[1] "Life of Anthony a Wood written by Himself" (_Athen. Oxon._, ed.
Bliss).
AUBURN, a city and the county-seat of Androscoggin county, Maine,
U.S.A., on the Androscoggin river, opposite Lewiston (with which it
practically forms an industrial unit), in the S.W. part of the state.
Pop. (1890) 11,250; (1900) 12,951, of whom 2076 were foreign-born;
(1910, census) 15,064. It is served by the Grand Trunk and the Maine
Central railways. The river furnishes abundant water-power, and the city
ranked fourth in the state as a manufacturing centre in 1905. Boots and
shoes are the principal products; in 1905 seven-tenths of the city's
wage-earners were engaged in their manufacture, and Auburn's output
($4,263,162 = 66.5% of the total factory product of the city) was
one-third of that of the whole state. Other manufactures are butter,
bread and other bakery products, cotton goods, furniture and leather.
The municipality owns and operates its waterworks. Auburn was first
settled in 1786, and was incorporated in 1842, but the present charter
dates only from 1869.
AUBURN, a city and the county-seat of Cayuga county, New York, U.S.A.,
25 m. S.W. of Syracuse, on an outlet of Owasco Lake. Pop. (1890) 25,858;
(1900) 30,345, of whom 5436 were foreign-born, 2084 being from Ireland
and 1023 from England; (1910) 34,668. It is served by the Lehigh Valley
and the New York Central & Hudson River railways, and by inter-urban
electric lines. The city is attractively situated amidst a group of low
hills in the heart of the lake country of western New York; the streets
are wide, with a profusion of shade trees. Auburn has a city hall, the
large Burtis Auditorium, the Auburn hospital, two orphan asylums, and
the Seymour library in the Case Memorial building. There is a fine
bronze statue of William H. Seward, who made his home here after 1823,
and was buried in Fort Hill Cemetery. In Auburn are the Auburn (State)
prison (1816), in connexion with which there is a women's prison; the
Auburn Theological Seminary (Presbyterian), founded in 1819, chartered
in 1820, and opened for students in 1821; the Robinson school for girls;
and the Women's Educational and Industrial Union, for the education of
working girls, with a building erected in 1907. The city owns its
water-supply system, the water being pumped from Owasco Lake, about
2-1/2 m. S.S.E. of the city. There is a good water-power, and the city
has important manufacturing interests. The principal manufactures are
cordage and twine, agricultural implements, engines, pianos, boots and
shoes, cotton and woollen goods, carpets and rugs, rubber goods, flour
and machinery. The total factory product in 1905 was valued at
$13,420,863; of this $2,890,301 was the value of agricultural
implements, in the manufacture of which Auburn ranked fifth among the
cities of the United States. There are a number of grey and blue
limestone quarries, one of which is owned and operated by the
municipality.
Settled soon after the close of the War of Independence, Auburn was laid
out in 1793 by Captain John L. Hardenburgh, a veteran of the war, and
for some years was known as Hardenburgh's Corners. In 1805, when it was
made the county-seat, it was renamed Auburn. It was incorporated in
1814, and was chartered as a city in 1848.
See C. Hawley, _Early Chapters of Cayuga History_ (Auburn, 1879).
AUBURN (from the Low Lat. _alburnus_, whitish, light-coloured),
ruddy-brown; the meaning has changed from the original one of
brownish-white or light yellow (_citrinus_, in _Promptorium
Parvulorum_), probably through the intensification of the idea of brown
caused by the early spelling "abron" or "abrown."
AUBUSSON, PIERRE D' (1423-1503), grand-master of the order of St John of
Jerusalem, and a zealous opponent of the Turks, was born in 1423. He
belonged to a noble French family, and early devoted himself to the
career of a soldier in the service of the emperor Sigismund. Under the
archduke Albert of Austria he took part in a campaign against the Turks,
and on his return to France sided with the Armagnacs against the Swiss,
greatly distinguishing himself at the battle of St Jacob in 1444. He
then joined the order of the knights of Rhodes, and successfully
conducted an expedition against the pirates of the Levant and an embassy
to Charles VII. He soon rose to the most important offices in the order,
and in 1476 was elected grand-master. It was the period of the conquests
of Mahommed II., who, supreme in the East, now began to threaten Europe.
In December 1479 a large Turkish fleet appeared in sight of Rhodes; a
landing was effected, and a vigorous attack made upon the city. But in
July of the next year, being reinforced from Spain, the knights forced
the Mussulmans to retire, leaving behind them 9000 dead. The siege, in
which d'Aubusson was seriously wounded, enhanced his renown throughout
Europe. Mahommed was furious, and would have attacked the island again
but for his death in 1481. His succession was disputed between his sons
Bayezid and Jem. The latter, after his defeat by Bayezid, sought refuge
at Rhodes under a safe-conduct from the grand-master and the council of
the knights. What followed remains a stain on d'Aubusson's memory.
Rhodes not being considered secure, Jem with his own consent was sent to
France. Meanwhile, in spite of the safe-conduct, d'Aubusson accepted an
annuity of 45,000 ducats from the sultan; in return for which he
undertook to guard Jem in such a way as to prevent his design of
appealing to the Christian powers to aid him against his brother. For
six years Jem, in spite of frequent efforts to escape, was kept a close
prisoner in various castles of the Rhodian order in France, until in
1489 he was handed over to Pope Innocent VIII., who had been vying with
the kings of Hungary and Naples for the possession of so valuable a
political weapon. D'Aubusson's reward was a cardinal's hat (1489), and
the power to confer all benefices connected with the order without the
sanction of the papacy; the order of St John received the wealth of the
suppressed orders of the Holy Sepulchre and St Lazarus. The remaining
years of his life d'Aubusson spent in the attempt to restore discipline
and zeal in his order, and to organize a grand international crusade
against the Turks. The age of the Renaissance, with Alexander Borgia on
the throne of St Peter, was, however, not favourable to such an
enterprise; the death of Jem in 1495 had removed the most formidable
weapon available against the sultan; and when in 1501 d'Aubusson led an
expedition against Mytilene, dissensions among his motley host rendered
it wholly abortive. The old man's last years were embittered by chagrin
at his failure, which was hardly compensated by his success in
extirpating Judaism in Rhodes, by expelling all adult Jews and forcibly
baptizing their children. In the summer of 1503 he died.
See P. Bouhours, _Hist. de Pierre d'Aubusson_ (Paris, 1676; Hague,
1793; abridged ed. Bruges, 1887); G.E. Streck, _Pierre d'Aubusson,
Grossmeister_, &c. (Chemnitz, 1873); J.B. Bury in _Cambridge Mod.
Hist._ vol. i. p. 85, &c. (for relations with Jem).
AUBUSSON, a town of France, capital of an arrondissement in the
department of Creuse, picturesquely situated on the river Creuse 24 m.
S.E. of Gueret by rail. Pop. (1906) 6475. It has celebrated
manufactories of carpets, &c., employing about 2000 workmen, the
artistic standard of which is maintained by a national school of
decorative arts, founded in 1869. Nothing certain is known as to the
foundation of this industry, but it was in full activity at least as far
back as 1531. From the 10th to the 13th century Aubusson was the centre
of a viscounty, and the viscountess Marguerite, wife of Rainaud VI., was
sung by many a troubadour. After the death of the viscount Guy II. (a
little later than 1262) Aubusson was incorporated in the countship of La
Marche by Hugh XII. of Lusignan, and shared in its fortunes. Louis XIV.
revived the title of viscount of Aubusson in favour of Francois, first
marshall de la Feuillade (1686). From the family of the old viscounts
was descended Pierre d'Aubusson (q.v.). Admiral Sallandrouze de
Lamornaix (1840-1902) belonged to a family of tapestry manufacturers
established at Aubusson since the beginning of the 19th century.
Aubusson was also the native place of the novelists Leonard Sylvain,
Julien Sandeau and Alfred Assollant (1827-1886).
See Le Pere Anselme, _Hist. genealogique de la maison de France_, vol.
v. pp. 318 et seq.; P. Mignaton, _Hist. de la maison d'Aubusson_
(Paris, 1886); Cyprien Perathon, _Hist. d'Aubusson_ (Limoges, 1886).
(A. T.)
AUCH, a city of south-western France, capital of the department of Gers,
55 m. W. of Toulouse on the Southern railway. Pop. (1906) 9294. Auch is
built on the summit and sides of a hill at the foot of which flow the
yellow waters of the Gers. It consists of a lower and upper quarter
united in several places by flights of steps. The streets are in general
steep and narrow, but there is a handsome promenade in the upper town,
laid out in the 18th century by the _intendant_ Antoine Megret d'Etigny.
