THE GREATEST NAVAL BATTLE IN HISTORY
Germany’s ambition for conquest at sea had been nursed and carefully
fostered for twenty years. During the decade immediately preceding the
declaration of war, it had embarked upon a policy of naval up-building
that brought it into direct conflict with England’s sea policy.
Thereafter it became a race in naval construction, England piling up a
huge debt in its determination to construct two tons of naval shipping
to every one ton built by Germany.
Notwithstanding Great Britain’s efforts in this direction, Germany’s
naval experts, with the ruthless von Tirpitz at their head, maintained
that, given a fair seaway with ideal weather conditions favoring the
low visibility tactics of the German sea command, a victory for the
Teutonic ships would follow. It was this belief that drew the ships
of the German cruiser squadron and High Seas Fleet off the coast of
Jutland and Horn Reef into the great battle that decided the supremacy
of the sea.
The 31st of May, 1916, will go down in history as the date of this
titanic conflict. The British light cruiser Galatea on patrol duty
near Horn Reef reported at 2.20 o’clock on the afternoon of that
day, that it had sighted smoke plumes denoting the advance of enemy
vessels from the direction of Helgoland Bight. Fifteen minutes later
the smoke plumes were in such number and volume that the advance of
a considerable force to the northward and eastward was indicated. It
was reasoned by Vice-Admiral Beatty, to whom the Galatea had sent the
news by radio, that the enemy in rounding Horn Reef would inevitably
be brought into action. The first ships of the enemy were sighted at
3.31 o’clock. These were the battle screen of fast light cruisers. Back
of these were five modern battle cruisers of the highest power and
armament.
The report of the battle, by an eye-witness, that was issued upon
semiofficial authority of the British Government, follows:
First Phase, 3.30 P. M. May 31st. Beatty’s battle cruisers, consisting
of the Lion, Princess Royal, Queen Mary, Tiger, Inflexible,
Indomitable, Invincible, Indefatigable, and New Zealand, were on a
southeasterly course, followed at about two miles distance by the four
battleships of the class known as Queen Elizabeths.
Enemy light cruisers were sighted and shortly afterward the head of
the German battle cruiser squadron, consisting of the new cruiser
Hindenburg, the Seydlitz, Derfflinger, Lützow, Moltke, and possibly the
Salamis.
Beatty at once began firing at a range of about 20,000 yards (twelve
miles) which shortened to 16,000 yards (nine miles) as the fleets
closed. The Germans could see the British distinctly outlined against
the light yellow sky. The Germans, covered by a haze, could be very
indistinctly made out by the British gunners.
The Queen Elizabeths opened fire on one after another as they came
within range. The German battle cruisers turned to port and drew away
to about 20,000 yards.
Second Phase, 4.40 P. M. A destroyer screen then appeared beyond the
German battle cruisers. The whole German High Seas Fleet could be seen
approaching on the northeastern horizon in three divisions, coming to
the support of their battle cruisers.
The German battle cruisers now turned right around 16 points and took
station in front of the battleships of the High Fleet.
Beatty, with his battle cruisers and supporting battleships, therefore,
had before him the whole of the German battle fleet, and Jellicoe was
still some distance away.
The opposing fleets were now moving parallel to one another in opposite
directions, and but for a master maneuver on the part of Beatty the
British advance ships would have been cut off from Jellicoe’s Grand
Fleet. In order to avoid this and at the same time prepare the way so
that Jellicoe might envelop his adversary, Beatty immediately also
turned right around 16 points, so as to bring his ships parallel to
the German battle cruisers and facing the same direction.
As soon as he was around he increased to full speed to get ahead of the
Germans and take up a tactical position in advance of their line. He
was able to do this owing to the superior speed of the British battle
cruisers.
Just before the turning point was reached, the Indefatigable sank, and
the Queen Mary and the Invincible also were lost at the turning point,
where, of course, the High Seas Fleet concentrated their fire.
A little earlier, as the German battle cruisers were turning, the Queen
Elizabeths had in similar manner concentrated their fire on the turning
point and destroyed a new German battle cruiser, believed to be the
Hindenburg.
Beatty had now got around and headed away with the loss of three ships,
racing parallel to the German battle cruisers. The Queen Elizabeths
followed behind engaging the main High Seas Fleet.
