are uprooted, not cut, and are made up into sheaves tied together at the
butt end only. The bundles are not more than 2-1/2 spans round, and of
equal size. When first uprooted the sheaves are placed flat on the field
in rows to dry and in such zig-zag fashion that the top end of one sheaf
is always made to rest on the butt end of another, and thus does not
come into contact with the ground: this ensures the circulation of air
and hastens the drying process. The sheaves are taken later to the
threshing-floors, where they are stood upright until they are dry. The
seed is separated by beating. The sheaves are exposed to the sun until
the leaves are shed, and when the stems are entirely dry the bundles are
tied up at both ends and are taken to the retting-place, which is
usually the common stone tank or cistern of the country. There they are
steeped in water for six to nine days. The bundles are generally covered
by about one foot of water. On the sixth day the fibre is tested. If it
separates easily the bundles are removed, if not they remain for another
two or three days. This requires much care and experience, as the
quality depends largely upon effective retting. Then they are taken out
of the water and sun-dried, being piled up into pointed shooks, left
hollow in the centre.
The fibre is separated by means of a wooden implement locally called
"melidjia." This consists of a wooden trough placed on two legs which
are fixed in the ground. A wedge-shaped piece of wood which is hinged to
the trough at one end is used as the beater. The hemp stalks, after the
butts are cut off, are placed in the trough and the beater worked up and
down so as to split the stalks and lay bare the fibre.
The average production of fibre per scala is 60 to 80 okes, but where
conditions are all favourable it may reach 160 to 200 okes and the seed
yield may be anything from 80 to 200 okes per scala.
_Silk_
The silkworm (_Bombyx mori_) finds in Cyprus a climate exceptionally
favourable to its development, and Cyprus silks have been famous for
their quality throughout the middle ages and as far back as the sixth
century A.D., when Greek monks first introduced silkworms from China.
In the fateful year 1845, when the disease pebrine nearly destroyed the
silk industry of Europe, the anxious search for healthy silkworm eggs
that then ensued led Arabs from Syria to visit Cyprus and buy large
quantities of silk cocoons from which they raised and exported the eggs.
At that time, therefore, it is evident that Cypriot moths were well
thought of. Pebrine soon reached Cyprus and almost brought the Island
breed to an end. Thanks, however, to the Pasteur system, whereby pebrine
and other silkworm diseases have been brought under complete control,
the industry both here and elsewhere was not only saved but has been
considerably developed.
Writing in 1896 Mr. P. Gennadius, late Director of Agriculture, Cyprus,
stated that the local production of silkworm eggs was so small that it
could not be taken into consideration, and from the figures then given
the total average annual production at that time is estimated to have
been 35,000 okes of dry cocoons. This represented an average yield of
only 3-1/2 okes of dry cocoons, equal to 15-1/2 kilograms of fresh
cocoons, per ounce of silkworm eggs. This compared very unfavourably
with the average annual production of fresh cocoons in France and Italy
at that time, which was 35 kilograms and 30 kilograms respectively per
ounce of silkworm eggs. Moreover, this ratio had been, up to that
period, on a descending scale.
In a report published in 1897 Mr. Gennadius attributed this
unsatisfactory state of things to the following causes:
1. The importation of cheap silkworm eggs of inferior quality; the
average price paid by merchants was 2 to 2-1/2 francs per ounce, while
the price in France ranged from 9 to 12 francs.
2. The action of merchants who imported larger quantities of eggs than
they could properly dispose of.
3. The ignorance and folly of rearers who undertook to rear far more
worms than they could properly "educate," having regard to space, leaves
and labour.
In 1908 the Department of Agriculture set to work, with some success,
to improve the methods of rearing up to that time in vogue, and during
the six years ending 1913 (inclusive) the average annual quantity of
eggs hatched out was 12,319 oz., the average annual export of "dry"
cocoons was 45,551 okes, and the average annual estimated local
consumption 4,449 okes, making a total annual production of 50,000 okes,
as against 35,000 okes in 1896. The former total represents an average
yield of about 4 okes of "dry" cocoons, equal to about 18 kilograms of
fresh cocoons per ounce of seed, and marks a slight improvement upon the
ratio of eighteen years previously.
