Chalk, from which _blanc de Troyes_ is

manufactured, and clay are abundant; and there are peat workings and

quarries of building-stone and limestone. The spinning and weaving of

cotton and the manufacture of hosiery, of both of which Troyes is the

centre, are the main industries of the department; there are also a

large number of distilleries, tanneries, oil works, tile and brick

works, flour-mills, saw-mills and dye-works. The Eastern railway has

works at Romilly, and there are iron works at Clairvaux and wire-drawing

works at Plaines; but owing to the absence of coal and iron mines, metal

working is of small importance. The exports of Aube consist of timber,

cereals, agricultural products, hosiery, wine, dressed pork, &c.; its

imports include wool and raw cotton, coal and machinery, especially

looms. The department is served by the Eastern railway, of which the

main line to Belfort crosses it. The river Aube is navigable for 28 m.

(from Arcis-sur-Aube to its confluence with the Seine); the Canal de la

Haute-Seine extends beside the Seine from Bar-sur-Seine to Marcilly

(just outside the department) a distance of 46 m.; below Marcilly the

Seine is canalized.

Aube is divided into 5 arrondissements with 26 cantons and 446 communes.

It falls within the educational circumscription (_academie_) of Dijon

and the military circumscription of the XX. army corps; its court of

appeal is in Paris. It constitutes the diocese of Troyes and part of the

archiepiscopal province of Sens. The capital of the department is

Troyes; of the arrondissements the capitals are Troyes, Bar-sur-Aube,

Arcis-sur-Aube, Bar-sur-Seine and Nogent-sur-Seine. The architecture of

the department is chiefly displayed in its churches, many of which

possess stained glass of the 16th century. Besides the cathedral and

other churches of Troyes, those of Mussy-sur-Seine (13th century),

Chaource (16th century) and Nogent-sur-Seine (15th and 16th centuries),

are of note. The abbey buildings of Clairvaux are the type of the

Cistercian abbey.

AUBENAS, a town of south-eastern France, in the department of Ardeche,

19 m. S.W. of Privas by road. Pop. (1906) 3976 (town), 7064 (commune).

Aubenas is beautifully situated on the slope of a hill, on the right

bank of the Ardeche, but its streets generally are crooked and narrow.

It has a castle of the 13th and 16th centuries, now occupied by several

of the public institutions of the town. These include a tribunal and

chamber of commerce, and a conditioning-house for silk. Iron and coal

mines are worked in the vicinity. As the centre of the silk trade of

southern France Aubenas is a place of considerable traffic. It has also

a large silk spinning and weaving industry, and carries on tanning and

various minor industries together with trade in silk. The district is

rich in plantations of mulberries and olives.

AUBER, DANIEL FRANCOIS ESPRIT (1782-1871), French musical composer, the

son of a Paris printseller, was born at Caen in Normandy on the 29th of

January 1782. Destined by his father to the pursuits of trade, he was

allowed, nevertheless, to indulge his fondness for music, and learnt to

play at an early age on several instruments, his first teacher being the

Tirolean composer, I.A. Ladurner. Sent at the age of twenty to London to

complete his business training, he was obliged to leave England in

consequence of the breach of the treaty of Amiens (1804). He had already

attempted musical composition, and at this period produced several

_concertos pour basse_, in the manner of the violoncellist, Lamarre, in

whose name they were published. The praise given to his concerto for the

violin, which was played at the Conservatoire by Mazas, encouraged him

to undertake the resetting of the old comic opera, _Julie_ (1811).

Conscious by this time of the need of regular study of his chosen art,

he placed himself under the severe training of Cherubini, by which the

special qualities of the young composer were admirably developed. In

1813 he made his _debut_ in an opera in one act, the _Sejour militaire_,

the unfavourable reception of which put an end for some years to his

attempts as composer. But the failure in business and death of his

father, in 1819, compelled him once more to turn to music, and to make

that which had been his pastime the serious employment of his life. He

produced another opera, the _Testament et les billets-deux_ (1819),

which was no better received than the former. But he persevered, and the

next year was rewarded by the complete success of his _Bergere

chatelaine_, an opera in three acts. This was the first in a long series

of brilliant successes. In 1822 began his long association with A.E.