Three bridges lead from the left to the right bank of the Gers, on which
the suburb of Patte d'Oie is situated. The most interesting part of the
town lies in the old quarter around the Place Salinis, a spacious
terrace which commands an extensive view over the surrounding country.
On its eastern side it communicates with the left bank of the river by a
handsome series of steps; on its north side rises the cathedral of
Sainte-Marie. This church, built from 1489 to 1662, belongs chiefly to
the Gothic style, of which it is one of the finest examples in southern
France. The facade, however, with its two square and somewhat heavy
flanking towers dates from the 17th century, and is Greco-Roman in
architecture. Sainte-Marie contains many artistic treasures, the chief
of which are the magnificent stained-glass windows of the Renaissance
which light the apsidal chapels, and the 113 choir-stalls of carved oak,
also of Renaissance workmanship. The archbishop's palace adjoins the
cathedral; it is a building of the 18th century with a Romanesque hall
and a tower of the 14th century. Opposite the south side of the
cathedral stands the lycee on the site of a former Jesuit college. Only
scanty remains are left of the once celebrated abbey of St Orens. The
ecclesiastical seminary contains an important library with a collection
of manuscripts, and there is a public library in the Carmelite chapel, a
building of the 17th century. The former palace of the _intendants_ of
Gascony is now used as the _prefecture_. Auch is the seat of an
archbishopric, a prefect and a court of assizes, and has tribunals of
first instance and of commerce, a chamber of commerce, a lycee,
training-colleges, a school of design, a branch of the Bank of France
and an important lunatic asylum. The manufactures include agricultural
implements, leather, vinegar and plaited sandals, and there is a trade
in brandy, wine, cattle, poultry and wool; there are quarries of
building-stone in the neighbourhood.
Auch (Elimberris) was the capital of a Celtiberian tribe, the Ausci, and
under the Roman domination was one of the most important cities in
Gaul. In the 4th century this importance was increased by the foundation
of its bishopric, and after the destruction of Eauze in the 9th century
it became the metropolis of Novempopulana. Till 732, Auch stood on the
right bank of the Gers, but in that year the ravages of the Saracens
drove the inhabitants to take refuge on the left bank of the river,
where a new city was formed. In the 10th century Count Bernard of
Armagnac founded the Benedictine abbey of St Orens, the monks of which,
till 1308, shared the jurisdiction over Auch with the archbishops--an
arrangement which gave rise to constant strife. The counts of Armagnac
possessed a castle in the city, which was the capital of Armagnac in the
middle ages. During the Religious Wars of the 16th century Auch remained
Catholic, except for a short occupation in 1569 by the Huguenots under
Gabriel, count of Montgomery. In the 18th century it was capital of
Gascony, and seat of a generality. Antoine Megret d'Etigny, intendant
from 1751 to 1767, did much to improve the city and its commerce.
AUCHMUTY, SIR SAMUEL (1756-1822), British general, was born at New York
in 1756, and served as a loyalist in the American War of Independence,
being given an ensigncy in the royal army in 1777, and in 1778 a
lieutenancy in the 45th Foot, without purchase. When his regiment
returned to England after the war, having neither private means nor
influence, he exchanged into the 52nd, in order to proceed to India. He
took part in the last war against Hyder Ali; he was given a staff
appointment by Lord Cornwallis in 1790, served in the operations against
Tippoo Sahib, and continued in various staff appointments up to 1797,
when he returned to England a brevet lieut.-colonel. In 1800 he was made
lieut.-colonel and brevet colonel; and in the following year, as
adjutant-general to Sir David Baird in Egypt, took a distinguished share
in the march across the desert and the capture of Alexandria. On his
return to England in 1803 he was knighted, and three years later he went
out to the River Plate as a brigadier-general. Auchmuty was one of the
few officers who came out of the disastrous Buenos Aires expedition of
1806-7 with enhanced reputation. While General Whitelocke, the
commander, was cashiered, Auchmuty was at once re-employed and promoted
major-general, and was sent out in 1810 to command at Madras. In the
following year he commanded the expedition organized for the conquest of
Java, which the governor-general, Lord Minto, himself accompanied. The
storming of the strongly fortified position of Meester Cornelis (28th
August 1811), stubbornly defended by the Dutch garrison under General
Janssens, practically achieved the conquest of the island, and after the
action of Samarang (September 8th) Janssens surrendered. Auchmuty
received the thanks of parliament and the order of K.C.B. (G.C.B. in
1815), and in 1813, on his return home, was promoted to the rank of
lieut.-general. In 1821 he became commander-in-chief in Ireland, and a
member of the Irish privy council. He died suddenly on the 11th of
August 1822.
AUCHTERARDER (Gaelic, "upper high land"), a police burgh of Perthshire,
Scotland, 13-3/4 m. S.W. of Perth by the Caledonian railway. Pop. (1901)
2276. It is situated on Ruthven Water, a right-hand tributary of the
Earn. The chief manufactures are those of tartans and other woollens,
and of agricultural implements. At the beginning of the 13th century it
obtained a charter from the earl of Strathearn, afterwards became a
royal burgh for a period, and was represented in the Scottish
parliament. Its castle, now ruinous, was built as a hunting-lodge for
Malcolm Canmore, but of the abbey which it possessed as early as the
reign of Alexander II. (1198-1249) no remains exist. The ancient church
of St Mungo, now in ruins, was a building in the Norman or Early Pointed
style. The town was almost entirely burned down by the earl of Mar in
1716 during the abortive Jacobite rising. It was in connexion with this
parish that the ecclesiastical dispute arose which led to the disruption
in the Church of Scotland in 1843. The estate of Kincardine, 1 m. south,
gives the title of earl of Kincardine to the duke of Montrose. The old
castle, now in ruins, was dismantled in 1645 by the marquis of Argyll in
retaliation for the destruction of Castle Campbell in Dollar Glen on the
south side of the Ochils. The old ruined castle of Tullibardine, 2 m
west of the burgh, once belonged to the Murrays of Tullibardine,
ancestors of the duke of Atholl, who derives the title of marquis of
Tullibardine from the estate. The ancient chapel adjoining, also
ruinous, was a burial-place of the Murrays.
AUCHTERMUCHTY (Gaelic, "the high ground of the wild sow"), a royal and
police burgh of Fifeshire, Scotland, built on an elevation about 9 m. W.
by S. of Cupar, with a station on a branch of the North British railway
from Ladybank to Mawcarse Junction. Pop. 1387. The rapid Loverspool Burn
divides the town. The principal industries include the weaving of linen
and damasks, bleaching, distilling and malting. John Glas, founder of
the sect known as Glassites or Sandemanians, was a native of the town. A
mile and a half to the south-west is the village of Strathmiglo (pop.
966), on the river Eden, with a linen factory and bleaching works.
AUCKLAND, GEORGE EDEN, EARL OF (1784-1849), English statesman, was the
second son of the 1st Baron Auckland. He completed his education at
Oxford, and was admitted to the bar in 1809. His elder brother was
drowned in the Thames in the following year; and in 1814, on the death
of his father, he took his seat in the House of Lords as Baron Auckland.
He supported the Reform party steadily by his vote, and in 1830 was made
president of the Board of Trade and master of the Mint. In 1834 he held
office for a few months as first lord of the admiralty, and in 1835 he
was appointed governor-general of India. He proved himself to be a
painstaking and laborious legislator, and devoted himself specially to
the improvement of native schools, and the expansion of the commercial
industry of the nation committed to his care. These useful labours were
interrupted in 1838 by complications in Afghanistan, which excited the
fears not only of the Anglo-Indian government but of the home
authorities. Lord Auckland resolved to enter upon a war, and on the 1st
of October 1838 published at Simla his famous manifesto dethroning Dost
Mahommed. The early operations were crowned with success, and the
governor-general received the title of earl of Auckland. But reverses
followed quickly, and in the ensuing campaigns the British troops
suffered the most severe disasters. Lord Auckland had the double
mortification of seeing his policy a complete failure and of being
superseded before his errors could be rectified. In the autumn of 1841
he was succeeded in office by Lord Ellenborough, and returned to England
in the following year. In 1846 he was made first lord of the admiralty,
which office he held until his death, on the 1st of January 1849. He
died unmarried, and the earldom became extinct, the barony (see below)
passing to his brother Robert.
See S.J. Trotter, _The Earl of Auckland_ ("Rulers of India" series),
1893.