Since 1914 this branch of work has received a larger share of attention
from the Department. Five sericultural stations have been established,
regulations have been issued, inspections by qualified persons have been
systematically made, practical advice has been given to rearers in the
matter of cleanliness, disinfection and so forth, the granting of
licences to egg-raisers has been put on a better footing and the whole
industry has been brought more under observation and control.
Numerous suggestions have been made from time to time for insuring that
only a good quality of egg shall be imported. As an effective--perhaps
the most effective--means to this end, the Department of Agriculture has
set itself to improve the production of local eggs and thus indirectly
discourage their importation: holders of licences to raise eggs are
required to pass periodical examinations; several have in consequence
had their licences cancelled, new licensees have been added, and many
unlicensed persons have been prosecuted and convicted for illegally
raising eggs.
The common method of hatching practised by villagers, by placing the
eggs tied in cloth with a little cotton-wool in their beds or by
carrying them on their persons, still prevails, but it is gradually
yielding to a better system of incubation. The Department has designed a
simple, inexpensive hatching-box, and these are now being used with good
results.
Until about three years ago probably 25 per cent. of the local rearers
were producing their own seed without any microscopical examination at
all. Bad feeding, bad ventilation, ill-adapted premises were general.
As a consequence pebrine and flacherie played such havoc that many
people were beginning to abandon silkworm rearing and uproot their
mulberry trees. The expansion and increased resources of the
Agricultural Department happily came just in time to check this backward
move.
Silk reeling is unfortunately done in the most primitive manner with
wooden appliances and hot water by village hand labour. The locally
reeled silk is used only for Island consumption and the great bulk of
cocoons is exported in the raw state, mostly to Lyons and Milan. The
burden of freight on this bulky cargo is naturally a heavy handicap and
the local silkworm rearers have consequently to be content with very low
and inadequate prices for their cocoons. During the reeling process 20
to 25 per cent. of the silk is lost, and a further loss is incurred
during weaving owing to the numerous knots having to be cut away and the
silk threads rejoined.
A considerable loss is said to take place in selling cocoons in the
European markets. The cocoons on arrival at Marseilles are subjected to
official tests and sold according to the reports made by the official
testers. It is of advantage to the buyers that the report should be made
as unfavourable as possible as the price is lowered proportionately, and
it is felt that the cocoons exported are thus placed too much at the
mercy of the testing officials.
These Cyprus cocoons are reeled in France and Italy and the silk is
largely sold to England. It would be to the mutual benefit of England
and Cyprus if a direct demand for Cyprus reeled silk could be created
and modern reeling plant introduced into the Island. A large sum of
money, now annually paid for freight, would thus be saved to the Cypriot
producers, which would stimulate the local industry and tend to increase
greatly the annual production and improve the local weaving of silk
stuffs, an industry which has already gained considerable fame and at
which the Cypriot women are adepts.
As the following table shows, the amount of raw silk exported is a
negligible quantity, but a fairly large quantity is locally reeled and
is used in making the silk stuffs which are so much sought after in the
local bazaars:
___________________________________________________________________
Export of cocoons. | Export of | Export of raw silk
| cocoons waste. |
-------------------------------------------------------------------
_Year._|_Okes._|_Country._|_Okes._|_Country._|_Okes._|_Country._
-------------------------------------------------------------------
1909 |41,013 |France | 2,120 |France | 6 |Turkey
1910 |44,550 | " | 1,105 | " | 259 | "
| | | | | 157 |Egypt
1911 |57,422 | " | 2,704 | " | 246 |Turkey
| | | | | 70 |Egypt
1912 |43,196 | " | 2,571 | " | 90 |Turkey
| | | 70 |Turkey | 3 |Greece
1913 |48,884 | " | 2,502 |France | 118 |Turkey
___________________________________________________________________
Efforts have been made by the Agricultural Department to improve the
Cypriot race of silkworms. Two races of white colour, the Japanese and
the Baghdad, have been separately crossed with the yellow race of
Baghdad. These crossings began in 1912-13 and have been continued up to
the present. The objects aimed at are to establish a new Cypriot race
(_a_) giving good cocoons of a fine structure and larger in size than
the French variety and yielding a maximum quantity of silk; (_b_)
producing cocoons of a uniform colour and in demand in the European
market and (_c_) with these characteristics constant.
