of various nut foods, are employed largely as a cheap substitute for
almonds, and in years when the latter are scarce, hazelnuts are in
especially good demand.
The Cyprus nuts are outwardly of good size and appearance and are very
attractive in the English market, but unfortunately they are usually
picked before reaching full maturity, and consequently the kernels are
frequently small and soon become rancid. Being gathered when unripe they
lose greatly in weight, which means loss of money to the exporters. The
flavour is also impaired by premature picking and on this account Cyprus
nuts compare unfavourably in this respect with those from Spain, and
Trebizond and other parts on the Black Sea, with which they have to
compete. If growers would pay more attention to this point, Cyprus
hazelnuts would, owing to their size, hold a much better place than they
do in the English market.
The export of hazelnuts is not separately recorded, but the annual
average production is stated to be approximately 120,000 okes.
_Walnuts_
Some fine specimens of walnut trees are to be seen in the Marathassa
valley and in the neighbourhood of Palaeochori, and near mountain streams
in several places among the slopes of the hills. These yield excellent
fruit and are profitable to their owners, but unfortunately many trees
have succumbed to the attacks of the Codlin moth. Special action has
been taken during the last two years to deal with this pest. There has
been a marked increase of late in the planting of young walnut trees.
_Almonds_
The cultivation of this tree has greatly extended of late. Its
drought-resisting properties enable it to withstand the climate of the
plains and on the level slopes of both ranges it grows well. There are
several large plantations, notably at Psevdhas, Larnaca district, where
the famous Jordan variety is found, and as the tree seems indifferent to
soil, and thrives particularly well on the limestone which is so general
throughout the Island, it may be hoped that it will be greatly
multiplied. Both the soft- and the hard-shelled varieties are grown.
Much good work has lately been done in School Gardens, under expert
advice, in germinating the seed in damp sand. The villagers, finding the
seedlings already to hand for planting, have been induced to plant them
out.
Almonds are used as stocks on which to graft peaches, kaishas, apricots
and plums ("mirabelles").
_Spanish Chestnut_
Some years ago good numbers of the edible chestnut were raised at
Pedoulas by the Agricultural Department and distributed to villagers for
growing in the hills. It is feared that the greater part of these trees,
through want of attention, unsuitability of soil or climate, lack of
moisture, and especially damage by goats, have been lost, but some
remain and well-grown young trees may be found in certain localities and
in moderate numbers among the mountains. As soon as adequate protection
from goats can be given, this tree might be well worth more extensive
cultivation. It prospers well when properly cared for, but will not
thrive in soils containing more than about 3 per cent. of lime or at an
elevation below about 1,000 ft.
The tree has been propagated almost entirely from seed, which must be as
fresh as possible. No doubt one reason for the lack of interest hitherto
shown in this tree by villagers is that it does not begin to fruit, as a
rule, until about its twentieth year.
_Pistacia_
Several species of _Pistacia_ occur in Cyprus, and although they yield
products of different kinds, it will be convenient to deal with them
together in the present section.
The pistachio nut (_Pistacia vera_), locally called "Aleppo pistachio,"
is a native of Persia and Arabia and it was thought, until a few years
ago, that it would not thrive in Cyprus. That is, however, a fallacy,
which is rather confirmed by the fact that the _P. Terebinthus_ and the
_P. Lentiscus_ are indigenous to the Island. It is considered that the
best method of cultivation is to bud _P. vera_ on _P. Terebinthus_.
Though they grow more slowly, these budded trees are more robust and
better resist drought, cold and moisture. The trees should yield fruit
in five years from the time of grafting. A fair number of these trees
have now been distributed from the Government Nursery Gardens.
This tree provides the pistachio nuts which are now imported from Syria
and Chios.
Male trees do not usually flower at the same time as female;
consequently there has been difficulty in getting fruit with seeds, and
recourse must in that case be had to artificial fertilisation.
* * * * *
The Palestine or turpentine tree (_P. palaestina_), local name
"tremithos," grows in certain parts of the Island, but is seen at its
best in the Paphos district, especially in and around the town of Ktima.
The fruit is eaten fresh or salted and dried. It yields 10 to 15 per
cent. of edible oil which has a certain local demand. A medium-sized
tree may produce up to 60 to 80 okes of fruit. After crushing and
expression, the residue together with the seed is found to be a good
food for pigs. A small consignment of both the dried and salted fruit
and of the residue was sold in Egypt in 1916 and realised 5 to 6 cp. per
oke for the former, and 3_s._ to 4_s._ per kile for the latter.
By making incisions in the trunks of both the male and the female trees
a gum or turpentine known as "Paphos tar" is obtained, which fetches as
much as 8_s._ to 10_s._ per oke. It is used locally for chewing.
This is one of the largest trees in the Island and is of handsome shape.
It is deciduous and some fine specimens are met with.
* * * * *
_Pistacia Lentiscus_, locally known as shinia, or shinia bush, abounds
all along the coasts of the Island. From the seeds of this shrub an oil
is expressed which is used for culinary purposes, particularly for
frying fish. The oil is also in good local demand for soap making, and a
very fair soap is produced, especially at Akanthou, in which the oil is
the chief ingredient.
