great part of its cultivation as well as the gathering may be done by
women and children. It need not therefore make any serious demand upon
man labour, which is already insufficient, and much of the work can be
performed by those who are unfit for heavy field work. It is a summer
crop, which is greatly in its favour, the quality when grown "dry" being
much finer than when irrigated. Its introduction broadens the basis of
cultivation, provides a revenue from land that would otherwise lie
fallow and is a useful element in any system of rotation. As it calls
for careful preparation and thorough cultivation of the soil it has a
great educative influence on a people prone to slovenly, primitive
husbandry, and corn crops following tobacco have frequently given a
larger, more uniform yield.
At the same time it is an open question whether the crop can be grown
and the leaf cured by the Cypriot farmer to produce a tobacco which,
under normal conditions, will successfully compete in quality and price
with the Macedonian tobacco.
TANNING MATERIALS AND DYE-STUFFS
Tanneries are fairly numerous and large quantities of skins are tanned
and sold to native boot-makers. Before the war, goat- and sheep-skins
and ox-hides were practically the only kinds handled, the two former
being mainly used for the uppers of boots. The top-boots worn by
villagers are nearly all made from goat-skin, locally called "totmaria."
Since the war pig-skins and dog-skins have been also used. Camel-skins
are often employed for making soles.
Pine bark and sumach are the native tanning substances chiefly used in
the local tanneries. The pine is one of the commonest forest trees of
the Island. Shinia leaves (_Pistacia Lentiscus_) are also used (see p.
51).
_Sumach_
The Sicilian, elm-leaved or tanner's sumach (_Rhus Coriaria_) is a shrub
which grows wild throughout a large part of the Island, being
principally found among the vineyards on the slopes of the southern
range of hills. The leaves are largely used in the leather tanning
industry, and a considerable export might have been established to the
United Kingdom had it not been for dissatisfaction caused by the
excessive presence of impurities, such as lentisc leaves and dust, which
were usually found in the consignments sent.
One sample was sent by the Agricultural Department to the Imperial
Institute in 1909. This was found to consist wholly of sumach and no
lentisc or other leaves, and gave on examination the following results:
Moisture, 10.1; ash, 9.8; tannin (by hide-power method), 26.9;
extractive matter (non-tannin), 16.7 per cent. The report showed that
the leaves produced a good leather, similar in texture and colour to
that obtained with Sicilian sumach, and was considered likely to fetch
about the same price as a medium quality of Sicilian sumach, which
contains from 25 to 30 per cent. of tannin (see BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL
INSTITUTE, vol. x. 1912, p. 45).
Two further samples were sent in 1916. The first sample "consisted of a
finely-ground yellowish-green powder, containing a quantity of sand,
small stones and iron dust." The second sample consisted of a
"coarsely-ground, yellowish-green powder, containing a quantity of
pinkish unground twigs, sand and small stones, together with some iron
dust."
The results of examination were as follows:
NO. 1. NO. 2.
_Per cent._ _Per cent._
Moisture 9.3 9.2
Insoluble matters 53.6 57.8
Extractive matters (non-tannin) 14.6 13.0
Tannin 22.5 20.0
Ash 8.5 12.3
---------------------------------------------------------
Tintometer readings--Red 0.7 1.2
Yellow 2.1 2.5
Both samples were low in tannin, compared with the Sicilian percentage
of 25 to 30.
Sample No. 1 was valued at L13, and No. 2 at L12, per ton, with Sicilian
sumach at L15 per ton; the lower value being due to the lower tannin
contents, owing to the presence of sand, dirt, etc. It may be assumed
that if more care in preparing clean samples were taken, Cyprus sumach
would greatly improve its market value.
_Valonea_
There are a few well-grown specimens of valonea oak (_Quercus Aegilops_)
to be seen, but being a slow grower and as it takes many years to reach
the stage when it yields a profit, it does not commend itself to the
Cypriot tree planter. It prefers deep soil and requires artificial
irrigation or a greater rainfall than we have in Cyprus.
It has been tried at Salamis and failed, and also at Machaera with the
same result. It has been grown also on Troodos, but after six years'
growth attained a height of only 1 foot.
Only an insignificant quantity of Valonea cups are locally produced.