AUCKLAND, WILLIAM EDEN, 1ST BARON (1745-1814), English statesman, son of
Sir Robert Eden, 3rd Bart., of Windlestone Hall, Durham, and of Mary,
daughter of William Davison, was born in 1745, educated at Eton and
Christ Church, Oxford, and called to the bar at the Middle Temple in
1768. In 1771 he published _Principles of Penal Law_, and was early
recognized as an authority on commercial and economic questions, and in
1772 he was appointed an under secretary of state. He represented New
Woodstock in the parliaments of 1774 and 1780, and Heytesbury in those
of 1784 and 1790. In 1776 he was appointed a commissioner on the board
of trade and plantations. In 1778 he carried an act for the improvement
of the treatment of prisoners, and accompanied the earl of Carlisle as a
commissioner to North America on an unsuccessful mission to settle the
disputes with the colonists. On his return in 1779 he published his
widely read _Four Letters to the Earl of Carlisle_, and in 1780 became
chief secretary for Ireland. He was elected to the Irish House of
Commons as member for Dungannon in 1781 and sworn of the Irish privy
council, and while in Ireland established the National Bank. He advised
the increase of the secret service fund, and was reputed, according to
Lord Charlemont (a political opponent), as especially skilful in the
arts of corruption and in overcoming political prejudices. He resigned
in 1782, but in the following year he took office again as
vice-treasurer of Ireland under the coalition ministry, which he had
been instrumental in arranging, and was included in the privy council,
resigning with the government in December. He opposed strongly Pitt's
propositions for free trade between England and Ireland in 1785, but
took office with Pitt as a member of the committee on trade and
plantations, and negotiated in 1786 and 1787 Pitt's important commercial
treaty with France, and agreements concerning the East India Companies
and Holland. In 1787 he published his _History of New Holland_. Next
year he was sent as ambassador to Spain, and after his return was
created (September 1789) Baron Auckland in the Irish peerage. The same
year he was sent on a mission to Holland, and represented English
interests there with great zeal and prudence during the critical years
of 1790 to 1793, obtaining the assistance of the Dutch fleet in 1790 on
the menace of a war with Spain, signing the convention relating to the
Netherlands the same year, and in 1793 attending the congress at
Antwerp. He retired from the public service in the latter year, received
a pension of L2300, and was created Baron Auckland of West Auckland,
Durham, in the English peerage. During his retirement in the country at
Beckenham, he continued his intimacy with Pitt, his nearest neighbour at
Holwood, who at one time had thoughts of marrying his daughter; and with
Pitt's sanction he published his _Remarks on the Apparent Cicumstances
of the War_ in 1795, to prepare public opinion for a peace. In 1798 he
was included in Pitt's government as joint postmaster-general, and
supported strongly the income tax and the Irish Union, assisting in
drawing up the act embodying the latter. In 1799 he brought in a bill to
check adultery by preventing the marriage of the guilty parties, and the
same year took a mischievous part in the cabal against Sir Ralph
Abercromby. He severely criticized Pitt's resignation in 1801, from
which he had endeavoured to dissuade him, and retained office under
Addington. This terminated his friendship with Pitt, who excluded him
from his administration in 1804 though he increased his pension.
Auckland was included in Granville's ministry of "All the Talents" as
president of the board of trade in 1806. He held the appointments of
auditor and director of Greenwich hospital, recorder of Grantham, and
chancellor of the Marischal College in Aberdeen. He died on the 28th of
May 1814.
He had married in 1776 Eleanor, sister of the first Lord Minto, and had
a large family. Emily Eden (1797-1869), the novelist, was one of his
daughters. On the death of his son George, 2nd baron and earl of
Auckland (q.v.), the barony passed to the 1st baron's younger son Robert
John (1790-1870), bishop of Bath and Wells, from whom the later barons
were descended, and who was also the father of Sir Ashley Eden
(1831-1887), lieutenant-governor of Bengal. The 1st baron had two
distinguished brothers--Morton Eden (1752-1830), a diplomatist, who
married Lady Elizabeth Henley, and in 1799 was created 1st Baron Henley
(his family, from 1831, taking the name of Henley instead of Eden); and
Sir Robert Eden, governor of Maryland, whose son, Sir Frederic Morton
Eden (1766-1809), was a well-known economist.
Lord Auckland's _Journal and Correspondence_, published in 1861-1862,
throws much light on the political history of the time.
AUCKLAND, a city and seaport on the east coast of North Island, New
Zealand, in Eden county; capital of the province of its name, and the
seat of a bishop. Pop. (1906) 37,736; including suburbs, 82,101. It is
situated at the mouth of an arm of Hauraki Gulf, and is only 6 m.
distant from the head of Manukau harbour on the western coast. The
situation is extremely beautiful. The Hauraki Gulf, a great square inlet
opening northward, is studded with islands of considerable elevation;
Rangitoto, which protects the harbour, is a volcanic cone reaching
nearly 1000 ft. The isthmus on which the town stands (which position has
caused it to be likened to Corinth) can be crossed without surmounting
any great elevation, and offers a feasible canal route. A number of
small extinct volcanoes, however, appear in all directions. To the west
the Titirangi hills exceed 1400 ft. Some of the volcanic soil is barren,
but much of the district is clothed in luxuriant vegetation.
Auckland harbour, one of the best in New Zealand, is approachable by the
largest vessels at the lowest tide. There are two graving docks. Queen
Street, the principal thoroughfare, leads inland from the main dock, and
contains the majority of the public buildings. There is a small
government house, standing in beautiful grounds, adjoining Albert Park,
with plantations of oaks and pines. The government offices, art gallery
and exchange, with St Mary's cathedral (Anglican), a building in a
combination of native timbers, St Paul's and St Patrick's cathedral
(Roman Catholic), are noteworthy buildings. The art gallery and free
library contain excellent pictures, and valuable books and MSS.
presented by Sir G. Grey. The museum contains one of the best existing
collections of Maori art. There are an opera-house and an academy of
music. The Auckland University College and the grammar school are the
principal educational establishments. The parks are the Domain, with a
botanical garden, the Albert Park near the harbour, with a bronze statue
of Queen Victoria, the extensive grounds at One Tree Hill on the
outskirts, and Victoria Park on Freeman's Bay. The principal
thoroughfares are served by electric tramway. Of the suburbs, Newton,
Parnell and Newmarket are in reality outlying parts of the town itself.
Devonport, Birkenhead and Northcote are beautifully situated on the
north shore of the inlet, and are served by steam-ferries. Several other
residential suburbs lie among the hills on the mainland, such as Mount
Albert, Mount Eden and Epsom. Onehunga is a small port on Manukau
harbour, served by rail. In Parnell is the former residence of Bishop
Selwyn, who, arriving in the colony in 1842, assisted to draw up the
constitution of the Anglican church. There are many associations with
his name in the neighbourhood. The prospect over the town and its
environs from Mount Eden is justly famous. The hill is terraced with
former native fortifications.
Auckland has industries of sugar-refining, ship-building and paper-,
rope- and brick-making, and timber is worked. The town was founded as
capital of the colony in 1840 by Governor Hobson. There is communication
both south and north by rail, and regular steamers serve the ports of
the colony, the principal Pacific Islands, Australia, &c. From 1853 to
1876 Auckland was the seat of the provincial government, and until 1865
that of the central government, which was then transferred to
Wellington. The first session of the general assembly took place here in
1854. Auckland is under municipal government.
AUCKLAND ISLANDS, a group in the Pacific Ocean, discovered in 1806 by
Captain Briscoe, of the English whaler "Ocean," in 50 deg. 24' S., 166
deg. 7' E. The islands, of volcanic origin, are very fertile, and are
covered with forest. They were granted to the Messrs Enderby by the
British government as a whaling station, but the establishment was
abandoned in 1852. The islands belong politically to New Zealand.
AUCTION PITCH, a card game which is a popular variation of All Fours
(q.v.). The name is derived from the rule that the first card played, or
_pitched_, is the trump suit, and that the eldest hand has the privilege
of pitching it or of selling out to the highest bidder. A full pack is
used, and the cards rank as in All Fours, namely from ace down to 2, ace
being highest in cutting also. From four to seven may play, each player
being provided with seven white counters, and also with red counters in
case stakes are played for. Each player receives six cards in every
deal, three at a time, no trump being turned. The object is to get rid
of the white counters, one of which may be put into the pool either (1)
for holding the highest trump played; (2) for having the lowest trump
dealt to one; (3) for taking the Jack (knave) of trumps; or (4) for
winning the _game_, namely the greatest number of pips that count. In
case of a tie of pips no game is scored. If the eldest hand decides to
pitch and not to sell out, he may do so, but is obliged to make four
points or be set back that number. If he decides to sell, he says "I
pass," and the player at his left bids for the privilege of pitching the
trump or passes, &c. When a bid has been made the rest must pass or bid
higher, and the eldest hand must either accept a bid or undertake to
make as many points as the bidder. If no bid is made he pitches the
trump himself, without the obligation of making anything. The first card
played is the trump suit, the winner of the trick leading again. In
trumps a player must follow suit if he can, and the same rule applies in
plain suits, excepting that a trump may be played at any time ("follow
suit or trump"). In play the highest card wins the trick unless trumped.
