[1] Cf. Exodus xii. 15, &c.; Josh. vii. 24 (Achan); Jer. li. 62
(Babylon).
[2] 2 Sam. xii. 13, 14 (David); Isaiah xl. 2 (Jerusalem): in such
cases, however, the context implies repentance.
[3] Ezek. xviii., Micah vi.
[4] Lev. iv. 2, "sin unwittingly," _bishegag[=a]_, c. 450 B.C., &c.
[5] Psalm l. 10, li. 16-19; Isaiah i. 11; Micah vi. 6-8.
[6] Heb. _nephesh_, also translated "soul."
[7] Lev. xvi., xxiii. 27-32; Numb. xxix. 7-11.
[8] So Davidson, &c. with LXX. The A.V. with Hebrew text has "seventh
day of the month."
[9] e.g. Achan, Josh. vii. 10-15.
[10] 2 Sam. xxi. 1-9; Deut. v. 9, 10.
[11] Ezek. xxi. 3, 4.
[12] Isaiah liii.
[13] Isaiah xix. 25, xlix. 6.
[14] Koberle, _Sunde und Gnade_, pp. 592 ff.
[15] Mark x. 45; Matt. xxvi. 28; 1 Cor. xv. 3; John xi. 48-52; Heb.
ii. 9.
[16] Rom. iii. 25.
[17] Rom. v. 8.
[18] Rom. v. 15-19.
[19] Rom. vi. 8.
[20] Rom. iv. 25.
[21] Matt. xxv. 34 f.; Mark viii. 34 ff., ix. 36 f., x. 21.
[22] 1 John ii. 1, 2, 12, iii. 5, 8, iv. 10.
[23] Heb. ii. 17, ix. 14.
[24] Stevens, _Christian Doctrine of Salvation_, p. 138.
[25] _Ibid._ p. 151.
[26] Shedd, _Hist. of Christ. Doctr._ ii. 385 ff.; cf. van Oosterzee,
_Christ. Dogmatics_, 611.
[27] Shedd ii. 358 f.
[28] Crawford, _Scripture Doctrine of the Atonement_, pp. 327 ff.
[29] Orr, _Ritschlian Theology_, pp. 149 ff.
[30] Dale, _Atonement_, pp. 430 ff.
[31] Pp. 209, 212, 214, 216, 219, 221, 225.
ATRATO, a river of western Colombia, South America, rising on the slopes
of the Western Cordilleras, in 5 deg. 36' N. lat., and flowing almost due
north to the Gulf of Uraba, or Darien, where it forms a large delta. Its
length is about 400 m., but owing to the heavy rainfall of this region
it discharges no less than 175,000 cub. ft. of water per second,
together with a very large quantity of sediment, which is rapidly
filling the gulf. The river is navigable to Quibdo (250 m.), and for the
greater part of its course for large vessels, but the bars at its mouth
prevent the entrance of sea-going steamers. Flowing through the narrow
valley between the Cordillera and coast range, it has only short
tributaries, the principal ones being the Truando, Sucio and Murri. The
gold and platinum mines of Choco were on some of its affluents, and the
river sands are auriferous. The Atrato at one time attracted
considerable attention as a feasible route for a trans-isthmian canal,
which, it was estimated, could be excavated at a cost of L11,000,000.
ATREK, a river which rises in 37 deg. 10' N. lat. and 59 deg. E., in the
mountains of the north-east of the Persian province of Khorasan, and
flows west along the borders of Persia and the Russian Transcaspian
province, till it falls, after a course of 350 m., into the
south-eastern corner of the Caspian, a short distance north-north-west
of Astarabad.
ATREUS, in Greek legend, son of Pelops and Hippodameia, and elder
brother of Thyestes. Having murdered his stepbrother Chrysippus, Atreus
fled with Thyestes to Mycenae, where he succeeded Eurystheus in the
sovereignty. His wife Aerope was seduced by Thyestes, who was driven
from Mycenae. To avenge himself, Thyestes sent Pleisthenes (Atreus' son
whom Thyestes had brought up as his own) to kill Atreus, but Pleisthenes
was himself slain by his own father. After this Atreus, apparently
reconciled to his brother, recalled him to Mycenae and invited him to a
banquet to eat of his son, whom Atreus had slain. Thyestes fled in
horror. Subsequently Atreus married the daughter of Thyestes, Pelopia,
who had by her own father a son, Aegisthus, who was adopted by Atreus.