These come from the Paphos district and are said to be rather poor in
tannin. The bulk comes from Anatolia. The pre-war price for the latter
was 5_s._ per cantar of 44 okes, that for the locally grown was 20 paras
per oke on the spot, transport charges bringing up the price to about 1
copper piastre per oke delivered.
_Acacia Barks_
_Acacia pycnantha_ has been grown in Cyprus, but does not acclimatise
well, and neither the soil nor climate seems favourable. _A. mollissima_
also has not shown any very successful growth. _A. cyanophylla_ and _A.
longifolia_, on the other hand, thrive excellently. They are great
drought-resisters and grow on almost any soil. They have been very
extensively grown by the Forest Department in every district for fuel
and along the coast upon sand dunes. They have not been utilised so far
for the extraction of tanning, except experimentally. Samples of the
barks of the two last-named species were found on examination at the
Imperial Institute to be too poor in tannin to be worth exporting, but
they should be quite suitable for use in Cyprus (see BULLETIN OF THE
IMPERIAL INSTITUTE, vol. xi. 1913, pp. 412-414).
_Madder_
In former years, and within the period of the British occupation, the
cultivation of madder (_Rubia tinctorum_) was fairly flourishing in
Cyprus. The old madder grounds can still be distinguished, and are
mostly to be seen near Morphou, Ayia Irini, Sotira, Ayios Serghios,
Famagusta and Larnaca. These madder grounds were excavations made in
order to expose the soil lying beneath 10 to 30 ft. of drift-sand; and
they form, as it were, a series of tanks along the shore. The red dye
obtained from the dried and ground madder roots constituted at one time
one of the most valued of dye-stuffs, and was in special demand for
military uniforms; but this has been entirely superseded by artificial
coal-tar derivatives and, as Gennadius says: "The happy days of the
cultivation of this plant are past, never to return."
It is propagated mostly by root cuttings. The leaf begins to dry at
about the sixth month. There is no further growth above ground, but the
roots continue to increase and shoot downwards till moisture affects
them. "When they get too wet, they become black or rot. In Cyprus this
rotting would often begin after about eighteen months, while in superior
soils the roots would continue to improve during thirty-six months, and
they would be known in the trade as eighteen months and thirty-six
months roots. In Famagusta district they remain mostly eighteen months,
while at Morphou they would continue fully thirty-six months, during the
whole of which time the surface ground should be kept free of weeds."
After the root is lifted it is generally dried; if packed before quite
dry, it ferments and deteriorates.
Two and a half tons of dried roots would be produced from an acre of
good ground, and the madder grounds used to fetch a very high price.
DRUGS AND OTHER PRODUCTS
_Liquorice Root_
The liquorice plant (_Glycyrrhiza glabra_, Linn.) grows mainly in the
Famagusta and Kyrenia districts, and the roots are collected and
exported from time to time. Two samples were reported upon in 1917 by
the Imperial Institute (see BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE, vol. xv.
1917, p. 312) and the following opinions of two London firms of brokers
were elicited.
(_a_) One firm described the Lapithos (Kyrenia district) roots as medium
to bold unpeeled roots of good flavour, fairly well cleaned and very
well dried; and valued them at from 50_s._ to 55_s._ per cwt. ex wharf,
London (February 1917). The firm described the Famagusta roots as
thinner than the Lapithos sample and not so well freed from smooth
valueless pieces, but mentioned that they had apparently been washed.
They valued these roots at 50_s._ per cwt. ex wharf, London (February
1917). The firm added that both samples were exceptionally dry, and that
it seemed doubtful if the material in the bulk would be as dry.
(_b_) A second firm considered the roots to be rather mixed, inferior
quality, and worth at that time about 45_s._ per cwt. in London
(February 1917).
_Pyrethrum_
_Pyrethrum (Chrysanthemum) cinerariaefolium_ grows well from seed and is
an attractive garden plant with pretty, marguerite-like flowers. These
yield the pyrethrum of commerce so largely used as an insecticide, and
which is said to form the chief ingredients in various flea powders.
These flowers, when dried and ground to dust, are employed for this
purpose by the natives. The original pyrethrum powder came from plants
growing in Dalmatia.