When the hand is played out each player puts a white counter into the
pool for every point won, and the first player to get rid of all his
seven white counters wins the pool and takes from it all the red
counters, which represent cash. This ends the game. In case two players
count out during the same deal, the bidder has the first right to the
pool, the rule being "bidder counts out first." If the two players who
count out are neither of them bidder, then they go out in regular order,
i.e. high first, then low, Jack and game. If a bidder fails to make his
points he is set back that number. A revoke is punished by the offender
being set back the number of points bid and forfeiting a red counter to
the pool.
AUCTIONS and AUCTIONEERS. An auction (Lat. _auctio_, increase) is a
proceeding at which people are invited to compete for the purchase of
property by successive offers of advancing sums. The advantages of
conducting a sale in this way are obvious, and we naturally find that
auctions are of great antiquity. Herodotus describes a custom which
prevailed in Babylonian villages of disposing of the maidens in marriage
by delivering them to the highest bidders in an assembly annually held
for the purpose (Book i. 196). So also among the Romans the quaestor
sold military booty and captives in war by auction--_sub hasta_--the
spear being the symbol of quiritarian ownership. The familiarity of such
proceedings is forcibly suggested by the conduct of the Praetorian Guard
when Sulpicianus was treating for the imperial dignity after the murder
of Pertinax. Apprehending that they would not obtain a sufficient price
by private contract, the Praetorians proclaimed from their ramparts that
the Roman world was to be disposed of by public auction to the best
bidder. Thereupon Julian proceeded to the foot of the ramparts and
outbid his competitor (Gibbon, vol. i. ch. v.). Though, however,
auctions were undoubtedly common among the Romans both in public and
private transactions, the rules whereby they were governed are by no
means clearly enunciated in the _Corpus Juris Civilis_.
In England the method of conducting auctions has varied. In some places
it has been usual to set up an inch of lighted candle, the person making
the last bid before the fall of the wick becoming the purchaser. By an
act of William III. (1698), this method of sale was prescribed for goods
and merchandise imported from the East Indies. Lord Eldon speaks of
"candlestick biddings," where the several bidders did not know what the
others had offered. A "dumb bidding" was the name given to a proceeding
at which a price was put by the owner under a candlestick with a
stipulation that no bidding should avail if not equal to it. In a "Dutch
auction" property is offered at a certain price and then successively at
lower prices until one is accepted.
According to the practice now usual in England, a proposed auction is
duly advertised, and a printed catalogue in the case of chattels, or
particulars of sale in the case of land, together with conditions of
sale, are circulated. Sometimes, in sales of goods, the conditions are
merely suspended in the auction room. At the appointed time and place,
the auctioneer, standing in a desk or rostrum, "puts up" the several
lots in turn by inviting biddings from the company present. He announces
the acceptance of the last bid by a tap with his hammer and so "knocks
down" the lot to the person who has made it. Sometimes property is
offered on lease to the highest bidder. "Roup" is the Scottish term for
an auction. A bid in itself is only an offer, and may accordingly be
retracted at any time before its acceptance by the fall of the hammer or
otherwise. Puffing is unlawful. Unless a right to bid is expressly
reserved on behalf of the vendor, he must neither bid himself nor employ
any one else to bid. When a right to bid has been expressly reserved,
the seller or any one person (but no more) on his behalf may bid at the
auction. If it is simply announced that the sale is to be subject to a
reserved or upset price, no bidding by or on behalf of the seller is
permissible: it is only lawful to declare by some appropriate terms that
the property is withdrawn. Where a sale is expressed to be without
reserve, or where an upset price has been reached, the auctioneer must,
after the lapse of a reasonable interval, accept the bid of the highest
_bona fide_ bidder. By not doing so he would render the vendor liable in
damages. The auctioneer must not make a pretence of receiving bids which
are not in fact made, as it would be fraudulent to run up the price by
such an artifice. A "knock-out" is a combination of persons to prevent
competition between themselves at an auction by an arrangement that only
one of their number shall bid, and that anything obtained by him shall
be afterwards disposed of privately among themselves. Such a combination
is not illegal. A "mock auction" is a proceeding at which persons
conspire by artifice to make it appear, contrary to the fact, that a
_bona fide_ sale is being conducted, and so attempt to induce the public
to purchase articles at prices far above their value. Those who invite
the public to enter the room where the supposed auction is proceeding,
or otherwise endeavour to attract bidders, are called "barkers." A
conspiracy to defraud in this way is an indictable offence.
American law is in general the same as the English law with regard to
auctions. As to bidding by the vendor, however, it is less stringent.
For, though puffing or by-bidding, as it is often called, will, under
both systems alike, render an auction sale voidable at the option of a
purchaser when it amounts to fraud, the weight of authority in the
United States is in favour of the view that an owner may, without
notice, employ a person to bid for him, if he does so with no other
purpose than to prevent a sacrifice of the property under a given price.
By a charter of Henry VII., confirmed by Charles I., the business of
selling by auction was confined to an officer called an _outroper_, and
all other persons were prohibited from selling goods or merchandise by
public claim or outcry (see Henry Blackstone's _Reports_, vol. ii. p.
557). The only qualification now required by an auctioneer is a licence
on which a duty of L10 has to be paid, and which must be renewed before
the 5th of July in each year. A liability to a penalty of L100 is
incurred by acting as an auctioneer without being duly licensed. The
duty formerly imposed upon the purchase-money payable by virtue of a
sale at auction was abolished by an act of 1845. An auctioneer is bound
under a penalty of L20 to see that his full name and address are
displayed before the commencement of an auction and during its
continuance in the place where he conducts it. He is the agent of the
vendor only, except in so far that, after he has knocked down a lot to
the highest bidder, he has authority to affix the name of the latter to
a memorandum of the transaction, so as to render the contract of sale
enforceable where written evidence is necessary. An auctioneer does not,
by merely announcing that a sale of certain articles will take place,
render himself liable to those who, in consequence, attend at the time
and place advertised, if the sale is not in fact proceeded with,
provided he acts in good faith. One of the chief risks run by an
auctioneer is that of being held liable for the conversion of goods
which he has sold upon the instructions of a person whom he believed to
be the owner, but who in fact had no right to dispose of them.
The number of auctioneers' licences issued during the year ended the
31st of March 1908 was in England 6639, in Scotland 760, and in Ireland
839. A central organization having its headquarters in London, the
Auctioneers' Institute of the United Kingdom, was founded in 1886, in
order to elevate the status and further the interests of auctioneers,
estate agents and valuers. It has nearly 2000 members. (H. Ha.)
AUCUBA, the Japanese name for a small genus of the Dogwood order
(Cornaceae). The familiar Japanese laurel of gardens and shrubberies is
_Aucuba japonica_. It bears male and female flowers on distinct plants;
the red berries often last till the next season's flowers appear. There
are numerous varieties in cultivation, differing in the variegation of
their leaves.
AUDAEUS, or AUDIUS, a church reformer of the 4th century, by birth a
Mesopotamian. He suffered much persecution from the Syrian clergy for
his fearless censure of their irregular lives, and was expelled from the
church, thereupon establishing an episcopal monastic community. He was
afterwards banished into Scythia, where he worked successfully among the
Goths, not living to see the destruction of his labours by Athanaric.
The Audaeans celebrated the feast of Easter on the same day as the
Jewish Passover, and they were also charged with attributing to the
Deity a human shape, an opinion which they appear to have founded on
Genesis i. 26. Theodoret groundlessly accuses them of Manichean
tendencies.
The main source of information is Epiphanius (_Haer._ 70).
AUDE, a river of south-western France, rising in the eastern Pyrenees
and flowing into the Golfe du Lion. Rising in a small lake a short
distance east of the Puy de Carlitte, it soon takes a northerly
direction and flows for many miles through deep gorges of great beauty
as far as the plain of Axat. Beyond Axat its course again lies through
defiles which become less profound as the river nears Carcassonne. Below
that town it receives the waters of the Fresquel and turns abruptly
east. From this point to its junction with the Cesse its course is
parallel with that of the Canal du Midi. The river skirts the northern
spurs of the Corbieres, some distance below which it is joined by the
Orbieu and the Cesse. It then divides into two branches, the
northernmost of which, the Aude proper, runs east and empties into the
Mediterranean some 12 m. east-north-east of Narbonne, while the other
branch, the Canal de la Robine, turning south, traverses that town,
below which its course to the sea lies between two extensive lagoons,
the Etang de Bages et de Sigean and the Etang de Gruissan. The Aude has
a length of 140 m. and a basin 2061 sq. m. in extent. There is
practically no traffic upon it.
