may be put at from 13_s._ to 17_s._ per cantar delivered into store.
Carobs are weighed on export and the tithe is taken in money from
exporters at the Customs House.
The following table shows the export of carobs during the ten years
ending 1913-14:
Year. Quantity. Value.
_Tons._ L
1904-05 31,887 104,301
1905-06 26,187 85,105
1906-07 44,965 157,452
1907-08 42,381 151,610
1908-09 57,010 188,841
1909-10 44,059 157,972
1910-11 37,485 145,590
1911-12 51,359 182,883
1912-13 63,658 251,750
1913-14 44,989 179,027
The falling-off in 1913-14 was mainly due to the losses caused by the
fly _Cecidomyia ceratoniae_.
The fruit of the carob is exported mostly to England, but also to France
and Egypt, and more recently, before the war, to Germany. Gaudry
mentions that about the middle of last century it was exported to
Russia, Sardinia and Austria. Some is used, in Egypt and the Levant
especially, as food for the poorer classes and for making sweets and
sherbets. Its chief use in Western Europe is as food for animals, bovine
and equine, for which purpose it is ground up and made into either meal
or cattle cakes. It is also said to be employed in the manufacture of
chocolate and spirit, and there is a demand for the seed for use in the
manufacture of certain gums.
The juice of the bean, "carob honey," locally called "mavromelos,"
"teratsomelo" or "betmezi," is consumed as a substitute for bee-honey or
jam and also as a flavouring for culinary purposes. From the carob honey
is also made the sweetmeat "pastelli."
At one time carobs were used in Cyprus for fattening mules and other
animals, but, unfortunately, this practice died out. Efforts are now
being made to revive it, and the advantages of this local product are
again becoming recognised.
The carob contains some 50 per cent. of saccharine matter and the
interesting question has been raised in recent years as to whether the
bean might not become a new source of sugar production.
_Lucerne_ (_Medicago sativa_)
This plant was introduced about eighteen years ago, but in spite of its
undoubted success when properly grown on suitable soil, the Cypriot
farmer was for many years very slow to make use of it. Every effort has
been made of late years to encourage its cultivation and during the last
three or four years there has been a steadily increased demand for seed.
Irrigation is necessary in order to obtain a satisfactory yield, but
there are many farms where it might be grown with great advantage. Its
value for cattle food is generally recognised, and now that greater
attention is being given to dairy cattle, lucerne would seem to have an
assured future.
_Vetch_ (_Vicia Ervilia_)
This plant, known locally as "rovi," is undoubtedly the most widely
grown of the fodder crops. Being a leguminous plant, it has a
restorative action on the soil, although the average Cypriot farmer
still considers it to be exhaustive.
In the plains sowing begins in January, whereas in the Pitsillia, and
even in the Morphou, Solea and Tylliria districts which are only at the
foothills, it is sown in October-November, _i.e._ before the cereals.
Rovi is almost the only food in the form of seed given to ploughing oxen
throughout the East. It is regarded as heat-giving and strengthening,
and is therefore fed specially in winter. It is sometimes given
unthreshed with the straw. It is harvested in May, when it is uprooted,
made into little bundles, which are stacked together in small heaps in
the field, until they turn yellow, when they are removed to the native
threshing-floor and threshed in the customary manner. The dry stems,
etc., are eagerly eaten by cattle and sheep. The average yield is very
little, from 2 to 4 or 5 kiles per donum. It is subject to tithe.
_Chickling Vetch_ (_Lathyrus sativus_)
The chickling vetch, known locally as "favetta" or "chavetta," has come
rather more into prominence of late years, displacing the vetch (_Vicia
Ervilia_) to some extent, as it gives a heavier yield. It is subject to
tithe.
_Vetch_ (_Vicia sativa_)
This crop, called locally "vicos," was introduced from Crete in 1913 and
has been found excellently suited to this country. It is most useful in
any rotation, and has to some extent supplanted rovi (_Vicia Ervilia_)
as it gives a larger yield. It is a most nutritious cattle food, for
which purpose it is grown. When crushed and mixed with chopped straw it
is readily eaten by cattle and sheep. The plant seeds itself very
freely. It is sown about November-December and is ready for harvesting
in about April. Seed is sown at the rate of 5 to 6 okes per donum and
the yield is normally from 8 to 12 kiles per donum. It is a good
drought-resister and needs no irrigation, and being a leguminous plant
should be cut and not pulled up, as the roots left in the soil serve to
increase the amount of nitrogenous salts. Being a vetch it is subject to
tithe.
