unsalted, on the mud roofs of houses in order to give off a part of
their water before grinding.
The procedure is then as follows:
They are first of all taken to the crusher or grinding mill. This
consists not of two stones, as in Greece, but of one stone, drawn by
pony, mule or donkey.
For the first quality of oil the olive stones should not be broken, but
generally speaking, insufficient care is paid to this and the stones
are, for the most part, crushed. The crushed olives (zimari, paste) are
then removed to the press, which is worked by hand, with one exception
of an hydraulic press at Akanthou. At this village, where the best olive
oil is produced, the olives are brought direct from the trees to the
mill, whereas elsewhere the practice is to leave them in a heap to
ferment and they often become foul and covered with dust and dirt.
In pressing with wooden presses, the zimari or crushed olives are placed
in round bags made of plaited rushes. Seven to ten of these are placed
one on top of another in the press and the oil obtained is virgin oil
(huile vierge).
The bags are then removed and squeezed so as to change the position of
the contents. They are then replaced in the press and hot water is
poured into each bag. The oil obtained is of second quality. A third
pressing is sometimes given.
The yield is calculated at the rate of 1 oke of oil to 4 okes of olives.
In the Paphos district is produced a black oil with a very distinct
flavour. This is due to the custom of boiling the olives before
grinding. The demand for this inferior oil is confined to that district.
In former days it was usual for the mills and presses to be worked in
the open. This is now rarely the case, but may still be occasionally
seen in parts of the Paphos district and elsewhere.
Whether outdoors or indoors these mills and presses are soon allowed to
become very unclean, and the rancid flavour which clings to the wood is
quickly imparted to the oil, which possesses, for any but Cypriots, a
strong and unpleasant smell and flavour. There is a considerable
residue or waste, which, if it could be utilised, would go far to meet
the deficiency in the requirements for local consumption.
There are a few good iron presses now in use. Their superiority is
generally recognised and, no doubt, now that the war is over, they will
be imported in greater numbers.
Small inexpensive, cottage filters have been designed by the
Agricultural Department and these are being adopted, though very
gradually. The oil so filtered is greatly superior, but having acquired
a more delicate flavour, it is not so much appreciated by the native
consumers.
Large numbers of young wild olive trees are issued on permit from the
State forests for private cultivation and many thousands of two- and
three-year-old plants raised in the Government Nurseries are also
distributed every year. With the gradual improvement in cultivation and
in the preparation of the oil, the production should increase
enormously.
The local production of olive oil is insufficient for the requirements
of the Island, but there is no reason why, in the course of time, when
the large number of trees newly planted and annually on the increase,
come into bearing, a valuable export trade should not result. The
figures of production, given in the table below, are strikingly
fluctuating, and indicate the irregularity of the annual yield and the
marked variation in price:
Year. Quantity. Value.
_Cwts._ L
1904 4,294 6,467
1905 5,291 8,504
1906 7,845 12,602
1907 8,981 16,922
1908 788 1,459
1909 3,851 8,864
1910 7,550 17,232
1911 608 1,415
1912 48 88
1913 911 2,052
1914 2,197 4,837
1915 6,003 15,146
1916 4,966 16,035
1917 290 1,225
_Sesame Seed_
The annual production in Cyprus of sesame seed (_Sesamum indicum_) is
said to be about 195,000 okes. It is one of the recognised summer crops
in the plains, and is frequently sown together in the same field with
cotton, maize, etc., and in the vine villages it is sown in the newly
planted vineyards, where it does well. In such cases the preparation of
the soil is done on the same lines as for cotton, maize, vines, etc.
The seed is used mainly for the extraction of the oil, which is largely
employed in cooking, and it is also used in the preparation of
sweetmeats; it is added sometimes as a condiment in bread-making. There
is a small export, principally through Egypt.
The percentage of oil extracted varies according to the locality where
the seed has been produced. Of the local product, that from Paphos gives
the highest yield, viz. 30 to 35 per cent.; but this is inferior to the
Egyptian product, which is to some extent imported and yields 40 to 45
per cent. of oil, this being probably due to the thinner skin. The crop
is uncertain. The plant is readily affected by the hot west wind
([Greek: libas]) which not infrequently blows during its period of
growth. The development of the seed is thereby checked and it remains
thin and small ([Greek: psalios]), and naturally the oil yield is
diminished.