The results obtained so far are promising, but uniformity of colour has
not yet been attained, though it is hoped that, by careful selection,
this will become more fixed every year. It may here be mentioned that
the famous French cream-coloured race took seventy-five years to become
fully established owing to the widespread damage caused by pebrine and,
to a lesser extent, by flacherie.
It has been observed that silkworm eggs locally produced by qualified
licensees are decidedly more immune to disease and less affected by
adverse atmospheric conditions than imported seed.
The local conditions of sericulture in Cyprus have undergone a change of
late years. Formerly Nicosia and Famagusta were the districts where this
industry was chiefly carried on; but latterly whole mulberry groves have
been uprooted and replaced by fruit trees which are considered to be
more profitable. This was the inevitable result of the ignorant methods
under which the silkworm-rearing industry was conducted and the use of
bad seed permitted, whereby disease was spread and annual loss
incurred. It is hoped that the industry is now again on the upward
grade. One indication of this is that whereas a few years ago 1,000 to
1,800 cocoons went to an oke, now the figure may be put at 500 to 1,000.
Again, the waste due to excess of floss is much less than formerly, and
if only reeling by machinery can be introduced a very much better return
will result to the cocoon producer.
In the Karpas and in and around Nicosia a bi-voltine race is reared. The
results are poor, but the two rearings are made because in these
localities there is an ample supply of leaves. From this race are
produced small cocoons locally called "Confetti." They are only used for
local silk manufacture.
An inferior silk called "Koukoularika" is made from the cocoons of the
ordinary or univoltine race, both those which have been stoved and those
which have been badly stained when the moths emerged.
These cocoons, which, during the process of boiling in lye, have been
bleached, are turned inside-out and the excrement of the larva removed.
The silk is then spun by hand with the "atrachtos." These cocoons are
mostly from laggard worms and of inferior quality.
The silk industry has suffered greatly from unscrupulous dealing on the
part of the dealers in eggs. It is a common custom for these persons to
sell imported seed at 2_s._ and even less per ounce, although the law
requires all such seed to be accompanied by a Consular certificate and
affidavit showing that the price paid was not less than 4_s._ per ounce,
exclusive of freight, carriage or insurance. Secret discounts,
presumably, render this practice possible. The dealer does not ask for
payment in cash, but requires it in kind at the rate of 1 oke in every 4
okes of cocoons raised. If 28 okes of cocoons are obtained from 1 ounce
of seed the dealer would get 7 okes, valued at say 2_s._ 6_d._ per oke =
17_s._ 6_d._ for each ounce of seed. The dealer mostly gives a cash
advance of 10_s._ or L1 with the seed, stipulating that the crop is to
be sold exclusively to him, the price being left open. The unfortunate
producer is therefore in his toils.
The establishment of small Sericultural Societies would do much, both
to encourage and cheapen the cost of growing mulberry trees and assist
the industry. A few such societies have lately been formed.
_Mulberry_
This tree (_Morus alba_) is grown extensively for silkworm feeding and
is mostly found in those parts of the Island in which the silk industry
is centred, viz. in the Marathassa valley and in the Karpas, fairly
generally in and around Nicosia, Kyrenia and in the southern parts of
the Paphos district.
Little care is given to its cultivation. For the most part, in all the
older plantations, the trees are set too close together. This is less
noticeable in the newer plantations. Pruning, where given, is defective
and so is the method of gathering the leaves.
The usual method is to cut off, every year, the shoots with the leaves
on them, from about one foot above the main branches. Two reasons are
given for this by villagers. (1) It is quicker and easier to cut off
these shoots than to pick off the leaves while still on the tree. The
shoots are brought into the "magnanerie" and there placed upright in
water and the leaves can then be removed more conveniently and at
leisure. In this way the leaves remain fresh two days. (2) By cutting
these shoots in the spring, _i.e._ during the silkworm-rearing season,
which begins in early April, fresh shoots are formed which bear leaves
in late summer and autumn. The latter afford very welcome green food for
cattle and sheep. These leaves are stripped direct from the growing
tree. The effect of this second gathering is prejudicial to the tree,
which is thereby exhausted. The leaves produced the following spring are
fleshy and watery and in the uncertain weather of spring are apt to
induce flacherie.