Third Phase, 5 P. M. The Queen Elizabeths now turned short to port 16
points in order to follow Beatty. The Warspite jammed her steering
gear, failed to get around, and drew the fire of six of the enemy, who
closed in upon her.
The Germans claimed her as a loss, since on paper she ought to have
been lost, but, as a matter of act, though repeatedly straddled by
shell fire with the water boiling up all around her, she was not
seriously hit, and was able to sink one of her opponents. Her captain
recovered control of the vessel, brought her around, and followed her
consorts.
In the meantime the Barham, Valiant and Malaya turned short so as to
avoid the danger spot where the Queen Mary and the Invincible had been
lost, and for an hour, until Jellicoe arrived, fought a delaying action
against the High Seas Fleet.
The Warspite joined them at about 5.15 o’clock, and all four ships were
so successfully maneuvered in order to upset the spotting corrections
of their opponents that no hits of a seriously disabling character
were suffered. They had the speed over their opponents by fully four
knots, and were able to draw away from part of the long line of German
battleships, which almost filled up the horizon.
At this time the Queen Elizabeths were steadily firing on at the
flashes of German guns at a range which varied between 12,000 and
15,000 yards, especially against those ships which were nearest them.
The Germans were enveloped in a mist and only smoke and flashes were
visible.
By 5.45 half of the High Seas Fleet had been left out of range, and the
Queen Elizabeths were steaming fast to join hands with Jellicoe.
To return to Beatty’s battle cruisers. They had succeeded in
outflanking the German battle cruisers, which were, therefore, obliged
to turn a full right angle to starboard to avoid being headed.
Heavy fighting was renewed between the opposing battle cruiser
squadrons, during which the Derfflinger was sunk; but toward 6 o’clock
the German fire slackened very considerably, showing that Beatty’s
battle cruisers and the Queen Elizabeths had inflicted serious damage
on their immediate opponents.
Fourth Phase, 6 P. M. The Grand Fleet was now in sight, and, coming up
fast in three directions, the Queen Elizabeths altered their course
four points to the starboard and drew in toward the enemy to allow
Jellicoe room to deploy into line.
The Grand Fleet was perfectly maneuvered and the very difficult
operation of deploying between the battle cruisers and the Queen
Elizabeths was perfectly timed.
Jellicoe came up, fell in behind Beatty’s cruisers, and followed by the
damaged but still serviceable Queen Elizabeths, steamed right across
the head of the German fleet.
The first of the ships to come into action were the Revenue and the
Royal Oak with their fifteen-inch guns, and the Agincourt which fired
from her seven turrets with the speed almost of a Maxim gun.
The whole British fleet had now become concentrated. They had been
perfectly maneuvered, so as to “cross the T” of the High Seas Fleet,
and, indeed, only decent light was necessary to complete their work
of destroying the Germans in detail. The light did improve for a few
minutes, and the conditions were favorable to the British fleet, which
was now in line approximately north and south across the head of the
Germans.
During the few minutes of good light Jellicoe smashed up the first
three German ships, but the mist came down, visibility suddenly failed,
and the defeated High Seas Fleet was able to draw off in ragged
divisions.
Fifth Phase, Night. The Germans were followed by the British, who still
had them enveloped between Jellicoe on the west, Beatty on the north,
and Evan-Thomas with his three Queen Elizabeths on the south. The
Warspite had been sent back to her base.
During the night the torpedo-boat destroyers heavily attacked the
German ships, and, although they lost seriously themselves, succeeded
in sinking two of the enemy.
[Illustration: HOW THE GREAT NAVAL BATTLE OF JUTLAND WAS FOUGHT
This chart must be taken only as a general indication of the courses
of the opposing German and British battle fleets.]
Co-ordination of the units of the fleet was practically impossible to
keep up, and the Germans discovered by the rays of their search-lights
the three Queen Elizabeths, not more than 4,000 yards away.
Unfortunately they were then able to escape between the battleships
and Jellicoe, since the British gunners were not able to fire, as the
destroyers were in the way.
So ended the Jutland battle, which was fought as had been planned and
very nearly a great success. It was spoiled by the unfavorable weather
conditions, especially at the critical moment, when the whole British
fleet was concentrated and engaged in crushing the head of the German
line.
Commenting on the engagement, Admiral Jellicoe said: “The battle
cruiser fleet, gallantly led by Vice-Admiral Beatty, and admirably
supported by the ships of the fifth battle squadron under Rear-Admiral
Evan-Thomas, fought the action under, at times, disadvantageous
conditions, especially in regard to light, in a manner that was in
keeping with the best traditions of the service.”
