"_Observations._--People speak of 'manual signs.' Of course there are
signs which are made with the hands only, as there are others which
are labial, &c. But the sign language is comprehensive, and at times
the whole frame is engaged in its use. A late American teacher could
and did 'sign' a story to his pupils with his hands behind him. Facial
expression plays an important part in the language. Sympathetic
gestures are individualistic and spontaneous, and are sometimes
unconsciously made. The speaker, feeling that words are inadequate,
reinforces them with gesture. Arbitrary signs are, e.g., drumming with
three separated fingers on the chin for 'uncle.' Grammatical signs are
those which are used for inflections, parts of speech, or letters as
in the manual alphabet, and some numerical signs, though other
numerals may be classed as natural; also signs for sounds, and even
labial signs. Signs, whether natural or arbitrary, which gain
acceptance, especially if they are shortened, are 'conventional.'
'Mimic action' refers, e.g., to the sign for sawing, the side of one
hand being passed to and fro over the side or back of the
other.'Pantomime' means, e.g., when the signer pretends to hang up his
hat and coat, roll up his sleeves, kneel on his board, guide the saw
with his thumb, saw through, wipe his forehead, &c."
Illustrations of one style of numerical signs are given below.
[Illustration: FIG. 1.]
Units are signified with the palm turned inwards; tens with the palm
turned outwards; hundreds with the fingers downwards; thousands with the
left hand to the right shoulder; millions with the hand near the
forehead. For 12, sign 10 outwards and 2 inwards, and so on up to 19. 21
= 2 outwards, 1 inwards, and so on up to 30. 146 = 1 downwards, 4
outwards, 6 inwards. 207,837 = 2 downwards, 7 inwards (both at
shoulder), 8 downwards, 3 outwards, 7 inwards. 599,126,345 = 5
downwards, 9 outwards, 9 inwards (all near forehead); 1 downwards, 2
outwards, 6 inwards (all at shoulder); 3 downwards, 4 outwards, 5
inwards (in front of chest).
Only the third, and a few of the second, subdivision of the second
section of the above classes of signs can be excluded when talking of
signs as being the deaf-mute's natural language. In fact we hesitate to
call representative gesture--e.g. the horns and action of milking for
"cow," the smelling at something grasped in the hand for "flower,"
&c.--conventional at all, except when shortened as the usual sign for
"cat" is, for instance, from the sign for whiskers _plus_ stroking the
fur on back and tail _plus_ the action of a cat licking its paw and
washing its face, to the sign for whiskers only.
The deaf child expresses himself in the sign language of his own accord.
The supposition that in manual or combined schools generally they "teach
them signs" is incorrect, except that perhaps occasionally a few pupils
may be drilled and their signs polished for a dramatic rendering of a
poem at a prize distribution or public meeting, which is no more
"teaching them signs" than training hearing children to recite the same
poem orally and polishing their rendering of it is teaching them
English. If the deaf boy meets with some one who will use gesture to
him, a new sign will be invented as occasion requires by one or other to
express a new idea, and if it be a good one is tacitly adopted to
express that idea, and so an entire language is built up. It follows
that in different localities signs will differ to a great extent, but
one who is accustomed to signing can readily see the connexion and
understand what is meant even when the signs are partly novel to him. We
are sometimes asked if we can make a deaf child understand abstract
ideas by this language. Our answer is that we can, if a hearing child of
no greater age and intelligence can understand the same ideas in
English. Signs are particularly the best means of conveying religious
truths to the deaf. If you wish to appeal to him, to impress him, to
reach his heart and his sympathies (and, incidentally, to offer the best
possible substitute for music), use his own eloquent language of signs.
We have conversed by signs with deaf people from all parts of the
British Isles, from France, Norway and Sweden, Poland, Finland, Italy,
Russia, Turkey, the United States, and found that they are indeed a
world-wide means of communication, even when we wandered on to most
unusual and abstract subjects. Deaf people in America converse with Red
Indians with ease thereby, which shows how natural the generality of
even de l'Epee signs are. The sign language is everybody's natural
language, not only the deaf-mute's.