Thyestes was found by Agamemnon and Menelaus, the sons of Atreus, and
imprisoned at Mycenae. Aegisthus being sent to murder Thyestes, mutual
recognition took place, and Atreus was slain by the father and son, who
seized the throne, and drove Agamemnon and Menelaus out of the country
(Thucydides i. 9; Hyginus, _Fabulae_; Apollodorus). Homer does not speak
of the horrors of the story, which are first found in the tragedians; he
merely states (_Iliad_, ii. 105) that Atreus at his death left the
kingdom to Thyestes.
See T. Voigt in _Dissert. philol. Halenses._ vi. (1886).
ATRI, a town of the Abruzzi, Italy, in the province of Teramo, 6 m. W.
of the station of that name on the railway from Ancona to Foggia, and 18
m. due E.S.E. of Teramo, on the site of the ancient _Hadria_ (q.v.).
Pop. (1901) 13,448. Its Gothic cathedral (1285-1305) is remarkably fine;
and the interior, though spoilt by restoration in 1657, contains some
important frescoes of the end of the 15th century by Andrea di Lecce and
his pupils. The crypt was originally a cistern of the Roman period. The
palace of the Acquaviva family, who were dukes of Atri from 1398 to
1775, is a massive building situated in the principal square.
ATRIUM (either from _ater_, black, referring to the blackening of the
walls from the smoke of the hearth, or from the Greek [Greek: aethrion],
open to the sky, or from an Etruscan town, Atria, where the style of
building is supposed to have originated), the principal entrance hall or
court of a Roman dwelling, giving access and light to the rooms round
it. The centre of the roof over the atrium was open to the sky and
called the _compluvium_; the rain-water from the roof collected in the
gutters was discharged into a marble tank underneath, which was known as
the _impluvium_. In the early periods of Roman civilization the atrium
was the common public apartment, and was used for the reception of
visitors and clients, and for ordinary domestic purposes, as cooking and
dining. In it were placed the ancestral pictures, the marriage-couch,
the hearth and generally a small altar. At a somewhat later period, and
among the wealthy, separate apartments were built for kitchens and
dining-rooms, and the atrium was kept as a general reception-room for
clients and visitors. There were many varieties of the atrium, depending
on the way in which the roof was carried. These are described by
Vitruvius under the title of _cavaedium_.
Other buildings, both consecrated and unconsecrated, were called by the
term (corresponding to the English "hall"), such as the Atrium Vestae,
where the vestal virgins lived, and the Atrium Libertatis, the residence
of the censor, where Asinius Pollio established the first public library
at Rome.
The word _atrium_ in Rome had a second signification, being given to an
open court with porticos round, sometimes placed in front of a temple. A
similar arrangement was adopted by the early Christians with relation to
the Basilica, in front of which there was an open court surrounded by
colonnades or arcades. The church of San Clemente at Rome, that of Sant'
Ambrogio at Milan and the cathedral of Parenzo in Istria still retain
their atria.
ATROPHY (Gr. [Greek: a]- priv., [Greek: trophae], nourishment), a term
in medicine used to describe a state of wasting due to some interference
with the function of healthy nutrition (see PATHOLOGY). In the living
organism there are always at work changes involving the waste of its
component tissues, which render necessary, in order to maintain and
preserve life, the supply and proper assimilation of nutritive material.
It is also essential for the maintenance of health that a due relation
exist between these processes of waste and repair, so that the one may
not be in excess of the other. When the appropriation of nutriment
exceeds the waste, hypertrophy (q.v.) or increase in bulk of the tissues
takes place. When, on the other hand, the supply of nutritive matter is
suspended or diminished, or when the power of assimilation is impaired,
atrophy or wasting is the result. Thus the whole body becomes atrophied
in many diseases; and in old age every part of the frame, with the
single exception of the heart, undergoes atrophic change. Atrophy may,
however, affect single organs or parts of the body, irrespective of the
general state of nutrition, and this may be brought about in a variety
of ways. One of the most frequently observed of such instances is
atrophy from disuse, or cessation of function. Thus, when a limb is
deprived of the natural power of motion, either by paralysis or by
painful joint disease, the condition of exercise essential to its
nutrition being no longer fulfilled, atrophy of all its textures sooner
or later takes place. The brain in imbeciles is frequently observed to
be shrivelled, and in many cases of blindness there is atrophy of the
optic nerve and optic tract. This form of atrophy is likewise well
exemplified in the case of those organs and structures of the body which
subserve important ends during foetal life, but which, ceasing to be
necessary after birth, undergo a sort of natural atrophy, such as the
thymus gland, and certain vessels specially concerned in the foetal
circulation. The uterus after parturition undergoes a certain amount of
atrophy, and the ovaries, after the child-bearing period, become
shrunken. Atrophy of a part may also be caused by interruption to its
normal blood-supply, as in the case of the ligature or obstruction of an
artery. Again, long-standing disease, by affecting the nutrition of an
organ and by inducing the deposit of morbid products, may result in
atrophy, as frequently happens in affections of the liver and kidneys.