_Tares_ (_Vicia tenuifolia_ var. _stenophylla_)
This plant, locally called "mavracheron" or "phakacheron," grows wild
in the Pitsillia district among the vineyards and other cultivated as
well as uncultivated lands. It is of value in those remote localities
where grain and straw are little grown and difficult to procure, as it
provides a wholesome fodder for cattle. The villagers have now taken to
cultivating the plant. It is cut before the seeds are fully matured to
prevent loss of seed through shedding. The seeds and chaff are mixed
together when fed to cattle.
_Milk Vetch_ (_Astragalus_)
This plant, locally called "arkokoutsia," grows wild in some abundance
among the hills. When it appears above ground it is readily eaten by
animals, especially sheep; but at this stage it is apt to cause hoven.
As the plant hardens the animals do not touch it, except when fully
ripe, and then it is greedily eaten.
As soon as it blossoms, but before the fruit is set, the plant is
gathered and tied into bundles or small sheaves and stored in a heap.
When, after a few months, it is quite dry, and at a time when other
foods are scarce, it forms an important part of an animal's ration.
The plants are sometimes allowed to mature their seeds, and these, after
being steeped in water for two or three days to remove acidity, are
given to pigs, and are considered a nourishing and palatable food.
_Moha, Sulla_ (_Hedysarum_)
These have been tried for some years with success and are gradually
becoming known and experimentally grown by farmers.
_Teosinte_ (_Reana luxurians_)
This grass is one of the most valuable fodder plants with which the New
World has enriched the Old. It is a native of Guatemala and is also
largely grown in Australia.
Seed was first imported into Cyprus by the Agricultural Department in
1897, and since then the plant has been continuously grown in the
Government gardens with marked success. It is sown in March-April in the
same manner as Indian corn, to which it is allied.
If irrigated, three or four cuttings may be obtained during the summer,
yielding 25 to 30 tons of green food per scala. It is greedily eaten by
cattle. Some plants grown by the Department attained a height of 11 ft.
3 in. and of others which were left to ripen their seed, one had 93
stems and weighed 26 okes, though the leaves had begun to shrivel and
had lost weight.
This plant is gradually becoming known and may be found growing on some
of the more progressive farms.
_Sudan-grass_
Seed of this fodder grass was imported in 1915 and very satisfactory
crops have been obtained each year since then from the experimental
plots. The grass seems well suited to Cyprus and gives a useful yield
even when unirrigated. Occasional irrigation produces a valuable crop.
Trial sowings are now being made on a few private farms.
_Teff-grass_ (_Eragrostis abyssinica_)
This has also been tried experimentally with good results and it is
hoped that its cultivation will extend as it becomes more known.
_Mangold Wurzel_
This crop has been grown for several years at the Government Farm,
Athalassa, where it has done well and forms an important part of the
cows' rations. It has been grown successfully on a small scale in some
of the Nursery Gardens.
As irrigation, deep ploughing, thorough cultivation of the soil and
special cultural operations are needed, this crop cannot be generally
recommended to farmers, but it is being grown by a few progressive stock
owners under Departmental advice.
The wild beet (_Beta vulgaris_) is a native of the seacoasts of
South-eastern Europe, and the garden beet-root is much grown in Cyprus
in certain localities, so, if carefully cultivated, mangold wurzel,
which is a variety of _B. vulgaris_, might also do well in many parts
and be of great advantage to stock owners.
_Prickly Pear_ (_Opuntia_)
The prickly pear grows wild as a hedge plant in Cyprus. The fruit is
eaten to some extent by villagers, but no attempt has yet been made to
use the stems as food for animals. In Sicily very large quantities are
so utilised, and now that milch cows are coming more into demand in
Cyprus the value of the plant for fodder may become recognised.
Successful experiments have been made by the Agricultural Department in
mixing the juice of the stems with lime for giving brilliance and
permanence to ordinary whitewash. There has been an occasional export of
the fruit to Egypt for consumption by Arabs.
SPICES
_Coriander Seed_
Coriander seed is the product of _Coriandrum sativum_, Linn., an annual
herb belonging to the natural order Umbelliferae. The "seed," or more
strictly fruit, of the plant is employed in confectionery in making
bonbons, in the preparation of certain liqueurs and as an ingredient for
disguising the taste of medicines. In Cyprus it is commonly used as a
flavouring in cooking.