His estimate of the German losses was: two battleships of the
dreadnought type, one of the Deutschland type, which was seen to sink;
the battle cruiser Lützow, admitted by the Germans; one battle cruiser
of the dreadnought type, one battle cruiser seen to be so severely
damaged that its return was extremely doubtful; five light cruisers,
seen to sink--one of them possibly a battleship; six destroyers seen to
sink, three destroyers so damaged that it was doubtful if they would be
able to reach port, and a submarine sunk. The official German report
admitted only eleven ships sunk; the first British report placed the
total at eighteen, but Admiral Jellicoe enumerated twenty-one German
vessels as probably lost.
The Admiral paid a fine tribute to the German naval men: “The enemy,”
he said, “fought with the gallantry that was expected of him. We
particularly admired the conduct of those on board a disabled German
light cruiser which passed down the British line shortly after the
deployment under a heavy fire, which was returned by the only gun left
in action. The conduct of the officers and men was entirely beyond
praise. On all sides it is reported that the glorious traditions of the
past were most worthily upheld; whether in the heavy ships, cruisers,
light cruisers, or destroyers, the same admirable spirit prevailed. The
officers and men were cool and determined, with a cheeriness that would
have carried them through anything. The heroism of the wounded was the
admiration of all. I cannot adequately express the pride with which the
spirit of the fleet filled me.”
At daylight on the 1st of June the British battle fleet, being
southward of Horn Reef, turned northward in search of the enemy
vessels. The visibility early on the first of June was three to four
miles less than on May 31st, and the torpedo-boat destroyers, being out
of visual touch, did not rejoin the fleet until 9 A. M. The British
fleet remained in the proximity of the battlefield and near the line
of approach to the German ports until 11 A. M., in spite of the
disadvantage of long distances from fleet bases and the danger incurred
in waters adjacent to the enemy’s coasts from submarines and torpedo
craft.
The enemy, however, made no sign, and the admiral was reluctantly
compelled to the conclusion that the High Sea Fleet had returned into
port. Subsequent events proved this assumption to have been correct.
The British position must have been known to the enemy, as at 4 A. M.
the fleet engaged a Zeppelin about five minutes, during which time she
had ample opportunity to note and subsequently report the position and
course of the British fleet.
The Germans at first claimed a victory for their fleet. The test, of
course, was the outcome of the battle. The fact that the German fleet
retreated and nevermore ventured forth from beneath the protecting guns
and mine fields around Helgoland, demonstrates beyond dispute that the
British were entitled to the triumph. The German official report makes
the best presentation of the German case. It follows in full:
The High Sea Fleet, consisting of three battleship squadrons, five
battle cruisers, and a large number of small cruisers, with several
destroyer flotillas, was cruising in the Skagerrak on May 31 for the
purpose, as on earlier occasions, of offering battle to the British
fleet. The vanguard of the small cruisers at 4.30 o’clock in the
afternoon (German time) suddenly encountered ninety miles west of
Hanstholm, (a cape on the northwest coast of Jutland), a group of
eight of the newest cruisers of the Calliope class and fifteen or
twenty of the most modern destroyers.
While the German light forces and the first cruiser squadron under
Vice-Admiral Hipper were following the British, who were retiring
northwestward, the German battle cruisers sighted to the westward
Vice-Admiral Beatty’s battle squadron of six ships, including four of
the Lion type and two of the Indefatigable type. Beatty’s squadron
developed a battle line on a southeasterly course and Vice-Admiral
Hipper formed his line ahead on the same general course and
approached for a running fight. He opened fire at 5.49 o’clock in the
afternoon with heavy artillery at a range of 13,000 meters against
the superior enemy. The weather was clear and light, and the sea was
light with a northwest wind.
After about a quarter of an hour a violent explosion occurred on the
last cruiser of the Indefatigable type. It was caused by a heavy
shell, and destroyed the vessel.
About 6.20 o’clock in the afternoon five warships of the Queen
Elizabeth type came from the west and joined the British battle
cruiser line, powerfully reinforcing with their fifteen-inch guns
the five British battle cruisers remaining after 6.20 o’clock. To
equalize this superiority Vice-Admiral Hipper ordered the destroyers
to attack the enemy. The British destroyers and small cruisers
interposed, and a bitter engagement at close range ensued, in the
course of which a light cruiser participated.