Addison (_Deaf Mutism_, p. 283) quotes John Bulwer as follows:--"What
though you (the deaf and dumb) cannot express your minds in those
verbal contrivances of man's invention: yet you want not speech who
have your whole body for a tongue, having a language which is more
natural and significant, which is common to you with us, to wit,
gesture, the general and universal language of human nature." The same
writer says further on (p. 297): "The same process of growth goes on
alike with the signs of the deaf and dumb as with the spoken words of
the hearing. Arnold, than whom no stronger advocate of the oral method
exists, recognizes this in his comment on this principle of the German
school, for he writes: 'It is much to be regretted that teachers
should indulge in unqualified assertions of the impossibility of
deaf-mutes attaining to clear conceptions and abstract thinking by
signs or mimic gestures. Facts are against them.' Again, Graham Bell,
who is generally considered an opponent of the sign system, says: 'I
think that if we have the mental condition of the child alone in view
without reference to language, no language will reach the mind like
the language of signs; it is the method of reaching the mind of the
deaf child.'"
The opinions of the deaf themselves, from all parts of the world, are
practically unanimous on this question. In the words of Dr Smith,
president of the World's Congress of the Deaf held at St Louis,
Missouri, in 1904, under the auspices of the National Association of
the Deaf, U.S.A., "the educated deaf have a right to be heard in these
matters, and they must and shall be heard." A portion may be quoted of
the resolutions passed at that congress of 570 of the best-informed
deaf the world has ever seen, at least scores, if not hundreds, of
them holding degrees, and being as well educated as the vast majority
of teachers of the deaf in England: "Resolved, that the oral method,
which withholds from the congenitally and quasi-congenitally deaf the
use of the language of signs outside the schoolroom, robs the children
of their birthright; that those champions of the oral method, who have
been carrying on a warfare, both overt and covert, against the use of
the language of signs by the adult deaf, are not friends of the deaf;
and that, in our opinion, it is the duty of every teacher of the deaf,
no matter what method he or she uses, to have a working command of the
sign language."
It is often urged as an objection to the use of signs that those who use
them think in them, and that their English (or other vernacular
language) suffers in consequence. There is, however, no more objection
to thinking in signs than to thinking in any other language, and as to
the second objection, facts are against such a statement. The
best-educated deaf in the world, as a class, are in America, and the
American deaf sign almost to a man. It is true that at first a beginner
in school may, when at a loss how to express himself in words, render
his thoughts in sign-English, if we may use the expression, just as a
schoolboy will sometimes put Latin words in the English order. That is,
the deaf pupil puts the word in the natural order of the signs, which is
really the logical order, and is much nearer the Latin sequence of words
than the English. But, firstly, if he had always been forbidden to use
signs he would not express himself in English any better in that
particular instance; he would simply not attempt to express himself at
all,--so he loses nothing, at least; and secondly, it is perfectly easy
to teach him in a very short time that each language has its own idiom
and that the thought is expressed in a different order in each.
Of the deaf child's moral condition nothing more need be said than that
it is at first exactly that of his hearing brother, and his development
therein depends entirely upon whether he is trained to the same degree.
The need of this is great. He is quite as capable of religious and moral
instruction, and benefits as much by what he receives of it. Happiness
is a noticeable feature of the character of the deaf when they are
allowed to mix with each other. The charge of bad temper can usually be
sustained only when the fault is on the side of those with whom they
live. For instance, the latter often talk in the presence of the deaf
person without saying a word to him, and if he then shows irritation,
which is not often in any case, it is no more to be wondered at than if
a hearing person resents whispering or other secret communication in his
presence.
3. _Social Status, &c._--From the 1901 census "Summary Tables" we gather
the following facts concerning the occupations of the deaf, aged ten and
upwards, in England and Wales. About half of the total number, taking
males and females together (13,450), are engaged in occupations--6665.