_Agaves and Aloes_
_Agave americana_, _A. rigida_ var. _sisalana_, _Furcraea gigantea_,
_Aloe ciliata_ and _A. frutescens_ all grow well and, if properly
cultivated and handled, might be worth more attention than they at
present receive.
In 1913 a Cypriot from German East Africa who had been engaged in the
production of Sisal hemp there was struck by the few excellent plants he
found growing in Cyprus, and, had sufficient suitable land been then
obtainable, with transport facilities, was desirous of undertaking
cultivation on a commercial basis.
Samples of fibre prepared from the leaves of the abovementioned plants
were reported on by the Imperial Institute in 1912, but as the leaves
had been retted, and not scraped or scutched, their value was
depreciated, and this was estimated at from L14 to L18 per ton with best
Mexican Sisal hemp at L25 per ton.
The outlay for fencing against wandering flocks of goats and for
decorticating machinery and other expenses would deter the ordinary
cultivator from planting, and this could only be profitably undertaken
if ample capital were forthcoming.
_Broom Corn_
Until the end of last century all brooms of European type were imported.
Seed of broom corn (_Sorghum vulgare_), known locally as "tchihri" or
"skoupa," was then introduced, and gradually the cultivation has
extended and a good number of brooms of very fair quality are now
locally made. The process of broom-making is very simple and the high
price of the imported article during the war has led to a marked
extension of the industry. The plant grows well, especially on irrigated
land. The seed provides a good food for chickens and the stalks and
leaves can be used as fodder. It is a profitable crop, especially when
the cultivator makes and sells the brooms himself, and is principally
grown in the Karpas and at Athienou.
TOBACCO
In Turkish times tobacco was grown in several parts of the Island,
though not to any large extent.
"For centuries it was produced in many districts of the Island, and
particularly in the Karpas, near Kilani, Omodhos and Paphos, but from
the time it became an article of monopoly its production was subjected
to rigorous restrictions, and its cultivation has been entirely
abandoned." (Reports, pt. ii. (1896), P. Gennadius).
The quantity grown before the occupation appears to have been very
fluctuating and to have averaged about 56,000 lb. annually, and the
Government revenue, according to British Consular reports, would not
have been more than L300 to L400 per annum. The Regie was introduced in
1874, but owing to the hampering restrictions the industry had been
pretty well crushed out by the time of British occupation in 1878.
Meanwhile the revenue from tobacco, imported mainly from Volo and
Salonica, increased greatly.
The monopoly ceased at the British occupation, but the regulations and
imposts remained. Those responsible for controlling the industry,
collecting dues, and checking illicit consumption had a troublesome
task, while on the other hand the cultivator became averse to engaging
in a cultivation which was hedged round with so many restrictions and
formalities.
These exist at the present time and may here be quoted:
The grower has to notify the Customs authorities of his intention to
sow, giving the locality and area. Before picking he must again notify
the Customs, so that a Customs officer may be present at the picking and
weigh the freshly picked leaves. After storing, but before delivering
the tobacco to the factory, the Customs officer must again weigh the now
dry leaves.
The excise duties leviable are: Tobacco leaf, 4-1/2_cp._ per oke,
payable on transfer of leaf from grower to wholesale dealer. Tobacco
manufactured in Cyprus, whether made into cigarettes or otherwise, in
addition to the import duty or transport duty, pays a banderolle duty of
3_s._ 6-1/2_cp._ per oke.
These regulations are a relic of the Turkish times, as in those days the
State received a definite due called "City Toll" by charging the tobacco
cutters and tobacco sellers with a trade tax. They appear to have been
administered with more laxity in Turkish than in post-occupation times,
and it is said that the abandonment of tobacco cultivation was mainly
due to the severity with which these rather vexatious and irritating
regulations were enforced.