_Ground Nut, Peanut or Monkey Nut_ (_Arachis hypogaea_)
This nut is fairly popular among all classes and is imported through
Egypt in moderate quantities. There is no reason why in certain
localities this plant should not be grown successfully, more especially
in the light sandy soils around Varosha and at Syrianochori. Efforts
have been made to induce cultivators to grow this crop, but so far it
has not commended itself. It calls for something a little out of the
ordinary in the way of cultivation, as the plants mature their fruits
under the soil; the profit to be derived from the crop is uncertain, and
is thought, though without sufficient proof, to compare unfavourably
with rival crops. Growers have been somewhat deterred by the ease with
which the fruit can be stolen. As this is hidden under the soil, a theft
is not at once detected. These drawbacks probably explain its restricted
cultivation.
Should oil-extracting machinery be introduced, these nuts might well be
grown for their oil, both for culinary purposes and for use in
soap-making. The residuum, after extraction of the oil, and the haulm
are nutritious cattle foods.
The importation of these nuts was recently prohibited except in a
roasted condition, owing to the risk of their introducing plant pests
when in the raw, earth-encrusted condition. This has tended to check
importation, and may perhaps give an impetus to local production. Ground
nuts can be grown, of course, only where irrigation is possible.
The quantity of ground nuts imported in 1917 was 1,532 cwts., valued at
_L_2,448. Previous to that year they were not separately enumerated.
_Castor-oil Seed_
The castor-oil plant (_Ricinus communis_) is only grown to a small
extent, but the tree usually thrives well and its cultivation might be
extended with advantage. According to Gennadius, Dioscorides claimed
that it used to be called Seseli of Cyprus, from which the inference may
be drawn that the plant has long been among the flora of the Island,
where it is now known as a perennial. It grows very freely from seed and
rapidly attains a height of 15 or 16 ft.; but it quickly dies back after
a slight frost, though it recovers again the following year. It appears
to do well in most soils, but thrives best in light loam with moderate
moisture.
Owing to the demand for the oil, one or two plantations have lately been
made by the Agricultural Department.
The varieties locally grown include plants producing large, medium and
small-sized seed. Trial cultivations are being made to ascertain their
relative values. It is found that a heavier yield of better quality is
usually obtained where the plant is treated as an annual and not as a
perennial. Four samples of castor seed examined at the Imperial
Institute were found to contain normal amounts of oil, and similar seed
would be readily saleable in the United Kingdom if offered in commercial
quantities (see BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE, vol. xvii. 1919, p.
492).
FIBRES
_Cotton_
During the time of the Venetian occupation (1489-1570) Cyprus exported
annually from seven to fifteen million pounds of raw cotton. In the
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries the English Levant Company sent
large quantities from Cyprus to England. When the scarcity of cotton
occasioned by the American Civil War gave a stimulus to its growth
Cyprus took part in meeting the demand, and in 1866 over 2,000,000 lb.
were exported. Since then the production has declined. In former times,
then, the production of Cyprus cotton must have been very large, as
cotton manufactures in the Island were, as in most cotton-producing
countries in the East at that period, both considerable and of choice
quality. Cyprus was always distinguished for its cotton spinning.
Gennadius suggests that the Karpas, which is one of the centres of the
Cyprus cotton manufacture, derived its name from the ancient "karpasos,"
a fine cotton cloth which came from India. There is an old Hebrew word
"karpas" found in the Old Testament, and derived from the Sanscrit
"karpasa," cotton, or "karpasum," cotton cloth.
During the Turkish Administration cotton cultivation declined, owing to
the destruction of aqueducts, Venetian wells, etc., and to the practice
of taxing the cotton crop in the field before it was picked--a cause of
considerable delay and detriment to the crop. Careless cultivation and
consequent deterioration of the fibre as well as the general fall in
value contributed to the decay of the industry. Taxing the crop in the
field was abandoned in 1890, and a tithe was levied on exported cotton
only (_Handbook of Cyprus_).
The species of cotton principally cultivated in the Island is _Gossypium
herbaceum_. American "New Orleans" seed was introduced some twenty years
or so ago, and this has now largely displaced the original native kind;
in fact the native kind has almost entirely disappeared, and what little
is grown is mostly used for stuffing the native bed-quilt or "paploma."