The rest--6785--are retired or unoccupied. Of the former, the following
table given below shows the distribution:--
In general or local government work (clerks, messengers, &c.) 11
In professional occupations and subordinate services 87
In domestic offices or services 788
In commercial occupations 12
In work connected with conveyance of men, goods or messages 144
In agriculture 568
In fishing 3
In and about mines and quarries, &c. 151
In work connected with metals, machines, implements, &c. 503
In work connected with precious metals, jewels, games, &c. 46
In building and works of construction 485
In work connected with wood, furniture, fittings and decorations 470
In work connected with brick, cement, pottery and glass 153
In work connected with chemicals, oil, soap, &c. 46
In work connected with skins, hair and feathers 137
In work connected with paper, prints, books, &c. 238
In work connected with textile fabrics 407
In work connected with dress 1829
In work connected with food, tobacco, drink and lodging 194
In work connected with gas, water and electric supply, and
sanitary service 22
Other general and undefined workers and dealers 371
----
Total 6665
Among those in professional occupations are a clergyman, five law
clerks, ten schoolmasters, teachers, &c., thirty-seven painters,
engravers and sculptors, and seven photographers. Of those not engaged
in occupations, 235 have retired from business, and 245 are living on
their own means. Probably a very large number of the remainder were
out of work or engaged in odd jobs at the time of the census; it would
certainly be incorrect to take the words "Without specified
occupations or unoccupied" to mean that those classified as such were
permanently unable to support themselves.
The commonest occupations of men are bootmaking (555), tailoring
(429), farm-labouring (287), general labouring (257), carpentry (195),
cabinet-making (142), painting, decorating and glazing (95),
French-polishing (88), harness-making, &c. (80).
The commonest occupations of women are dressmaking (484), domestic
service (367), laundry and washing service (230), tailoring (170),
shirtmaking, &c. (81), charing (79).
In Munich there are about sixty deaf artists, especially painters and
sculptors. In Germany and Austria generally, deaf lithographers,
xylographers and photographers are well employed, as are bookbinders
in Leipzig in particular, and labourers in the provinces.
In France there are several deaf writers, journalists, &c., two
principals of schools, an architect, a score or so of painters,
several of whom are ladies, nine sculptors, and a few engravers,
photographers, proof-readers, &c.
Italy boasts deaf wood-carvers, sculptors, painters, and architects
graduating from the universities and academies of fine arts with
prizes and medals; also type-setters, pressmen, carvers of coral,
ivory and precious stones.
Two gentlemen in the office of the Norwegian government are deaf, as
are four in the engraving department of the land survey; one is a
master-lithographer, another a master-printer, a third a civil
engineer, and the rest are engaged in the usual trades, as are those
in Sweden.
The deaf form societies of their own to guard their interests, for
social intercourse and other purposes. In England there is the British
Deaf and Dumb Association; in America the National Association of the
Deaf and many lesser societies; Germany has no fewer than 150 such
associations, some of which are athletic clubs, benefit societies,
dramatic clubs, and so forth. The central Federation is the largest
German association. France has the National Union of Deaf-Mutes and
others, many being benefit clubs. Italy has some societies; Sweden has
eight.
In the United States there are no fewer than fifty-three publications
devoted to the interests of the deaf, most of them being school
magazines published in the institutions themselves. Great Britain and
Ireland have six, four of them being school magazines. France, Germany,
Sweden, Hungary have several, and Finland, Russia, Norway, Denmark and
Austria are represented. Canada has three.
There are many Church and other missions to the deaf in England and
abroad, which are much needed owing to the difficulty the average deaf
person has in understanding the archaic language of both Bible and
Prayer-book. Until they have this explained to them it is useless to
place these books in their hands, and even where they are well-educated
and can follow the services, they fail to get the sermon. Chaplains and
missioners engage in all branches of pastoral work among them, and also
try to find them employment, interpret for them where necessary, and
interview people on their behalf.
The difficulty of obtaining employment for the deaf has been increased
in Great Britain by the Employers' Liability and Workmen's Compensation
Acts, for masters are afraid--needlessly, as facts show--to employ them,
under the impression that they are more liable to accidents owing to
their affliction.
The new After-Care Committees of the London County Council are a late
confession of a need which other bodies have long endeavoured to supply.
Education should be a development of the whole nature of the child. The
board of education in England provides for intellectual, industrial and
physical training, but does not take cognizance of those parts of
education which are far more important--the social, moral and spiritual.
Some teachers, both oral and manual, do an incalculable amount of good
at the cost of great self-sacrifice and in face of much discouragement.