The Germans lost two torpedo boats, the crews of which were rescued
by sister ships under a heavy fire. Two British destroyers were sunk
by artillery, and two others--the Nestor and Nomad--remained on the
scene in a crippled condition. These later were destroyed by the main
fleet after German torpedo boats had rescued all the survivors.
While this engagement was in progress, a mighty explosion, caused by
a big shell, broke the Queen Mary, the third ship in line, asunder,
at 6.30 o’clock.
Soon thereafter the German main battleship fleet was sighted to the
southward, steering north. The hostile fast squadrons thereupon
turned northward, closing the first part of the fight, which lasted
about an hour.
The British retired at high speed before the German fleet, which
followed closely. The German battle cruisers continued the artillery
combat with increasing intensity, particularly with the division of
the vessels of the Queen Elizabeth type, and in this the leading
German battleship division participated intermittently. The hostile
ships showed a desire to run in a flat curve ahead of the point of
our line and to cross it.
At 7.45 o’clock in the evening British small cruisers and destroyers
launched an attack against our battle cruisers, who avoided the
torpedoes by manoeuvring, while the British battle cruisers retired
from the engagement, in which they did not participate further as
far as can be established. Shortly thereafter a German reconnoitring
group, which was parrying the destroyer attack, received an attack
from the northeast. The cruiser Wiesbaden was soon put out of action
in this attack. The German torpedo flotillas immediately attacked the
heavy ships.
Appearing shadow-like from the haze bank to the northeast was made
out a long line of at least twenty-five battleships, which at first
sought a junction with the British battle cruisers and those of the
Queen Elizabeth type on a northwesterly to westerly course, and then
turned on an easterly to southeasterly course.
With the advent of the British main fleet, whose centre consisted of
three squadrons of eight battleships each, with a fast division of
three battle cruisers of the Invincible type on the northern end, and
three of the newest vessels of the Royal Sovereign class, armed with
fifteen-inch guns, at the southern end, there began about 8 o’clock
in the evening the third section of the engagement, embracing the
combat between the main fleets.
Vice-Admiral Scheer determined to attack the British main fleet,
which he now recognized was completely assembled and about doubly
superior. The German battleship squadron, headed by battle cruisers,
steered first toward the extensive haze bank to the northeast,
where the crippled cruiser Wiesbaden was still receiving a heavy
fire. Around the Wiesbaden stubborn individual fights under quickly
changing conditions now occurred.
The light enemy forces, supported by an armored cruiser squadron of
five ships of the Minotaur, Achilles, and Duke of Edinburgh classes
coming from the northeast, were encountered and apparently surprised
on account of the decreasing visibility of our battle cruisers and
leading battleship division. The squadron came under a violent and
heavy fire, by which the small cruisers Defense and Black Prince were
sunk. The cruiser Warrior regained its own line a wreck and later
sank. Another small cruiser was damaged severely.
Two destroyers already had fallen victims to the attack of German
torpedo boats against the leading British battleships and a small
cruiser and two destroyers were damaged. The German battle cruisers
and leading battleship division had in these engagements come under
increased fire of the enemy’s battleship squadron, which, shortly
after 8 o’clock, could be made out in the haze turning to the
northeastward and finally to the east. Germans observed, amid the
artillery combat and shelling of great intensity, signs of the effect
of good shooting between 8.20 and 8.30 o’clock particularly. Several
officers on German ships observed that a battleship of the Queen
Elizabeth class blew up under conditions similar to that of the Queen
Mary. The Invincible sank after being hit severely. A ship of the
Iron Duke class had earlier received a torpedo hit, and one of the
Queen Elizabeth class was running around in a circle, its steering
apparatus apparently having been hit.
The Lützow was hit by at least fifteen heavy shells and was unable
to maintain its place in line. Vice-Admiral Hipper, therefore,
transshipped to the Moltke on a torpedo boat and under a heavy fire.
The Derfflinger meantime took the lead temporarily. Parts of the
German torpedo flotilla attacked the enemy’s main fleet and heard
detonations. In the action the Germans lost a torpedo boat. An enemy
destroyer was seen in a sinking condition, having been hit by a
torpedo.