A sample sent to the Imperial Institute in 1917 was examined as a source
of volatile oil, and the residue remaining after distillation was
analysed as a feeding-stuff. On steam distillation the ground seed
yielded 0.48 per cent. of an almost colourless volatile oil with the
characteristic and pleasant odour of coriander. This yield is below that
furnished by Russian and German coriander, but is about equal to that
obtained from Morocco seed. The results of the examination indicate
that the residue has a fairly high feeding-value, and it would be quite
suitable for the ordinary use of coriander residue, _i.e._ as a cattle
food.
A sample of the seeds was submitted to brokers in London, who reported
that they were very stalky, but that their value would be from 50_s._ to
60_s._ per cwt. (January 1917) as compared with 10_s._ to 15_s._ per
cwt. before the war. (see BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE, vol. xv.
1917, p. 301).
_Aniseed_
Aniseed, the fruit of an umbelliferous herb (_Pimpinella Anisum_,
Linn.), is grown on a comparatively small scale in Cyprus, the exports
in recent years varying from 1,000 to 2,000 cwts. per annum. In 1917,
1,015 cwts., valued at L3,164, were exported, all of which went to
Egypt.
Seed sent for examination to the Imperial Institute was reported to
consist of aniseed in good condition and practically free from
extraneous matter.
A sample of the seed was submitted to brokers in London, who stated that
at that time (January 1917) stocks of aniseed were quite exhausted, and
the prices therefore much inflated, small stocks of Spanish aniseed
having changed hands in London at 110_s._ per cwt. Such price could not
be secured if any quantity of aniseed were placed on the market. The
value of the Cyprus sample before the war would have been about 27_s._
6_d._ per cwt. (see BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE, vol. xv. 1917,
p. 300).
White Cumin Seed
White cumin is also an umbelliferous herb (_Cuminum Cyminum_, Linn.); an
account of the cultivation and uses of this and other spices is given in
the BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE, vol. xi. 1913, pp. 131-136.
A sample of the seed sent to the Imperial Institute was submitted to
brokers in London, who stated that it was rather small and stalky, but
that it would probably be worth between 70_s._ and 80_s._ per cwt.
(January 1917), although they were of opinion that its pre-war value
would not have been much over 20_s._ per cwt. (see BULLETIN OF THE
IMPERIAL INSTITUTE, vol. xv. 1917, p. 302).
_Black Cumin Seed_
These seeds, sometimes known as fennel-flower seeds, are the product of
_Nigella sativa_, Linn. (Nat. Ord. Ranunculaceae). The plant is an
annual, native to the Mediterranean region, and the seeds, which are
used in the East for flavouring curries, etc., and in Egypt as comfits
on cakes, have an aromatic fennel-like odour when fresh and a slightly
acrid taste. There is a small export of black cumin seed from Cyprus.
There is, however, but little demand for this seed (see BULLETIN OF THE
IMPERIAL INSTITUTE, vol. xv. 1917, p. 304).
ESSENTIAL OILS AND PERFUMES
_Origanum Oil_
Different opinions have been held as to the botanical identification of
the plant from which the Cyprus origanum oil is produced. An interesting
series of articles on this subject by E. M. Holmes appears in the
_Perfumery and Essential Oil Record_, 1913, from which it would seem
that this oil is derived from _Origanum majoranoides_, Wild.; while Dr.
Stapf, of Kew, regards the plant as _O. dubium_, Boiss. (see BULLETIN OF
THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE, vol. xi. 1913, p. 50). Other varieties growing
wild in Cyprus are _O. Onites_, _O. hirtum_, both of which are locally
called "rigani," _O. Bevani_ (see BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE,
vol. xv. 1917, p. 305) and _O. majorana_.
In its wild state the plant from which origanum oil is distilled is a
small perennial shrub, but, if cultivated, its size may be doubled or
even trebled. The first crop, consisting of shoots and flowers, may give
from 300 to 500 okes per donum; in subsequent years up to 1,000-1,500
okes per donum. The latter quantity would produce 40 to 60 okes of
origanum oil, which is largely used in England for perfuming soap and
other purposes.