They deserve the highest praise for so doing, and such work needs to be
carried on after their pupils leave school.
_Education._
_History._[2]--"Who hath made man's mouth? or who maketh a man dumb, or
deaf, or seeing, or blind? Is it not I the Lord?" (Ex. iv. 11). Such is
the first known reference to the deaf. But the significance of this
statement was not realized by the ancients, who mercilessly destroyed
all the defective, the deaf among the rest. Greek and Roman custom
demanded their death, and they were thrown into the river, or otherwise
killed, without causing any comment but that so many encumbrances had
been removed. They were regarded as being on a mental level with idiots
and utterly incapable of helping themselves. In later times Roman law
forbade those who were deaf and dumb from birth to make a will or
bequest, placing them under the care of guardians who were responsible
for them to the state; though if a deaf person had lost hearing after
having been educated, and could either speak or write, he retained his
rights. Herodotus refers to a deaf son of Croesus, whom he declares to
have suddenly recovered his speech upon seeing his father about to be
killed. Gellius makes a similar statement with reference to a certain
athlete. Hippocrates was in advance of Aristotle when he realized that
deaf-mutes did not speak simply because they did not know how to; for
the last-named seems to have considered that some defect of the
intellect was the cause of their inability to utter articulate sounds.
Pliny the elder and Messalla Corvinus mention deaf-mutes who could
paint.
The true mental condition of the deaf was realized, however, by few, if
any, before the time of Christ. He, as He opened the ears of the deaf
man and loosened his tongue, talked to him in his own language, the
language of signs.
St Augustine erred amazingly when he declared that the deaf could have
no faith, since "faith comes by hearing only." The Talmud, on the other
hand, recognized that they could be taught, and were therefore not
idiotic.
It is, however, with those who attempted to educate the deaf that we are
here chiefly concerned. The first to call for notice is St John of
Beverley. The Venerable Bede tells how this bishop made a mute speak and
was credited with having performed a miracle in so doing. Probably it
was nothing more than the first attempt to teach by the oral method, and
the greatest credit is due to him for being so far in advance of his
times as to try to instruct his pupil at all. Bede himself invented a
system of counting on the hands; and also a "manual speech," as he
called it,--using his numerals to indicate the number of the letter of
the alphabet; thus, the sign for "seven" would also signify the letter
"g," and so forth. But we do not know that he intended this alphabet for
the use of the deaf.
It is not until the 16th century that we hear much of anybody else who
was interested in the deaf, but at this date we find Girolamo Cardan
stating that they can be instructed by writing, after they have been
shown the signification of words, since their mental power is unaffected
by their inability to hear.
Pedro Ponce de Leon (c. 1520-1584), a Spanish Benedictine monk, is more
worthy of notice, as he, to use his own words, taught the deaf "to
speak, read, write, reckon, pray, serve at the altar, know Christian
doctrine, and confess with a loud voice." Some he taught languages and
science. That he was successful was proved by other witness than his
own, for Panduro, Valles and de Morales all give details of his work,
the last-named giving an account by one of Ponce's pupils of his
education. De Morales says further that Ponce de Leon addressed his
scholars either by signs or writing, and that the reply came by speech.
It appears that this master committed his methods to writing. Though
this work is lost it is probable that his system was put into practice
by Juan Pablo Bonet. This Spaniard successfully instructed a brother of
his master the constable of Castile, who had lost hearing at the age of
two. His method corresponded in a great measure to that which is now
called the combined system, for, in the work which he wrote, he shows
how the deaf can be taught to speak by reducing the letters to their
phonetic value, and also urges that finger-spelling and writing should
be used. The connexion between all three, he goes on to say, should be
shown the pupils, but the manual alphabet should be mastered first.
Nouns he taught by pointing to the objects they represented; verbs he
expressed by pantomime; while the value of prepositions, adverbs and
interjections, as well as the tenses of verbs, he believed could be
learnt by repeated use. The pupil should be educated by interrogation,
conversation, and carefully graduated reading. The success of Bonet's
endeavours are borne witness to by Sir Kenelm Digby, who met the teacher
at Madrid.