Cotton grown without irrigation is known as "dry" cotton. It is grown
chiefly in the Messaorian plain and in the Karpas; it is harsh to the
touch and short in staple, but of satisfactory colour. "Wet" cotton is
grown on irrigated land; it is usually of larger staple and of finer
quality than the "dry" cotton and commands a higher price. This is grown
mainly round about Kythrea, Nisou, Dali, Lapithos and in the Solea
valley. Native cotton is always grown "dry"; the ordinary American
variety is grown both "wet" and "dry."
The Karpas cotton, which is "dry" grown, is inferior not only on account
of its shorter staple, but on account of the method of picking. In some
places of Messaoria, at Dali, Nisou, etc., the "dry" and sometimes the
"wet" cotton is picked in the morning before the dew has quite
evaporated, and it is picked direct from the growing plant. But the most
general practice is for the villagers to cut the bolls early in the
morning before the dew is evaporated ([Greek: porne]), transport them to
the houses and then remove the lint at their leisure. In this way the
bolls are more or less crushed and the lint when removed contains a
mixture of husk, leaves, etc.
In the case of native and other varieties the lint of which adheres to
the boll, the husks, leaves, etc., are removed from the bolls in the
following way: The bolls are spread out on mats to dry in the sun; when
sufficiently dry the bolls are put in a rotary sieve made of reeds and
sticks, similar in make to the ordinary reed baskets of the country.
Each end of the sieve is closed, but it has an opening in the middle,
about 1 by 1-1/2 to 2 ft., which is closed by a small reed mat. The
sieve is about 5 to 6 ft. long and 2 to 2-1/2 ft. in diameter. The bolls
are dropped into the sieve through the opening and it is then revolved
by hand by means of an axle which passes through it longitudinally. By
this means most of the crushed husks and leaves fall through the
interstices of the sieve.
The native seed is usually grown on dry lands as it withstands drought.
The "wet" cotton is mostly of the American variety.
Professor Wyndham Dunstan, F.R.S., in his _Report on the Agricultural
Resources of Cyprus_ (1905), referred to the successful trials made with
"Sea Island," "Peterkin," "Truitt's Big Boll," "Culpepper Big Boll,"
and "Allen's Long Staple." Since then other varieties have been tried by
the Agricultural Department, and while "Allen's" and "Truitt's" have
continued to do well, good results have been obtained from "Triumph" and
"Durango," both of which are early kinds and are therefore very suitable
to the Island. A report by the Imperial Institute on samples of "Allen's
Improved," "Mebane's Early Triumph" and "Sakellaridis" cottons grown
experimentally in Cyprus in 1915 will be found in the BULLETIN OF THE
IMPERIAL INSTITUTE (vol. xv. 1917, p. 298).
Owing to fear of locusts, late sowing (about May-June) became rather
general. This is a dangerous practice as the bolls ripen late and much
cotton is spoilt by the early autumn rains. It is mostly sown broadcast
or in trenches; on irrigated land it is mostly sown in the ridges, but
the older practice of sowing broadcast still, unfortunately, continues.
"Dry" cotton is usually sown either on land which can be irrigated by a
river when in flood, or in "livadhia" or low-lying lands which retain
their moisture a long time. In the former case the seed is sown about
March-April, while the soil is still damp from rain water or from river
overflow. It is generally expected that when the young plants are fairly
established a second irrigation from flood-water may occur. In the
"livadhia" the seed is sown later. "Wet" cotton is watered about every
fortnight.
The crop begins to be collected in mid-September and continues up till
the end of October. "Dry" cotton is rarely manured; "wet" cotton
occasionally. The use of chemical manures is coming into practice. There
are several ginning machines in the Island, but baling by hydraulic
presses is done almost exclusively at Larnaca.
In the Island the cotton seed is used for sowing and for feeding cattle.
The exports of cotton seed have been:
Year. Quantity. Value.
_Cwts._ L
1909 2,708 769
1910 3,066 970
1911 3,245 830
1912 15,874 4,535
1913 13,933 3,750
The exports represent about three-fourths of the total production.
There should be a good opening for machinery for extracting the oil.