AUDE, a maritime department of southern France, formed in 1790 from part
of the old province of Languedoc. Area, 2448 sq. m. Pop. (1906) 308,327.
It is bounded E. by the Mediterranean, N. by the departments of Herault
and Tarn, N.W. by Haute-Garonne, W. by Ariege, and S. by
Pyrenees-Orientales. The department is traversed on its western boundary
from S. to N. by a mountain range of medium height, which unites the
Pyrenees with the southern Cevennes; and its northern frontier is
occupied by the Montagne Noire, the most westerly portion of the
Cevennes. The Corbieres, a branch of the Pyrenees, run in a south-west
and north-east direction along the southern district. The Aude (q.v.),
its principal river, has almost its entire length in the department, and
its lower course, together with its tributary the Fresquel, forms the
dividing line between the Montagne Noire and the Pyrenean system.
The lowness of the coast causes a series of large lagoons, the chief of
which are those of Bages et Sigean, Gruissan, Lapalme and Leucate. The
climate is warm and dry, but often sudden in its alterations. The wind
from the north-west, known as the _cers_, blows with great violence, and
the sea-breeze is often laden with pestilential effluvia from the
lagoons. The agriculture of the department is in a flourishing
condition. The meadows are extensive and well watered, and are pastured
by numerous flocks and herds. The grain produce, consisting mainly of
wheat, oats, rye and Indian corn, exceeds the consumption, and the
vineyards yield an abundant supply of both white and red wines, those of
Limoux and the Narbonnais being most highly esteemed. Truffles are
abundant. The olive and chestnut are the chief fruits. Mines of iron,
manganese, and especially of mispickel, are worked, and there are
stone-quarries and productive salt-marshes. Brewing, distilling,
cooperage, iron-founding, hat-making and machine construction are
carried on, and there are flour-mills, brick-works, saw-mills, sulphur
refineries and leather and paper works. The formerly flourishing textile
industries are now of small importance. The department imports coal,
lime, stone, salt, raw sulphur, skins and timber and exports
agricultural and mineral products, bricks and tiles, and other
manufactured goods. It is served by the Southern railway. The Canal du
Midi, following the courses of the Fresquel and the Aude, traverses it
for 76 m.; and a branch, the Canal de la Robine, which passes through
Narbonne to the sea, has a length of 24 m. The capital is Carcassonne,
and the department is divided into the four arrondissements of
Carcassonne, Limoux, Narbonne and Castelnaudary, with 31 cantons and 439
communes. It belongs to the 16th military region, and to the academie
(educational division) of Montpellier, where also is its court of
appeal. It forms the diocese of Carcassonne, and part of the province of
the archbishop of Toulouse. Carcassonne, Narbonne and Castelnaudary are
the principal towns. At Alet, which has hot springs of some note, there
are ruins of a fine Romanesque cathedral destroyed in the religious wars
of the 16th century. The extensive buildings of the Cistercian abbey of
Fontfroide, near Bizanet, include a Romanesque church, a cloister,
dormitories and a refectory of the 12th century. A curious polygonal
church of the 11th century at Rieux-Minervois, the abbey-church at St
Papoul, with its graceful cloister of the 14th century, and the remains
of the important abbey of St Hilaire, founded in the 6th century and
rebuilt from the 12th to the 15th century, are also of antiquarian
interest. Rennes-les-Bains has mineral springs of repute.
AUDEBERT, JEAN BAPTISTE (1759-1800), French artist and naturalist, was
born at Rochefort in 1759. He studied painting and drawing at Paris, and
gained considerable reputation as a miniature-painter. Employed in
preparing plates for the _Histoire des coleopteres_ of G.A. Olivier
(1756-1814), he acquired a taste for natural history. In 1800 appeared
his first original work, _L'Histoire naturelle des singes, des makis et
des galeopitheques_, illustrated by sixty-two folio plates, drawn and
engraved by himself. The colouring in these plates was unusually
beautiful, and was applied by a method devised by himself. Audebert died
in Paris in 1800, leaving complete materials for another great work,
_Histoire des colibris, des oiseaux-mouches, des jacamars et des
promerops_, which was published in 1802. Two hundred copies were printed
in folio, one hundred in large quarto, and fifteen were printed with the
whole text in letters of gold. Another work, left unfinished, was also
published after the author's death, _L'Histoire des grimpereaux et des
oiseaux de paradis_. The last two works also appeared together in two
volumes, _Oiseaux dores ou a reflets metalliques_ (1802).
AUDEFROI LE BATARD, French _trouvere_, flourished at the end of the 12th
century and was born at Arras. Of his life nothing is known. The
seigneur de Nesles, to whom some of his songs are addressed, is probably
the chatelain of Bruges who joined the crusade of 1200. Audefroi was the
author of at least five lyric romances: _Argentine, Belle Idoine, Belle
Isabeau, Belle Emmelos_ and _Beatrix_. These romances follow older
_chansons_ in subject, but the smoothness of the verse and beauty of
detail hardly compensate for the spontaneity of the shorter form.
See A. Jeanroy, _Les Origines de la poesie lyrique en France au moyen
age_ (Paris, 1889).
AUDIENCE (from Lat. _audire_, to hear), the act or state of hearing, the
term being therefore transferred to those who hear or listen, as in a
theatre, at a concert or meeting. In a more technical sense, the term is
applied to the right of access to the sovereign enjoyed by the peers of
the realm individually and by the House of Commons collectively. More
particularly it means the ceremony of the admission of ambassadors,
envoys or others to an interview with a sovereign or an important
official for the purpose of presenting their credentials. In France,
_audience_ is the term applied to the sitting of a law court for hearing
actions. In Spain, _audiencia_ is the name given to certain tribunals
which try appeals from minor courts. The Spanish judges were originally
known as _oidores_, hearers, from the Spanish _oir_, to hear; but they
are now called _ministros_, or _magistrados togados_, robed judges, as
the gown of the Spanish judge is called a _toga_. The _audiencia
pretorial_, i.e. of the praetor, was a court in Spanish America from
which there was no appeal to the viceroy, but only to the council of
the Indies in Spain. It is not the custom in Spain to speak of
_audiencias reales_, royal courts, but of the _audiencias del Reino_,
courts of the kingdom.
In England the _Audience-court_ was an ecclesiastical court, held by the
archbishops of Canterbury and York, in which they once exercised a
considerable part of their jurisdiction, dealing with such matters as
they thought fit to reserve for their own hearing. It has been long
disused and is now merged in the court of arches.
AUDIFFRET-PASQUIER, EDME ARMAND GASTON, DUC D' (1823-1905), French
statesman, was the grand-nephew and adopted son of Baron Etienne Denis
Pasquier. He was created duke in 1844, and became auditor at the council
of state in 1846. After the revolution of 1848 he retired to private
life. Under the empire he was twice an unsuccessful candidate for the
legislature, but was elected in February 1871 to the National Assembly,
and became president of the right centre in 1873. After the fall of
Thiers, he directed the negotiations between the different royalist
parties to establish a king in France, but as he refused to give up the
tricolour for the flag of the old _regime_, the project failed. Yet he
retained the confidence of the chamber, and was its president in 1875
when the constitutional laws were being drawn up. Nominated senator
under the new constitution, he likewise was president of the senate from
March 1876 to 1879 when his party lost the majority. Henceforth he was
less prominent in politics. He was distinguished by his moderation and
uprightness; and he did his best to dissuade MacMahon from taking
violent advisers. In 1878 he was elected to the French Academy, but
never published anything.
AUDIT and AUDITOR. An audit is the examination of the accounts kept by
the financial officers of a state, public corporations and bodies, or
private persons, and the certifying of their accuracy. In the United
Kingdom the public accounts were audited from very early times, though,
until the reign of Queen Elizabeth, in no very systematic way. Prior to
1559 this duty was carried out, sometimes by auditors specially
appointed, at other times by the auditors of the land revenue, or by the
auditor of the exchequer, an office established as early as 1314. But in
1559 an endeavour was made to systematize the auditing of the public
accounts, by the appointment of two auditors of the imprests. These
officers were paid by fee and did their work by deputy, but as the
results were thoroughly unsatisfactory the offices were abolished in
1785. An audit board, consisting of five commissioners, was appointed in
their place, but in order to concentrate under one authority the
auditing of the accounts of the various departments, some of which had
been audited separately, as the naval accounts, the Exchequer and Audit
Act of 1866 was passed. This statute, which sets forth at length the
duties of the audit office, empowered the sovereign to appoint a
"comptroller and auditor-general," with the requisite staff to examine
and verify the accounts prepared by the different departments of the
public service. In examining accounts of the appropriation of the
several supply grants, the comptroller and auditor-general "ascertains
first whether the payments which the account department has charged to
the grant are supported by vouchers or proofs of payments; and second,
whether the money expended has been applied to the purpose or purposes
for which such grant was intended to provide." The treasury may also
submit certain other accounts to the audit of the comptroller-general.