Bonifacio's work on signs, in which he uses every part of the body for
conversational purposes, may be mentioned before passing to John Bulwer,
the first Englishman to treat of teaching the deaf. In his three works,
_Philocophus_, _Chirologia_ and _Chironomia_, he enlarges upon Sir
Kenelm Digby's account, and argues about the possibility of teaching the
deaf by speech. But he seems to have had no practical experience of the
art.
Dr John Wallis is more important, though it has been disputed whether he
was not indebted to his predecessors for some ideas. He taught by
writing and articulation. He took the trouble to classify to a certain
extent the various sounds, dividing both vowels and "open" consonants
into gutturals, palatals and labials. The "closed" consonants he
subdivided into mutes, semi-mutes and semi-vowels. Language, Wallis
maintained, should be taught when the pupil had first learned to write,
and the written characters should be associated with some sort of manual
alphabet. Names of things should be given first, and then the parts of
those things, e.g. "body" first, and then, under that, "head," "arm,"
"foot," &c. Then the singular and plural should be given, then
possessives and possessive pronouns, followed by particles, other
pronouns and adjectives. These should be followed by the copulative
verb; after which should come the intransitive verb and its nominative
in the different tenses, and the transitive with its object in the same
way. Lastly, prepositions and conjunctions should be taught. All this,
Wallis held, ought to be done by writing as well as signing, for he did
not lose sight of the fact that "we must learn the pupil's language in
order to teach him ours."
Dr William Holder, who read an essay before the Royal Society in
1668-1669 on the "Elements of Speech," added an appendix concerning the
deaf and dumb. He describes the organs of speech and their positions in
articulation, suggesting teaching the pupil the sounds in order of
simplicity, though he held that he must learn to write first. Afterwards
the pupil must associate the letters with a manual alphabet. Holder
notices that dumbness is due to the want of hearing, and therefore
speech can be acquired through watching the lips, though he admits the
task is a laborious one. He also urges the teacher to be patient and to
make the work as interesting to the pupil as possible. Command of
language, he maintains, will enable the deaf person to read a sentence
from the lips if he gets most of the words; for he will be able to
supply those he did not see, from his knowledge of English.
Johan Baptist van Helmont treated of the work of the vocal organs. Amman
says that Van Helmont had discovered a manual alphabet and used it to
instruct the deaf, but had not attained very good results.
George Sibscota published a work in 1670 called the _Deaf and Dumb Man's
Discourse_, in which he contradicts Aristotle's opinion that people are
dumb because of defects in the vocal organs; for they are, he believed,
dumb because never taught to speak. They can gain knowledge by sight, he
maintained; can write, converse by signs, speak and lip-read. Ramirez de
Carrion also taught the deaf to speak and write, as did P. Lana Terzi.
About George Dalgarno more is known. He wrote, in 1680, his
_Didascalocophus_, or _Deaf-Mute's Preceptor_, in which he makes the
mistake of saying that the deaf have the advantage over the blind in
opportunities for learning language. The deaf can, in his opinion, be
taught to speak, and also to read the lips if the letters are very
distinct. They ought to read, write and spell on the fingers constantly,
but use no signs. Substantives are to be taught by associating them with
the things they represent; then adjectives should be joined to them.
Verbs should be taught by suiting the action to the words, and
associating the pronouns with them. Other parts of speech should be
given as opportunities of explaining them present themselves. Dalgarno
invented an alphabet, the letters being on the joints of the fingers and
palm of the left hand.
John Conrad Amman published his _Dissertatio de Loquela_ in 1700. In the
first chapter he treats, among other things, of the nature of the breath
and voice and the organs of speech. In the second chapter he classifies
sounds into vowels, semi-vowels and consonants, and a detailed
description of each sound is given. The third chapter is devoted to
showing how to produce and control the voice, to utter each sound from
writing or from the lips, and to combine them into syllables and words.
It was only after the pupil had attained to considerable success in
articulation and lip-reading that Amman taught the meaning of words and
language; but the name of this teacher will long stand as that of one of
the most successful the world has known.