For twenty years the distillation of origanum oil has been made under
Government control. The industry was started in 1899 and, though not
large, has steadily grown. It has been found that the Cyprus origanum
oil is exceptionally rich in carvacrol (over 80 per cent.), a powerful
antiseptic, and to this substance the oil owes mainly its characteristic
thyme-like odour. Frequent analyses have shown that the Cyprus origanum
oil is remarkably constant in character.
This oil has the slight disadvantage of darkening considerably on
exposure to light and air, which renders it unsuitable for use in
light-coloured soaps, but a method has been worked out at the Imperial
Institute of refining the oil so as to yield a product which will remain
practically colourless for long periods.
A report furnished by the Imperial Institute (BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL
INSTITUTE, vol. iv. 1906, p. 299), after giving a detailed description
of the oil, states:
"The foregoing results show that this oil sells readily in this country
at prices which should be fairly remunerative to producers in Cyprus. It
should, however, be borne in mind that the demand for this oil is
somewhat limited, and that it competes with the thyme oil produced in
France and Spain, and with the 'origanum oil' produced in Smyrna, and
that consequently a sudden increase in production in Cyprus might lead
to a considerable fall in price. The Cyprus oil has, however, the
advantage that it is very rich in the odorous and antiseptic constituent
carvacrol, and it is probably due to its richness in this constituent,
as revealed by the analyses made at the Imperial Institute, that the
comparatively high prices realised for these consignments were obtained
at a time when 'red thyme oils' were selling at lower rates. It would be
advantageous if a refined white oil could be prepared by some simple
method from this material, as this probably would fetch an enhanced
price, and be applicable to other purposes for which the 'red oil' is
unsuitable."
Until 1910 the distillation was made by the Department, but since then
it has been undertaken by private contract, permission being given to
collect the wild plant from the forest. The annual production is now
about 2,750 lb., and the price has steadily risen from about 3_s._ per
lb. to 8_s._ 6_d._ per lb. at the present time. But whereas the cost of
transport to London before the war was L8 per ton, it has risen to the
prohibitive rate of L200 per ton, and the 1917 oil still remains in
store at Alexandria.
The supply of the wild plant is limited and its cultivation is under
consideration.
The following table shows the exports of origanum _oil_ in recent years:
Year. Quantity.
_lb._
1902 2,092
1903 No distillation
1904 2,410
1905 1,463
1906 2,200
1907 1,745
1908 2,051
1909 1,530[4]
1910 2,842
1911 2,276
1912 2,230
1913 2,455
1914 3,776
1915 3,709
1916 2,756
1917 2,696
1918 2,066
_Marjoram Oil_
This is not yet a regular product, but samples of locally produced oil
have been examined at the Imperial Institute and pronounced to be
superior to European marjoram oil and about equal in value to sweet
fennel oil (see BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE, vol. xi. 1913, p.
50). It is distilled from a plant which is abundant in the forests of
Kyrenia and Paphos, and which has been referred by Dr. Stapf to _O.
majoranoides_, Wild., and by Mr. Holmes to _O. Maru_, Linn. The market
is, however, restricted.
_Laurel Oil_
Samples of oil distilled from the leaves of _Laurus nobilis_ which were
examined at the Imperial Institute were found to have an aroma inferior
to that of the oils usually met with in commerce (see BULLETIN OF THE
IMPERIAL INSTITUTE, vol. xi. 1913, p. 430). The demand for the oil is
said to be small.
_Otto of Roses_
This has been prepared since 1897 in a very small way with native stills
at the village of Milikouri, where the Damask rose is abundant. The
cultivation of this rose has now spread to other hill villages. The
closing of the market for Bulgarian otto of roses owing to the war has
given an impetus to the industry in Cyprus. The Agricultural Department
has for two years sent qualified officers to superintend the work at
Milikouri and to carry out an experimental distillation.
A report from the Director, Imperial Institute, upon samples of the 1917
distillation states that "the constants of the Cyprus oil agree closely
with those recorded for Bulgarian otto of roses." It was found that the
odour of the Cyprus oil was fairly good, but rather weak. The otto sold
at 70_s._ per ounce, less 2-1/2 per cent., which "in view of the very
small quantity must be considered satisfactory." At the time of sale
French otto was quoted at 78_s._ to 85_s._ per ounce.
_Acacia Farnesiana_
This tree is but sparsely represented in Cyprus, but wherever found it
is vigorous and healthy. It belongs to the Mimosa tribe of the order
Leguminosae and, as other species are common in the Island and thrive
remarkably well, there would seem no reason why this species also should
not become more general.