Scribe, who shared with him, as librettist, the success and growing

popularity of his compositions. The opera of _Leicester_, in which they

first worked together (1823), is remarkable also as showing evidences of

the influence of Rossini. But his own style was an individual one,

marked by lightness and facility, sparkling vivacity, grace and

elegance, clear and piquant melody--characteristically French. In _La

Muette de Portici_, familiarly known as _Masaniello_, Auber achieved his

greatest musical triumph. Produced at Paris in 1828, it rapidly became a

European favourite, and its overture, songs and choruses were everywhere

heard. The duet, "Amour sacre de la patrie," was welcomed like a new

_Marseillaise_; sung by Nourrit at Brussels in 1830, it became the

signal for the revolution which broke out there. Of Auber's remaining

operas (about 50 in all) the more important are: _Le Macon_ (1825), _La

Fiancee_ (1829), _Fra Diavolo_ (1830), _Lestocq_ (1834), _Le Cheval de

bronze_ (1835), _L'Ambassadrice_ (1836), _Le Domino noir_ (1837), _Le

Lac des fees_ (1839), _Les Diamants de la couronne_ (1841), _Haydee_

(1847), _Marco Spada_ (1853), _Manon Lescaut_ (1856), and _La Fiancee du

roi des Garbes_ (1864). Official and other dignities testified the

public appreciation of Auber's works. In 1829 he was elected member of

the Institute, in 1830 he was named director of the court concerts, and

in 1842, at the wish of Louis Philippe, he succeeded Cherubini as

director of the Conservatoire. He was also a member of the Legion of

Honour from 1825, and attained the rank of commander in 1847. Napoleon

III. made Auber his Imperial Maitre de Chapelle in 1857.

One of Auber's latest compositions was a march, written for the opening

of the International Exhibition in London in 1862. His fascinating

manners, his witty sayings, and his ever-ready kindness and beneficence

won for him a secure place in the respect and love of his

fellow-citizens. He remained in his old home during the German siege of

Paris, 1870-71, but the miseries of the Communist war which followed

sickened his heart, and he died in Paris on the 13th of May 1871.

See Adolph Kohut, "Auber," vol. xvii. of _Musiker Biographien_

(Leipzig, 1895).

AUBERGINE (diminutive of Fr. _auberge_, a variant of _alberge_, a kind

of peach), or EGG PLANT (_Solanum melongena_, var. _ovigerum_), a tender

annual widely cultivated in the warmer parts of the earth, and in France

and Italy, for the sake of its fruits, which are eaten as a vegetable.

The seed should be sown early in February in a warm pit, where the

plants are grown till shifted into 8-in. or 10-in. pots, in well-manured

soil. Liquid manure should be given occasionally while the fruit is

swelling; about four fruits are sufficient for one plant. The French

growers sow them in a brisk heat in December, or early in January, and

in March plant them out four or eight in a hot-bed with a bottom heat of

from 60 deg. to 68 deg., the sashes being gradually more widely opened

as the season advances, until at about the end of May they may be taken

off. The two main branches which are allowed are pinched to induce

laterals, but when the fruits are set all young shoots are taken off in

order to increase their size. The best variety is the large purple,

which produces oblong fruit, sometimes reaching 6 or 7 in. in length and

10 or 12 in. in circumference. The fruit of the ordinary form almost

exactly resembles the egg of the domestic fowl. It is also grown as an

ornamental plant, for covering walls or trellises; especially the

black-fruited kind.

AUBERVILLIERS, or AUBERVILLIERS-LES-VERTUS, a town of northern France,

in the department of Seine, on the canal St Denis, 2 m. from the right

bank of the Seine and 1 m. N. of the fortifications of Paris. Pop.