Parts that are subjected to continuous pressure are liable to become
atrophied, as is sometimes seen in internal organs which have been
pressed upon by tumours or other morbid growths, and is well illustrated
in the Chinese practice of foot-binding. Atrophy may manifest itself
simply by loss of substance; but, on the other hand, it is often found
to co-exist with degenerative changes in the textures affected and the
formation of adventitious growth, so that the part may not be reduced in
bulk although atrophied as regards its proper structure. Thus, in the
case of the heart, when affected with fatty degeneration, there is
atrophy of the proper muscular texture, but as this is largely replaced
by fatty matter, the organ may undergo no diminution in volume, but may,
on the contrary, be increased in size. Atrophy is usually a gradual and
slow process, but sometimes it proceeds rapidly. In the disease known by
the name of _acute yellow atrophy of the liver_, that organ undergoes
such rapidly destructive change as results in its shrinking to half, or
one-third, of its normal size in the course of a few days. The term
_progressive muscular atrophy_ (synonyms, _wasting_ or _creeping palsy_)
is applied to an affection of the muscular system, which is
characterized by the atrophy and subsequent paralysis of certain
muscles, or groups of muscles, and is associated with morbid changes in
the anterior roots of the nerves of the spinal cord. This disease begins
insidiously, and is often first observed to affect the muscles of one
hand, generally the right. The attention of the sufferer is first
attracted by the power of the hand becoming weakened, and then there is
found to be a wasting of certain of its muscles, particularly those of
the ball of the thumb. Gradually other muscles in the arms and legs
become affected in a similar manner, their atrophy being attended with a
corresponding diminution in power. Although sometimes arrested, this
disease tends to progress, until in course of time the greater part of
the muscular system is implicated and a fatal result ensues.
ATROPOS, in Greek mythology, the eldest of the three Fates (see FATE).
Her name, the "Unalterable" ([Greek: a]- privative, and [Greek:
trepein], to turn), indicates her function, that of rendering the
decisions of her sisters irreversible or immutable. Atropos is most
frequently represented with scales, a sun-dial or a cutting instrument,
the "abhorred shears," with which she slits the thin-spun thread of life
that has been placed on the spindle by Clotho and drawn off by Lachesis.
ATTA, TITUS QUINCTIUS, or QUINTICIUS (d. 77 B.C.), Roman comedy writer,
was, like Titinius and Afranius, distinguished as a writer of _fabulae
togatae_, national comedies. He had the reputation of being a vivid
delineator of character, especially female. He also seems to have
published a collection of epigrams. The scanty fragments contain many
archaisms, but are lively in style. According to Horace (_Epistles_, ii
1. 79) the plays of Atta were still put on the stage in his time.
Aulus Gellius vii. 9; fragments in Neukirch, _De fabula togata
Romanorum_ (1833); Ribbeck, _Comicorum Latinorum reliquiae_ (1855).
ATTACAPA (Choctaw for "cannibal"), a tribe of North-American Indians,
whose home was in south-west Louisiana; they are now practically
extinct.
ATTACHMENT,[1] in law, a process from a court of record, awarded by the
justices at their discretion, on a bare suggestion, or on their own
knowledge, and properly grantable in cases of contempt. It differs from
arrest (q.v.), in that he who arrests a man carries him to a person of
higher power to be forthwith disposed of; but he that attaches keeps the
party attached, and presents him in court at the day assigned, as
appears by the words of the writ. Another difference is, that arrest is
only upon the body of a man, whereas an attachment is often upon his
goods. It is distinguished from distress in not extending to lands, as
the latter does; nor does a distress touch the body, as an attachment
does. Every court of record has power to fine and imprison for contempt
of its authority. Attachment being merely a process to bring the
defendant before the court, is not necessary in cases of contempt in the
presence of the court itself. Attachment will be granted in England
against peers and members of parliament only for such gross contempts as
rescues, disobedience to the sovereign's writs and the like. Attachment
will not lie against a corporation. The county courts in this respect
are regulated by acts of 1846 and 1849. They can only punish for
contempts committed in presence of the court (see CONTEMPT OF COURT).
Attachments are granted on a rule in the first instance to show cause,
which must be personally served before it can be made absolute, except
for non-payment of costs on a master's allocatur, and against a sheriff
for not obeying a rule to return a writ or to bring in the body. The
offender is then arrested, and when committed will be compelled to
answer interrogatories, exhibited against him by the party at whose
instance the proceedings have been had; and the examination when taken
is referred to the master, who reports thereon, and on the contempt
being reported, the court gives judgment according to its discretion, in
the same manner as upon a conviction for a misdemeanour at common law.