Passing over Camerarius, Schott, Kerger (who began teaching language
sooner than Amman did, and depended more on writing and signs), Raphel
(who instructed three deaf daughters), Lasius, Arnoldi, Lucas, Vanin, de
Fay (himself deaf) and many others, we come to Giacobbo Rodriguez
Pereira, the pioneer of deaf-mute education in France, if we except de
Fay. Beginning his experience by instructing his deaf sister, he soon
attained to considerable success with two other pupils; his chief aim
being, as he said, to make them comprehend the meaning of, and express
their thoughts in, language. A commission of the French Academy of
Sciences, before whom he appeared, testified to the genuineness of his
achievements, noticing that he wrote and signed to his pupils, and
stating that he hoped to proceed to the instruction of lip-reading.
Pereira soon after came under the notice of the duc de Chaulnes, whose
deaf godson, Saboureaux de Fontenay, became his pupil; and in five years
this boy was well able to speak and read the lips. Pereira had several
other pupils. Probably kindness and affection were two of the secrets of
his success, for the love his scholars showed for him was unbounded. His
method is only partly known, but he used a manual alphabet which
indicated the pronunciation of the letters and some combinations. He
used reading and writing; but signs were only called to his aid when
absolutely necessary. Language he taught by founding it on action where
possible, abstract ideas being gradually developed in later stages of
the education.
We now come to the abbe de l'Epee (q.v.). The all-important features in
this teacher's character and method were his intense devotion to his
scholars and their class, and the fact that he lived among them and
talked to them as one of themselves. Meeting with two girls who were
deaf, he started upon the task of instructing them, and soon had a
school of sixty pupils, supported entirely by himself. He spared himself
no expense and no trouble in doing his utmost to benefit the deaf,
learning Spanish for the sole purpose of reading Bonet's work, and
making this book and Amman's _Dissertatio de Loquela_ his guiding
lights. But de l'Epee was the first to attach great importance to signs;
and he used them, along with writing, until the pupil had some knowledge
of language before he passed on to articulation and lip-reading. To the
latter method, however, he never paid as much attention as he did to
instructing by signs and writing, and finally he abandoned it altogether
through lack of time and means. He laboured long on a dictionary of
signs, but never completed it. He was attacked by Pereira, who condemned
his method as being detrimental, and this was the beginning of the
disputes as to the merits of the different methods which have lasted to
the present day; but whatever opinions we may hold as to the best means
of instructing the deaf we cannot but admire the devoted teacher who
spent his life and his all in benefiting this class of the community.
Samuel Heinicke first began his work in 1754 at Dresden, but in 1778 he
removed to Leipzig and started on the instruction of nine pupils. His
methods he kept secret; but we know that he taught orally, using signs
only when he considered them helpful, and spelling only to combine
ideas. He wrote two books and several articles on the subject of
educating the deaf, but it is from Walther and Fornari that we learn
most about his system. At first Heinicke laid stress on written
language, starting with the concrete and going on to the abstract; and
he only passed to oral instruction when the pupils could express
themselves in fairly correct language. Subsequently, however, he
expressed the opinion that speech should be the sole method of
instruction, and, strange to say, that by speech alone could thoughts be
fully expressed.
Henry Baker became tutor to a deaf girl in 1720, and his success led to
the establishment of a private school in London. He also kept his system
a secret, but recently his work on lessons for the deaf was discovered,
from which we gather that he adopted writing, drawing, speech and
lip-reading as his course of instruction. The point to notice is that
after the primary stages Baker turned events of every-day life to use in
his teaching. His pupils went about with him, and he taught by
conversation upon what they saw in the streets,--an excellent method;
but it is a pity that such a good teacher had not the philanthropy to
make his methods known and to give the poorer deaf the benefit of them,
as de l'Epee did.
A school was established in Edinburgh in 1760 by Thomas Braidwood, who
taught by the oral method. He taught the sounds first, then syllables,
and finally words, teaching their meaning. In 1783 Braidwood came to
Hackney, whence he moved to Old Kent Road, and in 1809 there were
seventy pupils in what was lately the Old Kent Road Institution.
Braidwood's method was practically a development of Wallis's. We must
regard him as the founder of the first public school for the deaf in
England.
It was only at the beginning of the 19th century that a brighter day
dawned on the deaf as a class. With the sole exception of de l'Epee no
teacher had yet undertaken the instruction of a deaf child who could not
pay for it. Now things began to be different. Institutions were founded,
and their doors were opened to nearly all.