(1906) 33,358. Its manufactures include cardboard, glue, oils, colours,

fertilizers, chemical products, perfumery, &c. During the middle ages

and till modern times Aubervilliers was the resort of numerous pilgrims,

who came to pay honour to Notre Dame des Vertus. In 1814 the locality

was the scene of a stubborn combat between the French and the Allies.

AUBIGNAC, FRANCOIS HEDELIN, ABBE D' (1604-1676), French author, was born

at Paris on the 4th of August 1604. His father practised at the Paris

bar, and his mother was a daughter of the great surgeon Ambroise Pare.

Francois Hedelin was educated for his father's profession, but, after

practising for some time at Nemours he abandoned law, took holy orders,

and was appointed tutor to one of Richelieu's nephews, the duc de

Fronsac. This patronage secured for him the abbey of Aubignac and of

Mainac. The death of the duc de Fronsac in 1646 put an end to hopes of

further preferment, and the Abbe d'Aubignac retired to Nemours,

occupying himself with literature till his death on the 25th of July

1676. He took an energetic share in the literary controversies of his

time. Against Gilles Menage he wrote a _Terence justifie_ (1656); he

laid claim to having originated the idea of the "_Carte de tendre_" of

Mlle de Scudery's _Clelie_; and after being a professed admirer of

Corneille he turned against him because he had neglected to mention the

abbe in his _Discours sur le poeme dramatique_. He was the author of

four tragedies: _La Cyminde_ (1642), _La Pucelle d'Orleans_ (1642),

_Zenobie_ (1647) and _Le Martyre de Sainte Catherine_ (1650). _Zenobie_

was written with the intention of affording a model in which the strict

rules of the drama, as understood by the theorists, were observed. In

the choice of subjects for his plays, he seems to have been guided by a

desire to illustrate the various kinds of tragedy--patriotic, antique

and religious. The dramatic authors whom he was in the habit of

criticizing were not slow to take advantage of the opportunity for

retaliation offered by the production of these mediocre plays. It is as

a theorist that D'Aubignac still arrests attention. It has been proved

that to Jean Chapelain belongs the credit of having been the first to

establish as a practical law the convention of the unities that plays

so large a part in the history of the French stage; but the laws of

dramatic method and construction generally were codified by d'Aubignac

in his _Pratique du theatre._ The book was only published in 1657, but

had been begun at the desire of Richelieu as early as 1640. His

_Conjectures academiques sur l'Iliade d'Homere_, which was not published

until nearly forty years after his death, threw doubts on the existence

of Homer, and anticipated in some sense the conclusions of Friedrich

August Wolf in his _Prolegomena ad Homerum_ (1795).

The contents of the _Pratique du theatre_ are summarized by F.

Brunetiere in his notice of Aubignac in the _Grande Encydopedie._ See

also G. Saintsbury, _Hist. of Criticism_, bk. v., and H. Rigault,

_Hist. de la querelle des anciens et modernes._ (1859).

AUBIGNE, CONSTANT D' [BARON DE SURINEAU] (c. 1584-1647), French

adventurer, was the son of Theodore Agrippa d'Aubigne, and the father of

Madame de Maintenon. Born a Protestant, he became by turns Catholic or

Protestant as it suited his interests. He betrayed the Protestants in

1626, revealing to the court, after a voyage to England, the projects of

the English upon La Rochelle. He was renounced by his father; then

imprisoned by Richelieu's orders at Niort, where he was detained ten

years. After having tried his fortunes in the Antilles, he died in

Provence, leaving in destitution his wife, Jeanne de Cardillac, whom he

had married in 1627. He had two children, Charles, father of the duchess

of Noailles, and Francoise, known in history as Madame de Maintenon.

See T. Lavallee, _La Famille d'Aubigne et l'enfance de Madame de

Maintenon_ (Paris, 1863).