The cotton is locally graded into (1) best, (2) medium, and (3) poor,
all being American varieties. The first quality is the "wet" or
irrigated cotton. The second quality is grown mostly in the Messaoria
plain and at Dali, Nisou, Potamia, Kythrea, where it is partly irrigated
by river floods. The third quality is "dry" and comes principally from
the Karpas. On the Marseilles market the second quality has a value 3 to
4 per cent., and the third quality 8 to 10 per cent. less than the first
quality. The first quality ranks in price at Marseilles on about a level
with American cotton.
For some ten years Greece has taken the leading place as an importer.
Before the war, Cyprus cotton went chiefly to Marseilles and Greece,
some also to Trieste. Only a very insignificant quantity goes to
England. The freight to Marseilles was about 25_s._ per ton, to Trieste
about 15_s._ per ton, while to England it averaged 50_s._ per ton. The
market prices at Marseilles and Trieste were approximately the same, but
at Marseilles they were subject to a discount of 1-1/2 per cent.,
whereas at Trieste a discount of 3 to 4 per cent. was made. The Trieste
market, being small, was subject to sudden fluctuations and was
therefore risky and less favoured by Cypriot exporters.
For several reasons the Liverpool market has not been so attractive as
that of Marseilles. At Liverpool and Manchester quantities of not less
than, say, 100 bales are preferred, whereas Marseilles would take
smaller consignments of 20 or 40 bales. Uniformity of type is required
by Manchester spinners, whereas the French factories are more ready to
handle different types, including the shorter staples. Cyprus merchants
make no distinction as regards the varieties of cotton, whether
"Orleans," "Sea Island" or other kinds, and indeed they are scarcely
competent to do so, as this requires special knowledge and experience.
They buy in small quantities from many peasant growers and mix the
produce in order to make up a fair consignment.
In normal times there was always the further difficulty of obtaining
direct transport to England, whereas to Marseilles, Trieste and also to
Greece the opportunities were more frequent.
Since the war Greece has become much the largest buyer. Owing to
shortage of cotton on the Greek market this commodity was purchased from
Cyprus rather than from Liverpool, as the freight was lower and war
risks much less; apart from the almost impossibility of obtaining
tonnage. It was the practice before the war for Cypriot merchants to
sell c.i.f. Piraeus, but they could not continue this under recent
conditions and now sell f.o.b. Cyprus, and this practice is likely to
continue. This f.o.b. Cyprus price has lately been about the same as
would ordinarily be obtained for c.i.f. Liverpool. Greece has many small
filatures willing to take consignments of even 10 bales, and the
shipment direct or via Alexandria is easier.
A Cyprus bale weighs about 150 okes.
The following figures, showing average annual exports of raw cotton at
various pre-war periods, indicate the course of the cultivation:
Period. Average Quantity. Average Value.
_Cwts._ L
1880-89 . . . 68,410 147,683
1890-99 . . . 57,291 91,812
1900-09 . . . 41,121 92,939
1910-17 . . . 68,384 213,275
Prices have varied, as is shown by the values of the following record
years:
Quantity. Value. Average price.
_Cwts._ L L
1885 (highest export on record) 14,276 29,567 2 1 5
1886 (2nd ditto) . . . 13,887 26,535 1 16 11
1912 (3rd ditto) . . . 13,808 40,085 2 18 0
1913 (4th ditto) . . . 13,444 40,693 3 0 6
1884 (5th ditto) . . . 12,227 26,874 2 3 1
In 1917 there were 13,685 donums under cotton cultivation.
It is usual in some parts of the Island, especially in the Kyrenia
district, to leave the crop in the ground for two or three years. This
method of cropping is locally known as "palia" or old. It is found
profitable to leave the cotton plants two or three years on irrigated
land. The second-year crop usually gives the heaviest yield.
The average yield of unginned cotton on irrigated land is about 120 okes
(3 cwts.) per scala; but as much as 250 okes can be obtained. "Wet"
cotton, best quality, yields 1 oke of lint from 3 okes of unginned
cotton, and "dry" cotton yields about 1 oke of lint from 3-1/3 okes of
unginned cotton.
There is much land well suited to cotton which for lack of water cannot
be utilised. If artesian water could be found, there would be a very
considerable extension of this cultivation.
There is a well-equipped little cotton factory at Famagusta, and
excellent cotton fabrics are made, especially in Nicosia neighbourhood,
Lapithos and Karavas, Lefkonico and Gypsos and in the Karpas. These are
known under the names of "alaja" and "dimita." They are mostly of good
patterns, the material is strong and wears well, and is being largely
used, not only by the peasantry, but also for making men's suits and
ladies' skirts and cloths.