Dr Watson, the first principal of the Old Kent Road "Asylum," taught by
articulation and lip-reading, reading and writing, explaining by signs
to some extent, but using pictures much more, according to Addison, and
composing a book of these for the use of his pupils. From Addison (_Deaf
Mutism_, pp. 248 ff.) we learn what developments followed. In Vienna,
Prague and Berlin, schools had been founded in rapid succession before
the 19th century dawned, and in 1810 the Edinburgh institution opened
its doors. Nine years later the Glasgow school was established and,
under the able guidance of Mr Duncan Anderson (after several other
headmasters had been tried) from 1831, taught pupils whose grasp of
English was equal to that of the very best educated deaf in England
to-day, as has been proved by conversation with the survivors. Mr
Anderson's great aim was to teach his pupils language, and we might look
almost in vain for a teacher in England to succeed as well with a whole
class in the beginning of the 20th century as he did in the middle of
the 19th. He wrote a dictionary, used pictures and signs to explain
English, and apparently paid little or no attention to most of the
numerous subjects attempted to-day in schools for the deaf, which, while
excellent in themselves, generally exclude what is far more important
from the curriculum.
Addison further mentions Mr Baker of Doncaster, a contemporary of
Anderson, as having compiled many lesson books for deaf children which
came to be used in ordinary schools also, and Mr Scott of Exeter as
having, together with Baker, "exercised a profound influence on the
course of deaf-mute education in this country." "Written language,"
explained by signs where necessary, was the watchword of these teachers.
Moritz Hill is credited with being principally responsible for having
evolved the German, or "pure," oral method out of the experimental stage
to that at which it has arrived at the present day. Arnold of Riehen is
also honourably mentioned.
The great "oral revival" now swept all before it. The German method was
enthusiastically welcomed in all parts of Europe, and at the Milan
conference in 1880 was almost unanimously adopted by teachers from all
countries. Those in high places countenanced it; educational authorities
awoke to the fact that the deaf needed special teaching, and came to the
conclusion that the "pure" oral method was the panacea that would
restore all the deaf to a complete equality with the hearing in any
conversation upon any subject that might be broached; many governments
suddenly took the deaf under the shelter of their own ample wings, and
the "bottomless pocket of the ratepayer," instead of the purse of the
charitable, became in many cases the fount of supply for what has been a
costly and by no means entirely satisfactory experiment in the history
of their education. The "pure" oral method has had a long and unique
trial in England in circumstances which other methods have never
enjoyed.
Meanwhile in the United States Dr Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet was elected
in 1815 to go to Europe to inquire into the methods of educating the
deaf in vogue there. This was at a meeting held in the house of a
physician named Cogswell, in Hartford, Connecticut, and was the result
of the latter's discovery that eighty-four persons in the state besides
his own little girl were deaf. Henry Winter Syle, himself deaf, tells
how "four months were spent in learning that the doors of the British
schools were 'barred with gold, and opened but to golden keys,'" and
how, disappointed in England, Gallaudet met with a ready response to his
inquiries in Paris. With Laurent Clerc, a deaf teacher, he returned to
the United States in 1816, and the "Connecticut Asylum" was founded a
year after with seven pupils. The name was changed to "The American
Asylum" later, when it was enlarged. This was followed by the
Pennsylvania, New York and Kentucky institutions, with the second of
which the Peet family were connected. Dr Gallaudet married one of his
deaf pupils, Sophia Fowler, and, after a very happy married life, Mrs
Gallaudet accompanied her youngest son, Edward Miner Gallaudet, to the
Columbia institution for the Deaf and Dumb, Washington, D.C., founded in
1857 by Congress and largely supported by Amos Kendall, and to the
National Deaf Mute College, which was founded in 1864, was renamed the
Gallaudet College, in honour of Dr T. H. Gallaudet, in 1893, and with
the Kendall School (secondary), now forms the Columbia Institution. This
college is supported by Congress.
The following account of the work done at the National Deaf-Mute
College at Washington is worth attention, as the results are unique,
and are often strangely ignored.