The plant was introduced into the Cyprus Government Gardens some twenty
years ago and has since spread more or less throughout the Island. It is
perennial and drought-resistant, and will also stand several degrees of
frost and seems indifferent to soil, provided it is not too damp. The
seed is sown in September and the seedlings are transplanted in April or
May, but it multiplies itself readily by suckers. The flowers, which are
about three times the size of the Chamomile (_Matricaria Chamomilla_),
which they closely resemble, are gathered as soon as they are fully
open, and are then dried in a well-ventilated room. They are usually
sold in bales of 50 to 100 kilogrammes. One donum may produce about 100
okes of flowers annually.
_Squill_
Bulbs of the local squill were submitted in 1917 to Kew and
provisionally identified as _Urginea Scilla._ Like the asphodel, this
root is found everywhere. If sliced and placed about the house they are
said to drive away mice. It was intended by the Agricultural Department
to make an attempt to find a market for these roots, in the hope that if
they could obtain a small payment for them farmers might be induced to
collect them off their lands, but the project had to be abandoned for
the time owing to the war. There is a small demand for these roots, if
sliced and dried, in Europe for medicinal purposes.
Squill bulbs from Cyprus were examined at the Imperial Institute in 1916
(see BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE, vol. xv. 1917, p. 311). The
samples, which were submitted to a firm of drug manufacturers, were
objected to on account of their dark colour, and were valued at about
6_d._ per lb. as against a pre-war value of 3_d._ per lb.
According to the report by the Imperial Institute there are two
varieties of _Urginea Scilla,_ white and red, the scales of the former
being yellowish-white and those of the latter having a reddish tint, and
there are also many intermediate forms. Though the red and the white
varieties have been stated to possess equal medicinal value, the white
variety is preferred in England.
In making stone irrigation channels which are lined with a coating of
lime and sand or earth, local masons sometimes rub over this lining with
a sliced squill which has been dipped in oil. It is found that this
tends to harden and glaze the lining and prevent it from cracking.
_Colocynth or Bitter Apple_
The colocynth (_Citrullus Colocynthis_), locally called "pikrankoura" or
"petrankoura," grows wild in some parts of the plains. The round
yellowish-green fruit, about the size of an orange or small melon,
ripens in July to September and, after being gathered, is skinned and
dried in the sun. It is used by druggists as a purgative. Until about
ten years ago it was cultivated on a small scale and an annual export of
about L400 in value took place, chiefly to England and Austria. It was
then in demand, it is said, as an adulterant of quinine. The fruit is
locally thought to be a remedy for rheumatism. For this purpose the
fruits are picked and put in a saucepan and covered with olive oil.
After cooking for six hours the pulp or ointment is rubbed into the
affected part. The European demand having ceased, the plant is now only
found in a wild state.
_Asphodel_
The asphodel (_Asphodelus ramosus_), locally known as "spourdellos" or
"spourtoulla," is a troublesome and abundant weed in many parts of the
Island, up to an altitude of about 4,000 ft. The peasant farmer rarely
attempts to remove it, though it occupies a large proportion of his land
to the detriment of the crops. In the hills the villagers dry the bulbs
and feed them to their sheep, cattle and donkeys. A paste is also made
from the roots which is used by boot-makers to stick the leathers
together. To make this paste the roots are dried in the oven and ground,
and then mixed with ground vetches or maize and made into the gum or
paste locally known as "tsirichi."
FOOTNOTES:
[Footnote 4: _A quantity of stored plant was destroyed by fire, reducing
the output._]
VI. MINOR AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES
_Bee-keeping_
Although Cyprus bees are world-famed, bee-keeping in the Island is still
in its infancy.
The native hive is generally an earthenware cylinder or pipe about 2 ft.
6 in. long and 9 in. in diameter (see Plate VII, fig. 1). Hives are also
made of a mixture of earth and chopped straw, similar to native
mud-bricks. These hives are also cylindrical, about 18 in. long and 10
to 12 in. in diameter with a 3-in. thickness of wall. These are cooler
in summer and warmer in winter, and produce stronger colonies than the
earthenware ones.
[Illustration: PLATE VII.
Fig. 1.--Cypriot Earthenware Beehives.
Fig. 2.--Shipping Fruit at Larnaca.]
Of late years the Agricultural Department has introduced modern hives
with movable frames, and had it not been for the high cost of timber
since the war, the number of these would have increased rapidly. The
difficulty is to get the local carpenters to construct them properly and
with finish. Practical hive construction is taught at the Agricultural
School.