An interesting article on the Cyprus Cotton Industry is to be found in
the BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE, vol. iii. 1905, pp. 327-334.
_Flax and Linseed_
The cultivation of flax (_Linum usitatissimum_), which began to develop
some twenty years ago, has declined during the last ten years or so. The
reasons for this are that it is considered to exhaust the soil, the
later handling of the crop for fibre is troublesome and the market is
liable to rather violent fluctuations. It grows well in the Messaoria
plain, and when chemical manures are more generally used it may come
more into favour. Attempts have been made to improve the quality by the
introduction of Riga flax seed, but so far without success. There is a
small export of linseed, but owing to the primitive methods of winnowing
and cleaning it does not fetch the best price. The quality of the
cleaned seed is excellent. Knowledge and care are needed in picking the
crop at exactly the right time. The imperfect methods of general
cultivation prevent the uniform ripening of the seed, and this means an
uneven and unsatisfactory sample. Defective screening accounts for the
presence in excess of foreign substances, weed seeds, etc. These
difficulties are capable of remedy, and it may reasonably be hoped that
when once overcome the cultivation will be extended.
In Cyprus the cultivation is the same whether intended for seed or
fibre, and consequently the latter is of an inferior quality, as is
indicated in a report on Cyprus flax published in the BULLETIN OF THE
IMPERIAL INSTITUTE (vol. vi. 1908, p. 4). Seed is sown in
November-December at the rate of 17 to 22 okes per donum. Retting is
done by steeping in the large stone irrigation tanks which are a feature
on most farms. In the Messaoria, about Ano and Kato Zodia, where flax is
commonly grown, the plant is retted in the river Ovgos, which retains
sufficient water usually until August. The yield per donum varies from
100 to 300 okes of seed, 80 to 100 okes of fibre and 50 to 70 okes of
tow.
_Wool_
The exports of wool for the three last pre-war years were as follows:
Year. Quantity. Value.
_Cwts._ L
1911 . . . . 5,535 13,452
1912 . . . . 4,627 11,362
1913 . . . . 4,707 12,181
This went chiefly to France, and next, though in much smaller
quantities, to Italy.
The wool is of moderate quality; this is partly due to the breed of
sheep and partly to the conditions under which they are kept. Attempts
have been made by the Agricultural Department to impress on the native
breeders the necessity of keeping the sheep well fed, and experiments
have been carried out at the Athalassa Experimental Farm for the purpose
of demonstrating the advantages of careful rearing.
Two fleeces from the Athalassa Farm were sent to the Imperial Institute
in May 1912, for examination and commercial valuation. One was the
fleece of a yearling ram. This was clean, fairly soft and almost white.
The other was the fleece of a yearling ewe. This was clean, slightly
harsh and almost white, but was slightly coarser than that of the ram.
These fleeces were considered by a firm of London brokers as an
excellent class of carpet wool and likely to meet always with a ready
sale in the London market (see BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE, vol.
x. 1912, p. 537). A similar opinion was expressed immediately before the
war (July 1914) by a London firm to whom two bales of Cyprus wool had
been sent, of which a part had been purchased in the bazaar and washed
and trimmed by the Department and part came from the Athalassa
(Government) flock. It was considered as "an ideal wool for carpet
making or for blankets, but deficient in lustre for braids."
The actual yield per sheep, viz. 3 to 3-1/2 lb., compares unfavourably
with that of Lincolns, which they most closely resemble. This is due
partly to breed, but largely also to the conditions under which the
sheep are kept (see p. 17).
_Hemp_
The cultivation of hemp (_Cannabis sativa_) is practically confined to
the southern part of the Paphos district, and there only in places where
the water-supply is ample. The plant is grown only for fibre, which is
exclusively used for rope-making, which is carried out by hand by the
villagers round about Ktima. It would be of advantage to have a
rope-making machine at work at a spot centrally situated in the area of
production. A simple hand-worked machine is now being experimentally
used and will, it is believed, turn out a better class of rope.
The plant grows well on fertile and irrigated lands. Farmyard manure,
and specially sheep manure, are generally applied, and chemical
fertilisers are now also coming into use.