After the first violent onslaught into the mass of the superior
enemy the opponents lost sight of each other in the smoke by powder
clouds. After a short cessation in the artillery combat Vice-Admiral
Scheer ordered a new attack by all the available forces.
German battle cruisers, which with several light cruisers and torpedo
boats again headed the line, encountered the enemy soon after 9
o’clock and renewed the heavy fire, which was answered by them from
the mist, and then by the leading division of the main fleet. Armored
cruisers now flung themselves in a reckless onset at extreme speed
against the enemy line in order to cover the attack of the torpedo
boats. They approached the enemy line, although covered with shot
from 6,000 meters distances. Several German torpedo flotillas dashed
forward to attack, delivered torpedoes, and returned, despite the
most severe counterfire, with the loss of only one boat. The bitter
artillery fire was again interrupted, after this second violent
onslaught, by the smoke from guns and funnels.
Several torpedo flotillas, which were ordered to attack somewhat
later, found, after penetrating the smoke cloud, that the enemy
fleet was no longer before them; nor, when the fleet commander again
brought the German squadrons upon the southerly and southwesterly
course where the enemy was last seen, could our opponents be found.
Only once more--shortly before 10.30 o’clock--did the battle
flare up. For a short time in the late twilight German battle
cruisers sighted four enemy capital ships to seaward and opened
fire immediately. As the two German battleship squadrons attacked,
the enemy turned and vanished in the darkness. Older German light
cruisers of the fourth reconnaissance group also were engaged with
the older enemy armored cruisers in a short fight.
This ended the day battle.
The German divisions, which, after losing sight of the enemy, began
a night cruise in a southerly direction, were attacked until dawn by
enemy light force in rapid succession.
The attacks were favored by the general strategic situation and the
particularly dark night.
The cruiser Frauenlob was injured severely during the engagement of
the fourth reconnaissance group with a superior cruiser force, and
was lost from sight.
One armored cruiser of the Cressy class suddenly appeared close to
a German battleship and was shot into fire after forty seconds, and
sank in four minutes.
The Florent (?) Destroyer 60, (the names were hard to decipher in
the darkness and therefore were uncertainly established) and four
destroyers--3, 78, 06, and 27--were destroyed by our fire. One
destroyer was cut in two by the ram of a German battleship. Seven
destroyers, including the G-30, were hit and severely damaged. These,
including the Tipperary and Turbulent, which after saving survivors,
were left behind in a sinking condition, drifted past our line, some
of them burning at the bow or stern.
The tracks of countless torpedoes were sighted by the German ships,
but only the Pommern (a battleship) fell an immediate victim to
a torpedo. The cruiser Rostock was hit, but remained afloat.
The cruiser Elbing was damaged by a German battleship during an
unavoidable maneuver. After vain endeavors to keep the ship afloat
the Elbing was blown up, but only after her crew had embarked on
torpedo boats. A post torpedo boat was struck by a mine laid by the
enemy.
ADMITTED LOSSES--BRITISH
NAME TONNAGE PERSONNEL
Queen Mary (battle cruiser) 27,000 1,000
Indefatigable (battle cruiser) 18,750 800
Invincible (battle cruiser) 17,250 750
Defense (armored cruiser) 14,600 755
Warrior (armored cruiser) 13,550 704
Black Prince (armored cruiser) 13,550 704
Tipperary (destroyer) 1,850 150
Turbulent (destroyer) 1,850 150
Shark (destroyer) 950 100
Sparrowhawk (destroyer) 950 100
Ardent (destroyer) 950 100
Fortune (destroyer) 950 100
Nomad (destroyer) 950 100
Nestor (destroyer) 950 100
BRITISH TOTALS
Battle cruisers 63,000 2,550
Armored cruisers 41,700 2,163
Destroyers 9,400 900
-------- ------
Fourteen ships 114,100 5,613
ADMITTED LOSSES--GERMAN[A]
NAME TONNAGE PERSONNEL
Lützow (battle cruiser) 26,600 1,200
Pommern (battleship) 13,200 729
Wiesbaden (cruiser) 5,600 450
Frauenlob (cruiser) 2,715 264
Elbing (cruiser) 5,000 450
Rostock (cruiser) 4,900 373
Five destroyers 5,000 500
GERMAN TOTALS
Battle cruisers 39,800 1,929
Cruisers 18,215 1,537
Destroyers 5,000 500
------ ------
Eleven ships 63,015 3,966
[A] These figures are given for what they are worth, but no one
outside of Germany doubted but that their losses were very much
greater than admitted in the official report.