All public moneys payable to the exchequer (q.v.) are paid to the
"account of His Majesty's exchequer" at the Bank of England, and daily
returns of such payments are forwarded to the comptroller. Quarterly
accounts of the income and charge of the consolidated fund are prepared
and transmitted to him, and in case of any deficiency in the
consolidated fund, he may certify to the bank to make advances.
In the United States the auditing of the Federal accounts is in the
charge of the treasury department, under the supervision of the
comptroller of the treasury, under whom are six auditors, (1) for the
treasury department, (2) for the war, (3) for the interior, (4) for the
navy, (5) for the state, &c., (6) for the post office, as well as a
register and assistant register, who keep all general receipt and
expenditure ledgers; there are official auditors in most of the states
and in many cities. In practically all European countries there is a
department of the administration, charged with the auditing of the
public accounts, as the _cour des comptes_ in France, the _Rechnungshof
des deutschen Reiches_ in Germany, &c. All local boards, large cities,
corporations, and other bodies have official auditors for the purpose of
examining and checking their accounts and looking after their
expenditure. So far as regards the work which auditors discharge in
connexion with the accounts of joint-stock companies, building
societies, friendly societies, industrial and provident societies,
savings banks, &c., the word auditor is now almost synonymous with
"skilled accountant," and his duties are discussed in the article
ACCOUNTANTS.
In Scotland there is an "auditor" who is an official of the court of
session, appointed to tax costs in litigation, and who corresponds to
the English taxing-master. In France there are legal officers, called
auditors, attached to the _Conseil d'Etat_, whose duties consist in
drawing up briefs and preparing documents. On the continent of Europe,
lawyers skilled in military law are called "auditors" (see MILITARY
LAW).
Auditor is also the designation of certain officials of the Roman curia.
The _auditores Rotae_ are the judges of the court of the Rota (so
called, according to Hinschius, probably from the form of the panelling
in the room where they originally met). These were originally
ecclesiastics appointed to _hear_ particular questions in dispute and
report to the pope, who retained the decision in his own hands. In the
_Speculum juris_ of Durandus (published in 1272 and re-edited in 1287
and 1291) the _auditores palatii domini papae_ are cited as permanent
officials appointed to instruct the pope on questions as they arose. The
court of the Rota appears for the first time under this name in the bull
_Romani Pontificis_ of Martin V. in 1422, and the auditores by this time
had developed into a permanent tribunal to which the definitive decision
of certain disputes, hitherto relegated to a commission of cardinals or
to the pope himself, was assigned. From this time the powers of the
auditores increased until the reform of the curia by Sixtus V., when the
creation of the congregations of cardinals for specific purposes tended
gradually to withdraw from the Rota its most important functions. It
still, however, ranks as the supreme court of justice in the papal
curia, and, as members of it, the auditores enjoy special privileges.
They are prelates, and, besides the rights enjoyed by these, have others
conceded by successive popes, e.g. that of holding benefices in
plurality, of non-residence, &c. When the pope says mass pontifically
the subdeacon is always an auditor. The auditores must be in priest's or
deacon's orders, and have always been selected--nominally at
least--after severe tests as to their moral and intellectual
qualifications. They are twelve in number, and, by the constitution of
Pius IV., four of them were to be foreigners; one French, one Spanish,
one German and one Venetian; while the nomination of others was the
privilege of certain, cities. No bishop, unless _in partibus_ (see
BISHOP), may be an auditor. On the other hand, from the auditores, as
the intellectual _elite_ of the curia, the episcopate, the nunciature
and the cardinalate are largely recruited. The _auditor camerae_
(_uditore generale della reverenda camera apostolica_) is an official
formerly charged with important executive functions. In 1485, by a bull
of Innocent VIII., he was given extensive jurisdiction over all civil
and criminal causes arising in the curia, or appealed to it from the
papal territories. In addition he received the function of watching over
the execution of all sentences passed by the curia. This was extended
later, by Pius IV., to a similar executive function in respect of all
papal bulls and briefs, wherever no special executor was named. This
right was confirmed by Gregory XVI. in 1834, and the auditor may still
in principle issue letters monitory. In practice, however, this function
was at all times but rarely exercised, and, since 1847, has fallen to a
prelate _locum tenens_, who also took over the auditor's jurisdiction in
the papal states (Hinschius, _Kathol. Kirchenrecht_, i. 409, &c.).
_Auditores_ (listeners), in the early Church, was another name. for
catechumens (q.v.).
AUDLEY, or AUDELEY, SIR JAMES (c. 1316-1386), one of the original
knights, or founders, of the order of the Garter, was the eldest son of
Sir James Audley of Stratton Audley in Oxfordshire. When the order of
the Garter was founded, he was instituted as one of the first founders,
and his stall in St George's chapel, Windsor, was the eleventh on the
side of Edward, the Black Prince. He appears to have served in France in
1346, and in August 1350 took part in the naval fight off Sluys. When
hostilities were renewed between England and France in 1354 Sir James
was in constant attendance upon the Black Prince, and earned a great
reputation for valour. At the battle of Poitiers on the 19th of
September 1356 he took his stand in front of the English army, and after
fighting for a long time was severely wounded and carried from the
fight. After the victory, the prince inquired for Sir James, who was
brought to the royal tent, where Edward told him he had been the bravest
knight on his side, and granted him an annuity of five hundred marks.
Sir James made over this gift to the four esquires who had attended him
during the battle, and received from the prince a further pension of six
hundred marks. In 1359 he was one of the leaders of an expedition into
France, in 1360 he took the fortress of Chaven in Brittany, and was
present at Calais when peace was made between England and France in
October 1360. He was afterwards governor of Aquitaine and great
seneschal of Poitou, and took part in the capture of the town of La
Roche-sur-Yon by Edmund, earl of Cambridge. He died in 1386 at
Fontenay-le-Comte, where he had gone to reside, and was buried at
Poitiers.
See Jean Froissart, _Chronigues_, translated by T. Johnes (Hafod,
1810); G.F. Beltz, _Memorials of the Most Noble Order of the Garter_
(London, 1841).
AUDLEY, THOMAS AUDLEY, BARON (c. 1488-1544), lord chancellor of England,
whose parentage is unknown, is believed to have studied at Buckingham
College, Cambridge. He was educated for the law, entered the Middle
Temple (becoming autumn reader in 1526), was town clerk of Colchester,
and was on the commission of the peace for Essex in 1521. In 1523 he was
returned to parliament for Essex, and represented this constituency in
subsequent parliaments. In 1527 he was groom of the chamber, and became
a member of Wolsey's household. On the fall of the latter in 1529, he
was made chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, and the same year speaker
of the House of Commons, presiding over the famous assembly styled the
Black or Long Parliament of the Reformation, which abolished the papal
jurisdiction. The same year he headed a deputation of the Commons to the
king to complain of Bishop Fisher's speech against their proceedings. He
interpreted the king's "moral" scruples to parliament concerning his
marriage with Catherine, and made himself the instrument of the king in
the attack upon the clergy and the preparation of the act of supremacy.
In 1531 he had been made a serjeant-at-law and king's serjeant; and on
the 20th of May 1532 he was knighted, and succeeded Sir Thomas More as
lord keeper of the great seal, being appointed lord chancellor on the
26th of January 1533. He supported the king's divorce from Catherine and
the marriage with Anne Boleyn; and presided at the trial of Fisher and
More in 1535, at which his conduct and evident intention to secure a
conviction has been generally censured. Next year he tried Anne Boleyn
and her lovers, was present on the scaffold at the unfortunate queen's
execution, and recommended to parliament the new act of succession. In
1537 he condemned to death as traitors the Lincolnshire and the
Yorkshire rebels. On the 29th of November 1538 he was created Baron
Audley of Walden; and soon afterwards presided as lord steward at the
trials of Henry Pole, Lord Montacute, and of the unfortunate marquess of
Exeter. In 1539, though inclining himself to the Reformation, he made
himself the king's instrument in enforcing religious conformity, and in
the passing of the Six Articles Act. On the 24th of April 1540 he was
made a knight of the Garter, and subsequently managed the attainder of
Thomas Cromwell, earl of Essex, and the dissolution of Henry's marriage
with Anne of Cleves. In 1542 he warmly supported the privileges of the
Commons in the case of George Ferrers, member for Plymouth, arrested and
imprisoned in London, but his conduct was inspired as usual by
subservience to the court, which desired to secure a subsidy, and his
opinion that the arrest was a flagrant contempt has been questioned by
good authority. He resigned the great seal on the 21st of April 1544,
and died on the 30th, being buried at Saffron Walden, where he had
prepared for himself a splendid tomb. He received several grants of
monastic estates, including the priory of Christ Church in London and
the abbey of Walden in Essex, where his grandson, Thomas Howard, earl of
Suffolk, built Audley End, doubtless named after him. In 1542 he
re-endowed and re-established Buckingham College, Cambridge, under the
new name of St Mary Magdalene, and ordained in the statutes that his
heirs, "the possessors of the late monastery of Walden," should be
visitors of the college _in perpetuum_. _A Book of Orders for the Warre
both by Sea and Land_ (Harleian MS. 297, f. 144) is attributed to his
authorship. He married (1) Christina, daughter of Sir Thomas
Barnardiston, and (2) Elizabeth, daughter of Thomas Grey, marquess of
Dorset, by whom he had two daughters. His barony became extinct at his
death.