For many years the tobacco imported by local cigarette manufacturers
came almost entirely from Macedonia. This tobacco was of very superior
quality and cheap, and locally grown tobacco could not compete with it.
Of late years the price of Macedonian tobacco has risen considerably and
the manufacturers have therefore been induced to import Thessalian
tobacco instead, which is not of so fine a flavour and approximates more
closely to Cyprus produce. Cypriot smokers have thus had their palates
prepared for the flavour of the locally grown tobacco.
About the year 1912, when Houry's Cyprus Tobacco Association, Ltd., was
formed, a revival in the industry set in. This has since received
considerable impetus from the war, which, temporarily, has thrust
Macedonian tobacco out of the market. The primary object of the
Association was to manufacture tobacco and cigarettes from Cyprus-grown
tobacco, although foreign tobacco could also be used. Tobacco then began
to be regularly grown by the Association at a Chiftlik near Limassol and
elsewhere, and cigarettes made therefrom have had a fair local sale. The
arrival of well-to-do refugees from Latakia and other parts of Syria,
skilled in tobacco cultivation, led to great extension of this crop. A
large part of the produce was at first converted into Latakia tobacco.
Owing possibly to the lack of care and skill on the part of native
labour, partly perhaps to the unsuitability of the herbs and brushwood
used in the fuming, the market was not found sufficiently encouraging
and the Latakia, for which at best there is a very restricted market,
has almost ceased to be produced. Tobacco for cigarettes, however,
continues to be grown on a fairly large scale, but in order that land
suitable for corn and other foodstuffs should not be sacrificed to
tobacco, the cultivation of the latter is permitted only by special
licence. In 1916 and 1917 the industry fell almost entirely into the
hands of the richer refugees, who were expert growers, and they
contracted with the small farmers and peasants. A number of speculative
growers, professional men, merchants, etc., were tempted by the
prevailing high prices to embark in the industry, but the licensing
system has tended to throw it more into the hands of the _bona-fide_
farmers, who are allowed only to cultivate small areas which can be
looked after mainly by their own families. In 1916 the total production
was 89,065 okes, and the estimated yield for 1917 is 487,674 okes.
The Agricultural Department has for some five years carried out
experimental growings in various districts, and samples of tobacco so
grown have been submitted to the Imperial Institute (see BULLETIN OF THE
IMPERIAL INSTITUTE, vol. xiii. 1915, pp. 547-550). The two best samples
reported on were grown in the Nicosia plain. They were said to conform
with the Turkish tobacco as regards size of leaf, but contained too much
moisture for the English market. The tobacco was found to smoke rather
hot and was only mildly aromatic, but it was believed that these defects
would probably disappear with more experience in the curing. The samples
referred to were incompletely cured, having been submitted quickly in
order to roughly ascertain their quality. The report on the whole was
moderately encouraging, and it is hoped that later samples which have
been better cured will be found superior.
The tobacco grown in Cyprus is mostly of the Samsoun, Trebizond, Kavalla
and Hassan Keff varieties.
The normal importation of tobacco into Cyprus is about 180,000 okes,
which produces an import duty of L4,500 a year, at the rate of
4-1/2_cp._ per oke.
The average amount paid for banderolles on tobacco when issued from
factories for consumption is about L30,000 a year, which at the rate of
3_s._ 6-1/2_cp._ per oke equals a banderolle duty on 161,000 okes; the
difference of about 20,000 okes would be cigarettes exported on which no
banderolle duty is paid.
If, then, no tobacco were grown and none imported the Government would
lose L35,000 revenue annually. It would appear to be immaterial from a
revenue point of view whether tobacco were imported or grown in the
Island, since the imposts are the same, viz. on imports 4-1/2_cp._ per
oke import duty and 3_s._ 6-1/2_cp._ per oke banderolle duty; on
locally grown tobacco 4-1/2_cp._ per oke transport duty and 3_s._
6-1/2_cp._ per oke banderolle duty. There is, however, this difference,
that the money leaves the Island when the tobacco is imported and
remains and fructifies when it is locally grown.