AUBIGNE, JEAN HENRI MERLE D' (1794-1872), Swiss Protestant divine and

historian, was born on the 16th of August 1794, at Eaux Vives, near

Geneva. The ancestors of his father, Aime Robert Merle d'Aubigne

(1755-1799), were French Protestant refugees. Jean Henri was destined by

his parents to a commercial life; but at college he decided to be

ordained. He was profoundly influenced by Robert Haldane, the Scottish

missionary and preacher who visited Geneva. When in 1817 he went abroad

to further his education, Germany was about to celebrate the

tercentenary of the Reformation; and thus early he conceived the

ambition to write the history of that great epoch. At Berlin he received

stimulus from teachers so unlike as J.A.W. Neander and W.M.L. de Wette.

After presiding for five years over the French Protestant church at

Hamburg, he was, in 1823, called to become pastor of a congregation in

Brussels and preacher to the court. He became also president of the

consistory of the French and German Protestant churches. At the Belgian

revolution of 1830 he thought it advisable to undertake pastoral work at

home rather than to accept an educational post in the family of the

Dutch king. The Evangelical Society had been founded with the idea of

promoting evangelical Christianity in Geneva and elsewhere, but it was

found that there was also needed a theological school for the training

of pastors. On his return to Switzerland, d'Aubigne was invited to

become professor of church history in an institution of the kind, and

continued to labour in the cause of evangelical Protestantism. In him

the Evangelical Alliance found a hearty promoter. He frequently visited

England, was made a D.C.L. by Oxford University, and received civic

honours from the city of Edinburgh. He died suddenly in 1872.

His principal works are--_Discours sur l'etude de l'histoire de

Christianisme_ (Geneva, 1832); _Le Lutheranisme et la Reforme_ (Paris,

1844); _Germany, England and Scotland, or Recollections of a Swiss

Pastor_ (London, 1848); _Trois siecles de lutte en Ecosse, ou deux rois

et deux royaumes; Le Protecteur ou la republique d'Angleterre aux jours

de Cromwell_ (Paris, 1848); _Le Concile et l'infaillibilile_ (1870);

_Histoire de la Reformation au XVI^ieme siecle_ (Paris, 1835-1853; new

ed:, 1861-1862, in 5 vols.); and _Histoire de la Reformation en Europe

au temps de Calvin_ (8 vols., 1862-1877).

The first portion of his _Histoire de la Reformation_, which was devoted

to the earlier period of the movement in Germany, gave him at once a

foremost place amongst modern French ecclesiastical historians, and was

translated into most European tongues. The second portion, dealing with

reform in the time of Calvin, was not less thorough, and had a subject

hitherto less exhaustively treated, but it did not meet with the same

success. This part of the subject, with which he was most competent to

deal, was all but completed at the time of his death. Among his minor

treatises, the most important are the vindication of the character and

aims of Oliver Cromwell, and the sketch of the contendings of the Church

of Scotland.

Indefatigable in sifting original documents, Aubigne had amassed a

wealth of authentic information; but his desire to give in all cases a

full and graphic picture, assisted by a vivid imagination, betrayed him

into excess of detail concerning minor events, and in a few cases into

filling up a narrative by inference from later conditions. Moreover, in

his profound sympathy with the Reformers, he too frequently becomes

their apologist. But his work is a monument of painstaking sincerity,

and brings us into direct contact with the spirit of the period.

AUBIGNE, THEODORE AGRIPPA D' (1552-1630), French poet and historian, was

born at St Maury, near Pons, in Saintonge, on the 8th of February 1552.

His name Agrippa (_aegre partus_) was given him through his mother dying

in childbirth. In his childhood he showed a great aptitude for

languages; according to his own account he knew Latin, Greek and Hebrew

at six years of age; and he had translated the _Crito_ of Plato before

he was eleven. His father, a Huguenot who had been one of the

conspirators of Amboise, strengthened his Protestant sympathies by

showing him, while they were passing through that town on their way to

Paris, the heads of the conspirators exposed upon the scaffold, and

adjuring him not to spare his own head in order to avenge their death.