[Illustration: ADMIRAL WILLIAM S. SIMS
Commander-in-Chief of United States Naval Forces in European waters.]
[Illustration: ADMIRAL SIR DAVID BEATTY
Commander-in-Chief of the British Grand Fleet.]
TOTAL LOSSES OF MEN
BRITISH
Dead or missing 6,104
Wounded 513
------
Total 6,617
GERMAN
Dead or missing 2,414
Wounded 449
------
Total 2,863
LOSS IN MONEY VALUE (Rough Estimate)
British $115,000,000
German 63,000,000
------------
Total $178,000,000
While the world was still puzzling over the conflicting reports of
the Battle of Jutland came the shocking news that Field Marshal Lord
Horatio Herbert Kitchener, the British Secretary of State for War, had
perished off the West Orkney Islands on June 5th, through the sinking
of the British cruiser Hampshire. The entire crew was also lost, except
twelve men, a warrant officer and eleven seamen, who escaped on a raft.
Earl Kitchener was on his way to Russia, at the request of the Russian
Government, for a consultation regarding munitions to be furnished the
Russian army. He was intending to go to Archangel and visit Petrograd,
and expected to be back in London by June 20th. He was accompanied
by Hugh James O’Beirne, former Councillor of the British Embassy at
Petrograd, O. A. Fitz-Gerald, his military secretary, Brigadier-General
Ellarshaw, and Sir Frederick Donaldson, all of whom were lost.
The cause of the sinking of the Hampshire is not known. It is supposed
that it struck a mine, but the tragedy very naturally brought into
existence many stories which ascribe his death to more direct German
action.
[Illustration: WHERE EARL KITCHENER MET HIS DEATH]
Seaman Rogerson, one of the survivors, describes Lord Kitchener’s last
moments as follows: “Of those who left the ship, and have survived, I
was the one who saw Lord Kitchener last. He went down with the ship,
he did not leave her. I saw Captain Seville help his boat’s crew to
clear away his galley. At the same time the Captain was calling to
Lord Kitchener to come to the boat, but owing to the noise made by the
wind and sea, Lord Kitchener could not hear him, I think. When the
explosion occurred, Kitchener walked calmly from the Captain’s cabin,
went up the ladder and on to the quarter deck. There I saw him walking
quite collectedly, talking to two of the officers. All three were
wearing khaki and had no overcoats on. Kitchener calmly watched the
preparations for abandoning the ship, which were going on in a steady
and orderly way. The crew just went to their stations, obeyed orders,
and did their best to get out the boats. But it was impossible. Owing
to the rough weather, no boats could be lowered. Those that were got
out were smashed up at once. No boats left the ship. What people on
the shore thought to be boats leaving, were rafts. Men did get into
the boats as these lay in their cradles, thinking that as the ship
went under the boats would float, but the ship sank by the head, and
when she went she turned a somersault forward, carrying down with her
all the boats and those in them. I do not think Kitchener got into a
boat. When I sprang to a raft he was still on the starboard side of
the quarter deck, talking with the officers. From the little time that
elapsed between my leaving the ship and her sinking I feel certain
Kitchener went down with her, and was on deck at the time she sank.”
The British Admiralty, after investigation, gave out a statement
declaring that the vessel struck a mine, and sank about fifteen minutes
after.
The news of Lord Kitchener’s death shocked the whole Allied world. He
was the most important personality in the British Empire. He had built
up the British army, and his name was one to conjure by. His efficiency
was a proverb, and he had an air of mystery about him that made him
a sort of a popular hero. He was great before the World War began;
he was the conqueror of the Soudan; the winner of the South African
campaign; the reorganizer of Egypt. In his work as Secretary of War he
had met with some criticism, but he possessed, more than any other man,
the public confidence. At the beginning of the war he was appointed
Secretary of War at the demand of an overwhelming public opinion. He
realized more than any one else what such a war would mean. When others
thought of it as an adventure to be soon concluded, he recognized that
there would be years of bitter conflict. He asked England to give up
its cherished tradition of a volunteer army; to go through arduous
military training; he saw the danger to the Empire, and he alone,
perhaps, had the authority to inspire his countrymen with the will to
sacrifice. But his work was done. The great British army was in the
field.