It is known elsewhere under different names; that of "sweet briar" (in
Barbados) on account of its numerous thorns and the exquisite scent of
its flowers, and "stinking cossie" (in Antigua) owing to the highly
disagreeable smell of its wood. The word "cossie" may be a corruption of
acacia.
Its flowers are largely used in perfumery, and the annual crop of the
flowers of this plant in France is stated to be worth thousands of
francs, and a particularly delicate fragrant perfume is extracted from
them. The pods are said to yield a fair amount of tannin, while from the
cracks in the bark of the trunk and branches there exudes a gum very
like the true gum arabic and is utilised for the same purpose. The wood
makes good charcoal.
It is locally known as "skouroupathos" or "skouroupathia," and is
closely allied to the extremely common weed of that name which is found
abundantly in nearly every field in the plains during summer, but which,
owing to its deep-rooted system, the natives do not trouble to
eradicate. It is also allied to _Prosopis juliflora_ or algaroba tree,
of which there are a few specimens in the Island.
OILS AND OIL SEEDS
_Olives_
The olive tree grows wild in Cyprus, but the wild fruit is small and
bitter and yields an inferior oil. The cultivated trees are those which
have been grafted. Owing to the stringent regulations which have
prohibited the introduction of living plants from abroad, it has not
been possible to obtain from elsewhere good grafts of new varieties.
These regulations have lately been modified to allow of importations by
the Agricultural Department under special restrictions, and now that the
war has ended it is hoped to obtain these much-needed olive grafts.
This tree thrives well, almost all over the Island, up to an altitude of
about 2,300 ft., and numbers of vigorous wild olive trees are to be met
with, which only need cleaning and grafting in order to bear fruit.
Cyprus olives are divided into two classes, locally known as (_a_)
"adrouppes" or "drouppes," which are eaten in the green or black stage,
and (_b_) "ladoelies," which are suitable both for eating and for oil
extraction.
Of the former, or "adrouppes," one kind is rather large, with rough
skin, having a rough, big stone, the other is longer but of less
diameter, and has a very thin, smooth skin and the stone is smooth,
curved and smaller. The latter has a better taste and resembles the
well-known Greek olive of Calamata. Both these "adrouppes" are prepared
for the table while still green, and are known as "kolymbates," or
sometimes they are called "tsakkistes," owing to the stone being
slightly crushed in the process of preparation.
The "ladoelies" are of two distinct varieties, the larger of which is
mostly regarded as an edible olive, and contains a less percentage of
oil, while the other, or smaller kind, is richer in oil contents, and is
mainly used for oil production, though it is sometimes eaten.
A few imported varieties, including one or two specimens of Spanish and
Greek olive trees, are to be found here and there in private gardens.
If the land were manured and ploughed the trees would, especially on the
chalky soils, yield abundant fruit and oil of excellent quality.
Unfortunately this is not done, and it has been found very difficult to
induce the peasants to adopt any kind of cultivation. They plough the
land only when they intend to sow corn or other crops between the trees,
a procedure which tends to lessen the productiveness of the trees. The
system of irrigation applied is also very defective. Irrigation, while
improving the quality and quantity of edible olives, is not desirable in
the case of press olives.
As to pruning, Cypriots would have none of it until within the last five
years. By dint of patient and constant persuasion, some few of the
larger owners were induced to let their trees be pruned by a staff of
pruners under the direction of the Agricultural Department (see Plate
VI). Much ridicule--and at times threats--was hurled at both the pruners
and the tree owners, who were assured by the villagers that for their
folly they would undoubtedly lose their trees. The results belied all
these fears, and now within the space of some four to five years the
practice of pruning has become fairly general, and a good number of
villagers have qualified themselves as expert pruners and are kept
regularly employed by private persons. As a consequence of this a great
amelioration is noticeable in the olive trees in many parts and the
yield and quality of olives have been improved.
The method of gathering olives by beating, however, continues. The fruit
so knocked to the ground becomes dirty and bruised, and quickly
ferments, when stored, to the detriment of the oil. This mode of
gathering by beating damages the young twigs and branches, whose bearing
capacity the following year is thus impaired.
Little care is taken in selecting the olives for oil. Not only are they
dirty and bruised, but unripe or diseased fruit, as well as overripe
fruit that has fallen from the tree, is collected together
indiscriminately.
[Illustration: PLATE VI.
Pruned Olive-trees at Metochi of Kykos.]