After a brief residence he was obliged to flee from Paris to avoid

persecution, but was captured and threatened with death. Escaping

through the intervention of a friend, he went to Montargis. In his

fourteenth year he was present at the siege of Orleans, at which his

father was killed. His guardian sent him to Geneva, where he studied for

a considerable time under the direction of Beza. In 1567 he made his

escape from tutelage, and attached himself to the Huguenot army under

the prince of Conde. Subsequently he joined Henry of Navarre, whom he

succeeded in withdrawing from the corrupting influence of the house of

Valois (1576), and to whom he rendered valuable service, both as a

soldier and as a counsellor, in the wars that issued in his elevation to

the throne as Henry IV. After a furious battle at Casteljaloux, and

suffering from fever from his wounds, he wrote his _Tragiques_ (1571).

He was in the battle of Coutras (1587), and at the siege of Paris

(1590). His career at camp and court, however, was a somewhat chequered

one, owing to the roughness of his manner and the keenness of his

criticisms, which made him many enemies and severely tried the king's

patience. In his _tragedie-ballet Circe_ (1576) he did not hesitate to

indulge in the most outspoken sarcasm against the king and other members

of the royal family. Though he more than once found it expedient to

retire into private life he never entirely lost the favour of Henry, who

made him governor of Maillezais. After the conversion of the king to

Roman Catholicism, d'Aubigne remained true to the Huguenot cause, and a

fearless advocate of the Huguenot interests. The first two volumes of

the work by which he is best known, his _Histoire universelle depuis

1550 jusqu'a l'an 1601_, appeared in 1616 and 1618 respectively. The

third volume was published in 1619, but, being still more free and

personal in its satire than those which had preceded it, it was

immediately ordered to be burned by the common hangman. The work is a

lively chronicle of the incidents of camp and court life, and forms a

very valuable source for the history of France during the period it

embraces. In September 1620 its author was compelled to take refuge in

Geneva, where he found a secure retreat for the last ten years of his

life, though the hatred of the French court showed itself in procuring a

sentence of death to be recorded against him more than once. He devoted

the period of his exile to study, and the superintendence of works for

the fortifications of Bern and Basel which were designed as a material

defence of the cause of Protestantism. He died at Geneva on the 29th of

April 1630.

A complete edition of his works according to the original MSS. was

begun by E. Reaume and F. de Caussade (1879). It contains all the

literary works, the _Aventures du baron de Faeneste_ (1617), and the

_Memoires_ (6 vols., 1873-1892). The best edition of the _Histoire

universelle_ is by A. de Ruble. The _Memoires_ were edited by L.

Lalanne (1854).

AUBIN, a town of southern France, in the department of Aveyron on the

Enne, 30 m. N.W. of Rodez. In 1906 the urban population was 2229, the

communal population 9986. Aubin is the centre of important coal-mines

worked in the middle ages, and also has iron-mines, the product of which

supplies iron works close to the town. Sheep-breeding is important in

the vicinity. The church dates from the 12th century.

AUBREY, JOHN (1626-1697), English antiquary, was born at Easton Pierse

or Percy, near Malmesbury, Wiltshire, on the 12th of March 1626, his

father being a country gentleman of considerable fortune. He was

educated at the Malmesbury grammar school under Robert Latimer, who had

numbered Thomas Hobbes among his earlier pupils, and at his

schoolmaster's house Aubrey first met the philosopher about whom he was

to leave so many curious and interesting details. He entered Trinity

College, Oxford, in 1642, but his studies were interrupted by the Civil

War. In 1646 he became a student of the Middle Temple, but was never

called to the bar. He spent much of his time in the country, and in 1649

he brought into notice the megalithic remains at Avebury. His father

died in 1652, leaving to Aubrey large estates, and with them,

unfortunately, complicated lawsuits. Aubrey, however, lived gaily, and

used his means to gratify his passion for the company of celebrities and

for every sort of knowledge to be gleaned about them. Anthony a Wood

prophesied that he would one day break his neck while running downstairs

after a retreating guest, in the hope of extracting a story from him. He

took no active share in the political troubles of the time, but from his

description of a meeting of the Rota Club, founded by James Harrington,

the author of _Oceana_, he appears to have been a theorizing republican.