AUDOUIN, JEAN VICTOR (1797-1841), French naturalist, was born at Paris
on the 27th of April 1797. He began the study of law, but was diverted
from it by his strong predilection for natural history, and entered the
medical profession. In 1824 he was appointed assistant to P.A. Latreille
(1762-1833) in the entomological chair at the Paris museum of natural
history, and succeeded him in 1833. In 1838 he became a member of the
Academy of Sciences. He died in Paris on the 9th of November 1841. His
principal work, _Histoire des insectes nuisibles a la vigne_ (1842), was
completed after his death by Henry Milne-Edwards and Emile Blanchard.
His papers mostly appeared in the _Annales des sciences naturelles_,
which, with A.T. Brongniart and J.B.A. Dumas, he founded in 1824, and in
the proceedings of the Societe Entomologique de France, of which he was
one of the founders in 1832.
AUDRAN, the name of a family of French artists and engravers. The first
who devoted himself to the art of engraving was Claude Audran, born
1597, and the last was Benoit, Claude's great-grandson, who died in
1772. The two most distinguished members of the family are Gerard and
Jean.
GERARD, or GIRARD, AUDRAN, the most celebrated French engraver, was the
third son of Claude Audran, and was born at Lyons in 1640. He was taught
the first principles of design and engraving by his father; and,
following the example of his brother, went to Paris to perfect himself
in his art. He there, in 1666, engraved for Le Brun "Constantine's
Battle with Maxentius," his "Triumph," and the "Stoning of Stephen,"
which gave great satisfaction to the painter, and placed Audran in the
very first rank of engravers at Paris. Next year he set out for Rome,
where he resided three years, and engraved several fine plates. That
great patron of the arts, J.B. Colbert, was so struck with the beauty of
Audran's works, that he persuaded Louis XIV. to recall him to Paris. On
his return he applied himself assiduously to engraving, and was
appointed engraver to the king, from whom he received great
encouragement. In the year 1681 he was admitted to the council of the
Royal Academy. He died at Paris in 1703. His engravings of Le Brun's
"Battles of Alexander" are regarded as the best of his numerous works.
"He was," says the Abbe Fontenay, "the most celebrated engraver that
ever existed in the historical line. We have several subjects, which he
engraved from his own designs, that manifested as much taste as
character and facility. But in the 'Battles of Alexander' he surpassed
even the expectations of Le Brun himself." Gerard published in 1683 a
work entitled _Les Proportions du corps humain mesurees sur les plus
belles figures de l'antiquite_.
JEAN AUDRAN, nephew of Gerard, was born at Lyons in 1667. After having
received instructions from his father, he went to Paris to perfect
himself in the art of engraving under his uncle, next to whom he was the
most distinguished member of his family. At the age of twenty his genius
began to display itself in a surprising manner; and his subsequent
success was such, that in 1707 he obtained the title of engraver to the
king, Louis XIV., who allowed him a pension, with apartments in the
Gobelins; and the following year he was made a member of the Royal
Academy. He was eighty years of age before he quitted the graver, and
nearly ninety when he died. The best prints of this artist are those
which appear not so pleasing to the eye at first sight. In these the
etching constitutes a great part; and he has finished them in a bold,
rough style. The "Rape of the Sabines," after Poussin, is considered his
masterpiece.
AUDRAN, EDMOND (1842-1901), French musical composer, was born at Lyons
on the 11th of April 1842. He studied music at the Ecole Niedermeyer,
where he won the prize for composition in 1859. Two years later he
accepted the post of organist of the church of St Joseph at Marseilles.
He made his first appearance as a dramatic composer at Marseilles with
_L'Ours et le Pacha_ (1862), a musical version of one of Scribe's
vaudevilles. This was followed by _La Chercheuse d'Esprit_ (1864), a
comic opera, also produced at Marseilles. Audran wrote a funeral march
on the death of Meyerbeer, which was performed with some success, and
made various attempts to win fame as a writer of sacred music. He
produced a mass (Marseilles, 1873), an oratorio, _La Sulamite_
(Marseilles, 1876), and numerous minor works, but he is known almost
entirely as a composer of the lighter forms of opera. His first Parisian
success was made with _Les Noces d'Olivette_ (1879), a work which
speedily found its way to London and (as _Olivette_) ran for more than a
year at the Strand theatre (1880-1881). Audran's music has, in fact, met
with as much favour in England as in France, and all save a few of his
works have been given in a more or less adapted form in London theatres.
Besides those already mentioned, the following have been the most
undeniably successful of Audran's many comic operas: _Le Grand Mogol_
(Marseilles, 1876; Paris, 1884; London, as _The Grand Mogul_, 1884), _La
Mascotte_ (Paris, 1880; London, as _The Mascotte_, 1881), _Gillette de
Narbonne_ (Paris, 1882; London, as _Gillette_, 1883), _La Cigale et la
Fourmi_ (Paris, 1886; London, as _La Cigale_, 1890), _Miss Helyett_
(Paris, 1890; London, as _Miss Decima_ 1891), _La Poupee_ (Paris, 1896;
London, 1897). Audran was one of the best of the successors of
Offenbach. He had little of Offenbach's humour, but his music is
distinguished by an elegance and a refinement of manner which lift it
above the level of opera bouffe to the confines of genuine opera
comique. He was a fertile if not a very original melodist, and his
orchestration is full of variety, without being obtrusive or vulgar.
Many of his operas, _La Mascotte_ in particular, reveal a degree of
musicianship which is rarely associated with the ephemeral productions
of the lighter stage. He died in Paris on the 16th of August 1901.
AUDREHEM, ARNOUL D' (c. 1305-1370), French soldier, was born at
Audrehem, in the present department of Pas de Calais, near St Omer.
Nothing is known of his career before 1332, when he is heard of at the
court of the king of France. Between 1335 and 1342 he went three times
to Scotland to aid King David Bruce in his wars. In 1342 he became
captain for the king of France in Brittany; then he seems to have served
in the household of the duke of Normandy, and in 1346, as one of the
main defenders of Calais, was taken as a prisoner to England by Edward
III. From 1349 he holds an important place in the military history of
France, first as captain in Angouleme, and from June 1351, in succession
to the lord of Beaujeu, as marshal of France. In March 1352 he was
appointed lieutenant for the king in the territory between the Loire and
the Dordogne, in June 1353 in Normandy, and in 1355 in Artois, Picardy
and the Boulonnais. It was Audrehem who arrested Charles the Bad, king
of Navarre, and his partisans, at the banquet given by the dauphin at
Rouen in 1356. At Poitiers he was one of those who advised King John to
attack the English, and, charging in the front line of the French army,
was slightly wounded and taken prisoner. From England he was several
times given safe-conducts to France, and he took an active part in the
negotiations for the treaty of Bretigny, recovering his liberty the same
time as King John. In 1361, as the king's lieutenant in Languedoc, he
prevented the free companies from seizing the castles, and negotiated
the treaty with their chiefs under which they followed Henry, count of
Trastamara (later Henry II. of Castile), into Spain. In 1365 he himself
joined du Guesclin in the expedition to Spain, was taken prisoner with
him by the Black Prince at the battle of Najera (1367), and was unable
to pay his ransom until 1369. In 1368, on account of his age, he was
relieved of the office of marshal, being appointed bearer of the
oriflamme, with a pension of 2000 livres. He was sent to Spain in 1370
by Charles V., to urge his friend du Guesclin to return to France, and
in spite of his age he took part in the battle of Pontvallain (December
1370), but fell ill and died, probably at Saumur, in the latter part of
December 1370.
See Emile Molinier, "Etude sur la vie d'Arnoul d'Audrehem, marechal de
France," in _Memoires presentes par divers savants a l'academie des
inscriptions et belles-lettres_, 2^e serie, iv. (1883).