Cyprian bees are, par excellence, the yellow race of the world. They are
of uniform colour, size and character, slightly smaller than the
Italians and the blacks. They have great power of flight, are very
prolific and vigorous and good honey-gatherers. They are by many
considered vicious and ill-tempered. This is possibly due to the
constant war they have to wage against hornets, which in this country
are a real plague and frequently exterminate whole colonies and
sometimes whole apiaries. Various devices are employed for the
protection of bees in or near the hives.
A good number of Cyprian queen bees have been imported into Europe and
America, and are very highly regarded wherever they have been
established. In the eighties Cyprian queens were sold in the United
States of America at L2 each. This high price checked the importation
and the crossing of Cyprians with Italians and blacks took place, the
hybrid offspring being sold by dealers as Cyprians. These, however, did
not possess the best characteristics of Cyprians, and for a time they
brought about a reaction in favour of other breeds.
Cyprus possesses excellent honey-producing plants in the eucalyptus
trees, orange groves, "throumbia" or wild thyme, and other aromatic
plants.
In the neighbourhood of orange groves a competent bee-keeper can obtain
an average of 50 lb. of honey per colony; although unfortunately the
ordinary village bee-keeper gets little more than 6 to 10 lb.
Locally produced beeswax is of fine quality with delicious aroma and of
a bright yellow colour, said to be superior to that imported from Asia
Minor and Egypt.
The industry is susceptible of considerable development and, when
brought under more complete control, should be capable of establishing a
good export trade of honey and possibly of beeswax.
_Basket-making_
Basket-making is a considerable industry, as all fruit and much other
produce is transported in baskets mostly designed for the backs of
donkeys or mules. The export trade of fruit and vegetables creates a
constant demand (see Plate VII, fig. 2). The bulk of these baskets are
made of reeds (_Arundo_) which grow luxuriantly by the side of water
channels or wherever moist soil is found. This material is not an ideal
one for the purpose, as the baskets are easily crushed and lose shape,
to the detriment of the contents. The reeds are therefore often
stiffened by the introduction of an occasional breadth of some other
material, _e.g._ shinia (_Pistacia Lentiscus_), tremithia or myrtle. All
these are much used in basket-making, though the latter is heavy. There
is a native willow (_Salix alba_) and also the weeping willow (_S.
babylonica_). These have not been used until recently when, by the
efforts of the Agricultural Department, a number of these trees have
been pollarded and the new shoots have been found quite satisfactory for
the purpose.
Six years ago a number of osier cuttings were imported from England, but
unfortunately they have not succeeded so far owing to a succession of
dry years. The surviving plants were this autumn removed to a more
suitable site, but after suffering from drought they have now been
almost destroyed by heavy floods.
In order to encourage the manufacture of better baskets for the fruit
trade between Cyprus and Egypt the Agricultural Department provides
practical instruction in basket-making, and a qualified teacher pays
occasional visits to basket-making villages and demonstrates the work
and teaches improved patterns to the villagers and school boys.
_Fruit and Vegetable Preserving_
There is little doubt that the establishment of small factories for
canning or bottling fruits and vegetables would be a profitable
undertaking. Owing to the suddenness with which, in the heat of summer,
the fruits ripen in Cyprus, and the consequent glut that often ensues,
market prices fall to a point at which it does not pay to pick and
handle. Transport difficulties also make it precarious, in the case of
soft fruits, to attempt a sale outside the immediate place of
production. Increased cultivation is thus discouraged.
In growing fruits or vegetables for canning or bottling a man is
independent of market fluctuations, whereas at present both producers
and consumers are in the hands of the local shopkeepers, who have the
former entirely at their mercy.
The Egyptian fruit and vegetable trade is very well worth cultivating,
but until better measures can be enforced in the matter of transport by
sea as well as land, shippers run the risk of heavy losses, which, no
doubt, recoil upon the unlucky producers.
* * * * *
Specimens of most of the products referred to in these notes may be seen
in the Cyprus Court in the Public Exhibition Galleries of the Imperial
Institute.
_Printed by Hazell, Watson & Viney, Ld., London and Aylesbury, England._
* * * * *
Transcriber's note:
In the original, illustrations were marked as 'facing page.' That has not
been reproduced in this e-book.