His reminiscences on this subject date from the Restoration, and are

probably softened by considerations of expediency. In 1663 he became a

member of the Royal Society, and in the next year he met Joan Somner,

"in an ill hour," he tells us. This connexion did not end in marriage,

and a lawsuit with the lady complicated his already embarrassed affairs.

He lost estate after estate, until in 1670 he parted with his last piece

of property, Easton Pierse. From this time he was dependent on the

hospitality of his numerous friends. In 1667 he had made the

acquaintance of Anthony a Wood at Oxford, and when Wood began to gather

materials for his invaluable _Athenae Oxonienses_, Aubrey offered to

collect information for him. From time to time he forwarded memoranda to

him, and in 1680 he began to promise the "Minutes for Lives," which Wood

was to use at his discretion. He left the task of verification largely

to Wood. As a hanger-on in great houses he had little time for

systematic work, and he wrote the "Lives" in the early morning while his

hosts were sleeping off the effects of the dissipation of the night

before. He constantly leaves blanks for dates and facts, and many

queries. He made no attempt at a fair copy, and, when fresh information

occurred to him, inserted it at random. He made some distinction between

hearsay and authentic information, but had no pretence to accuracy, his

retentive memory being the chief authority. The principal charm of his

"Minutes" lies in the amusing details he has to recount about his

personages, and in the plainness and truthfulness that he permits

himself in face of established reputations. In 1592 he complained

bitterly that Wood had destroyed forty pages of his MS., probably

because of the dangerous freedom of Aubrey's pen. Wood Was prosecuted

eventually for insinuations against the judicial integrity of the earl

of Clarendon. One of the two statements called in question was certainly

founded on information provided by Aubrey. This perhaps explains the

estrangement between the two antiquaries and the ungrateful account that

Wood gives of the elder man's character. "He was a shiftless person,

roving and magotic-headed, and sometimes little better than crased. And

being exceedingly credulous, would stuff his many letters sent to A.W.

with follies and misinformations, which sometimes would guide him into

the paths of error."[1] In 1673 Aubrey began his "Perambulation" or

"Survey" of the county of Surrey, which was the result of many years'

labour in collecting inscriptions and traditions in the country. He

began a "History of his Native District of Northern Wiltshire," but,

feeling that he was too old to finish it as he would wish, he made over

his material, about 1695, to Thomas Tanner, afterwards bishop of St

Asaph. In the next year he published his only completed, though

certainly not his most valuable work, the _Miscellanies_, a collection

of stories on ghosts and dreams. He died at Oxford in June 1697, and was

buried in the church of St Mary Magdalene.

Beside the works already mentioned, his papers included:

"Architectonica Sacra," notes on ecclesiastical antiquities; and "Life

of Thomas Hobbes of Malmesbury," which served as the basis of Dr

Blackburn's Latin life, and also of Wood's account. His survey of

Surrey was incorporated in R. Rawlinson's _Natural History and

Antiquities of Surrey_ (1719); his antiquarian notes on Wiltshire were

printed in _Wiltshire; the Topographical Collections of John Aubrey_,

corrected and enlarged by J.E. Jackson (Devizes, 1862); part of

another MS. on "The Natural History of Wiltshire" was printed by John

Britton in 1847 for the Wiltshire Topographical Society; the

_Miscellanies_ were edited in 1890 for the _Library of Old Authors_;

the "Minutes for Lives" were partially edited in 1813. A complete

transcript, _Brief Lives chiefly of Contemporaries set down by John

Aubrey between the Years 1669 and 1696_, was edited for the Clarendon

Press in 1898 by the Rev. Andrew Clark from the MSS. in the Bodleian,

Oxford.

See also John Britton, _Memoir of John Aubrey_ (1845); David Masson,

in the _British Quarterly Review_, July 1856; Emile Montegut, _Heures

de lecture d'un critique_ (1891); and a catalogue of Aubrey's

collections in _The Life and Times of Anthony Wood_ ..., by Andrew

Clark (Oxford, 1891-1900, vol. iv. pp. 191-193), which contains many

other references to Aubrey.