Sir W. Blackstone observes that "this method of making the defendant
answer upon oath to a criminal charge is not agreeable to the genius of
the common law in any other instance"; and the elasticity of the legal
definitions of contempt of court, especially with respect to comments on
judicial proceedings, is the subject of much complaint.
_Attachment of Debts._--It was suggested by the common law commissioners
in 1853 that a remedy analogous to that of Foreign Attachment (see
below) might be made available to creditors, after judgment, against
debts due to their debtors. Accordingly, the Common Law Procedure Act
1854 enacted that any creditor, having obtained judgment in the superior
courts, should have an order that the judgment debtor might be examined
as to any debts due and owing to him before a master of the court. The
rules and regulations under the Judicature Act 1873 retained the process
for attachment of debts as established by the Procedure Act of 1854. On
affidavit that the judgment was still unsatisfied, and that any other
person within the jurisdiction was indebted to the judgment debtor, the
judge was empowered to attach all debts due from such third person
(called the _garnishee_) to the judgment debtor, to answer the judgment
debt. This order binds the debts in the hands of the garnishee, and if
he does not dispute his liability execution issues against him at once.
If he disputes his liability the question must be tried. Payment by the
garnishee or execution against him is a complete discharge as against
the judgment debtor. These provisions were, by an order in council of
the 18th of November 1867, extended to the county courts. By the Wages
Attachment Abolition Act 1870 it is enacted that no order for the
attachment of the wages of any servant, labourer or workman shall be
made by the judge of any court of record or inferior court, and by the
Merchant Shipping Act 1894 it is enacted that the wages of a seaman or
apprentice are not subject to attachment.
In the United States attachment of debts is a statutory remedy accorded
in most of the states in certain circumstances for the security of
creditors, by the seizure by the sheriff of the debtor's goods or the
imposition of a lien upon his land, before judgment, and sometimes at
the very commencement of the action. In some states it is only allowed
in special cases, as when the debtor has absconded, or is a non-resident
or guilty of fraud; in a few it may be had, as of right, at the
commencement of ordinary actions. The common-law courts of the United
States (by act of Congress) follow the practice in this regard of the
state in which they sit. Such attachments (on mesne process) can
generally be dissolved by the substitution of a bond with surety. The
body can also be attached in most states on civil actions of tort (for a
wrongful or negligent act to the damage of another), but not in actions
on contract.
_Foreign Attachment_ is an important custom prevailing in the city of
London, whereby a creditor may attach money owing to his debtor, or
property belonging to him in the possession of third parties. The person
holding the property or owing the money must be within the city at the
time of being served with the process, but all persons are entitled to
the benefit of the custom. The plaintiff having commenced his action,
and made a satisfactory affidavit of his debt, is entitled to issue
attachment, which thereupon affects all the money or property of the
defendant in the hands of the third party, the garnishee. The garnishee,
of course, has as against the attachment all the defences which would be
available to him against the defendant, his alleged creditor. The
garnishee may plead payment under the attachment, if there has been no
fraud or collusion, in bar to an action by the defendant for his debt or
property. The court to which this process belongs is the mayor's court
of London, the procedure in which is regulated by the Mayor's Court of
London Procedure Act 1857. This custom, and all proceedings relating
thereto, are expressly exempted from the operation of the Debtor's Act
1869. Similar customs exist in Bristol and a few other towns in England
and also in Scotland.
_A Writ of Attachment_ enforces answers and obedience to decrees and
orders of the High Court of Justice, and is made out without order upon
an affidavit of the due service of the process, &c., with whose
requirements compliance is sought. A corporation, however, is proceeded
against by distringas and not by attachment. It was formerly competent
to the plaintiff to compel the appearance of a defendant in chancery by
attachment, but the usual course was to enter appearance for him in case
of default. It is one of the modes of execution allowed for the recovery
of property other than land or money.
_Attachment of the Forest_ was the proceeding in the courts of
attachments, Woodmote, or Forty Days' courts. These courts have fallen
into desuetude. They were held before the verderers of the royal forests
in different parts of the kingdom once in every forty days, for the
purpose of inquiring into all offences against "vert (greensward) and
venison." The attachment was by the bodies of the offenders, if taken in
the very act of killing venison, or stealing wood, or preparing so to
do, or by fresh and immediate pursuit after the act was done; else they
must be attached by their goods. These attachments were received by the
verderers and enrolled, and certified under their seals to the
Swainmote, or Court of Justice-seat, which was the superior of the
forest courts.