AUDUBON, JOHN JAMES (1780-1851), American naturalist, is said to have
been born on the 5th of May 1780 in Louisiana, his father being a French
naval officer and his mother a Spanish Creole. He was educated in Paris,
where he had lessons from the painter, J.L. David. Returning to America
in 1798 he settled on a farm near Philadelphia, and gave himself up to
the study of natural history, and especially to drawing birds. In 1826
he went to England in the hope of getting his drawings published, and by
the following year he had obtained sufficient subscribers to enable him
to begin the publication of his _Birds of America_, which on its
completion in 1838 consisted of 435 coloured plates, containing 1055
figures of birds the size of life. Cuvier called it "le plus magnifique
monument que l'art ait encore eleve a la nature." The descriptive matter
to accompany the plates appeared at Edinburgh in 5 vols. from 1831 to
1839 under the title of _American Ornithological Biography._ During the
publication of these works Audubon divided his time between Great
Britain and America, devoting his leisure to expeditions to various
parts of the United States and Canada for the purpose of collecting new
material. In 1842 he bought an estate on the Hudson, now Audubon Park in
New York City. In 1844 he published in America a popular octavo edition
of his _Birds of America._ He also took up the preparation of a new
work, _The Quadrupeds of America_, with the collaboration of John
Bachman, the publication of which was begun in New York in 1846 and
finished in 1853-1854. He died at New York on the 27th of January 1851.
See ORNITHOLOGY; also _Audubon and his Journals_ (1897), by his
grand-daughter Maria R. Audubon, with notes by Elliot Coues.
AUE, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony, at the confluence of
the Mulde and Schwarzwasser, 21 m. S.W. from Chemnitz on the railway to
Adorf. It has a school of lace-making, foundries, and manufactures of
machinery, tin-plate and cotton goods. Pop. (1905) 17,102.
AUERBACH, BERTHOLD (1812-1882), German novelist, was born on the 28th of
February 1812 at Nordstetten in the Wurttemberg Black Forest. His
parents were Jews, and he was intended for the ministry; but after
studying philosophy at Tubingen, Munich and Heidelberg, and becoming
estranged from Jewish orthodoxy by the study of Spinoza, he devoted
himself to literature. He made a fortunate beginning in a romance on the
life of Spinoza (1837), so interesting in itself, and so close in its
adherence to fact, that it may be read with equal advantage as a novel
or as a biography. _Dichter und Kaufmann_ followed in 1839, and a
translation of Spinoza's works in 1841, when Auerbach turned to the
class of fiction which has made him famous, the _Schwarzwalder
Dorfgeschichten_ (1843), stories of peasant life in the Black Forest. In
these, as well as in _Barfussele_ (1856), _Edelweiss_ (1861), and other
novels of greater compass, he depicts the life of the south German
peasant as "Jeremias Gotthelf" (Albrecht Bitzius) had painted the
peasantry of Switzerland, but in a less realistic spirit. When this vein
was exhausted Auerbach returned to his first phase as a philosophical
novelist, producing _Auf der Hohe_ (1865), _Das Landhaus am Rhein_
(1869), and other romances of profound speculative tendencies, turning
on plots invented by himself. With the exception of _Auf der Hohe_,
these works did not enjoy much popularity, and suffer from lack of form
and concentration. Auerbach's fame continues to rest upon his
_Dorfgeschichten_, although the celebrity of even these has been
impaired by the growing demand for a more uncompromising realism.
Auerbach died at Cannes on the 8th of February 1882.
The first collected edition of Auerbach's _Schriften_ appeared in 22
vols. in 1863-1864; the best edition is in 18 vols. (1892-1895).
Auerbach's _Briefe an seinen Freund J. Auerbach_ (with a preface by F.
Spielhagen) were published in 2 vols. (1884). See E. Zabel, _B.
Auerbach_ (1882); and E. Lasker, _B. Auerbach, ein Gedenkblatt_
(1882).
AUERSPERG, ANTON ALEXANDER, GRAF VON (1806-1876), Austrian poet, who
wrote under the pseudonym of ANASTASIUS GRUN, was born on the 11th of
April 1806, at Laibach, the capital of the Austrian duchy of Carniola,
and was head of the Thurn-am-Hart branch of the Carniolan cadet line of
the house of Auersperg. He received his university education first at
Graz and then at Vienna, where he studied jurisprudence. In 1830 he
succeeded to his ancestral property, and in 1832 appeared as a member of
the estates of Carniola on the _Herrenbank_ of the diet at Laibach. Here
he distinguished himself by his outspoken criticism of the Austrian
government, leading the opposition of the duchy to the exactions of the
central power. In 1832 the title of "imperial chamberlain" was conferred
upon him, and in 1839 he married Maria, daughter of Count Attems. After
the revolution of 1848 at Vienna he represented the district of Laibach
at the German national assembly at Frankfort-on-the-Main, to which he
tried in vain to persuade his Slovene compatriots to send
representatives. After a few months, however, disgusted with the violent
development of the revolution, he resigned his seat, and again retired
into private life. In 1860 he was summoned to the remodelled _Reichsrat_
by the emperor, who next year nominated him a life member of the
Austrian upper house (_Herrenhaus_), where, while remaining a keen
upholder of the German centralized empire, as against the federalism of
Slavs and Magyars, he greatly distinguished himself as one of the most
intrepid and influential supporters of the cause of liberalism, in both
political and religious matters, until his death at Graz on the 12th of
September 1876.
Count Auersperg's first publication, a collection of lyrics, _Blatter
der Liebe_ (1830), showed little originality; but his second production,
_Der letzte Ritter_ (1830), brought his genius to light. It celebrates
the deeds and adventures of the emperor Maximilian I. (1493-1519) in a
cycle of poems written in the strophic form of the _Nibelungenlied_. But
Auersperg's fame rests almost exclusively on his political poetry; two
collections entitled _Spaziergange eines Wiener Poeten_ (1831) and
_Schutt_ (1835) created a sensation in Germany by their originality and
bold liberalism. These two books, which are remarkable not merely for
their outspoken opinions, but also for their easy versification and
powerful imagery, were the forerunners of the German political poetry of
1840-1848. His _Gedichte_ (1837), if anything, increased his reputation;
his epics, _Die Nibelungen im Frack_ (1843) and _Der Pfaff vom
Kahlenberg_ (1850), are characterized by a fine ironic humour. He also
produced masterly translations of the popular Slovenic songs current in
Carniola (_Volkslieder aus Krain_, 1850), and of the English poems
relating to "Robin Hood" (1864).
Anastasius Grun's _Gesammelte Werke_ were published by L.A. Frankl in
5 vols. (Berlin, 1877); his _Briefwechsel mit L.A. Frankl_ (Berlin,
1897). A selection of his _Politische Reden und Schriften_ has been
published by S. Hock (Vienna, 1906). See P. von Radics, _Anastasius
Grun_ (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1879).
AUFIDENA, an ancient city of the Samnites Caraceni, the site of which is
just north of the modern Alfedena,[1] Italy, a station on the railway
between Sulmona and Isernia, 37 m. from the latter. Its remains are
fully and accurately described by L. Mariani in _Monumenti dei Lincei_
(1901), 225 seq.: cf. _Notizie degli scavi_, 1901, 442 seq.; 1902, 516
seq. The ancient city occupied two hills, both over 3800 ft. above
sea-level (in the valley between were found the supposed remains of the
later forum), and the walls, of rough Cyclopean work, were over a mile
in length. A fortified outpost lay on a still higher hill to the north.
Not very much is as yet known of the city itself (though one public
building of the 5th century B.C. was excavated in 1901, and a small
sanctuary in 1902), attention having been chiefly devoted to the
necropolis which lay below it; 1400 tombs had already been examined in
1908, though this number is conjectured to be only a sixteenth of the
whole. They are all inhumation burials, of the advanced iron age, and
date from the 7th to the 4th century B.C., falling into three
classes--those without coffin, those with a coffin formed of stone
slabs, and those with a coffin formed of tiles. The objects discovered
are preserved in a museum on the spot. In the Roman period we find
Aufidena figuring as a post station on the road between Sulmo and
Aesernia, which, however, runs past Castel di Sangro, crossing the river
by an ancient bridge some 5 m. to the north-east. Castel di Sangro has
remains of ancient walls, but these are attributed to a road by Mariani,
and in any case the fortified area there was quite small, only
one-sixteenth the size of Aufidena. The attempted identification of
Castel di Sangro with Aufidena must therefore be rejected, though we
must allow that it was probably the Roman post station; the ancient
city, since its capture by the Romans in the 3rd century B.C., having
lost something of its importance. (T. As.)