The leaves of this shrub are largely used for tanning purposes and were
at one time regularly exported to England, though in small quantities.
The principal market for shinia leaves is Palermo. They are employed to
no small extent for the adulteration of sumach, for which Palermo is
also the leading market. Shinia leaves were also in demand at Lyons as a
dyeing material for silk stuffs.
There are also a few specimens of a variety of _P. Lentiscus_ (mastic
tree) from which in the Island of Chios the famous Chios mastic is
obtained by incisions made in the trunks of the male stocks.
* * * * *
The terebinth tree (_P. Terebinthus_), locally called "tremithia," is a
bush very widely grown throughout the higher regions. It is used as a
stock on which to graft _P. vera_. The berries are used for extraction
of oil which has a value for culinary purposes. They are also made into
a cake called "tremithopites." The berries are much smaller than those
of the _P. palaestina_.
VEGETABLES
The cultivation of vegetables has considerably extended of late. Good
market gardens have existed in and around the principal towns for many
years, but more attention is now being paid to this industry in the
villages, wherever water is available, and a considerable amount of
skill is shown in production.
Among the best and most generally grown vegetables are spinach,
cauliflowers, cabbages, egg-plants, lady's fingers, leeks, artichokes,
broad beans (also grown as a field crop), radishes, celery, beet-root,
pumpkins, marrows, cucumbers, lettuces, tomatoes, lentils, kohl-rabi
("kouloumbra"), kidney beans ("phasoulia"), peas, kolokas, onions and
potatoes.
There is a considerable demand in Egypt for fresh vegetables, and to
meet this the land around the "ports" of Famagusta, Larnaca and Limassol
has been for some years specially devoted to their cultivation. In the
mountain valleys a continuous series of small vegetable gardens may be
seen flanking the sides of the river-banks. The exports of vegetables to
Egypt in recent years are given in the following table:
Beans and Other
Year. Onions. Peas. Vegetables.
_Cwts._ _Cwts._ _Cwts._
1909 6,664 1,729 49
1910 3,807 858 60
1911 5,512 2,346 122
1912 3,659 2,583 135
1913 2,854 1,670 32
_Beans and Peas_
Beans are grown for market mainly at Marathassa and Pitsillia and
generally in the higher regions, but only to a small extent in the
plains.
Before the war there was a comparatively large importation of beans from
Anatolia. This having stopped, local prices rose and stimulated
production in the Island.
The Cypriot is a lover of dried vegetables, and there might well be an
extension in the cultivation of beans, similar to that which has lately
taken place in the case of green peas. Except in one or two places,
these were not sown by the villagers until about four years ago, but so
valuable have they been found, especially in recent years of scarcity
and high cost of other foodstuffs, that now whole districts are being
devoted to their cultivation.
The French or kidney bean (_Phaseolus vulgaris_) is locally known under
the general term "louvia." This name is applied both to _Phaseolus
vulgaris_ and to _Dolichos melanophthalmus_ (_Vigna Catjang_ var.
_sinensis_). To distinguish the two kinds the Cypriot describes the _P.
vulgaris_ as "louvia gliastra" (_i.e._ lustrous, owing to its shiny
appearance), or "louvia peratica" (_i.e._ foreign), as _D.
melanophthalmus_ was introduced and had become acclimatised some time
before. Gennadius, however, describes the "louvia peratica" as _Dolichos
Lablab_ or lablab bean.
Both the dwarf ("koutsoulia") and the climbing ("makrya" or
"anarichomena") varieties of _P. vulgaris_ are grown. There are two
white kinds, the large ("adra") and the small ("psintra").
Beans of various colours are grown here and there, and one spotted
variety ("patsaloudhia") merits greater attention than it receives at
present, both on account of its greater productiveness and for its
excellent flavour. Two of these are stringless, but a drawback to them
is that they discolour the water in which they are boiled.
There are several newly imported kinds which are privately grown, and
these are gradually coming into the local markets.
The lubia or cow-pea (_Dolichos melanophthalmus_ = _Vigna Catjang_ var.
_sinensis_), being a good drought-resister, is grown more or less
throughout the Island. It is frequently sown in mixed crop with cotton,
sesame, Indian corn, etc.
Two kinds are cultivated--the larger, "lubia melissomatia" (having the
eye like a bee), and the smaller, "lubia mavromatoudhia" (dark-eyed).
The dried pods of _Phaseolus_ and _Dolichos_ are fed to animals and are
also used for stuffing mattresses.
The broad bean (_Vicia Faba_) has been grown for some years on irrigated
land in the plains, where it takes a recognised place in the rotation.
Its cultivation is now spreading to the higher parts.
The soy bean was introduced a few years ago by the Agricultural
Department, but has failed hitherto to attract attention. Villagers find
it requires different cooking from what they are accustomed to, and
local dealers are not yet prepared to deal in it. It has been found
resistant to disease, and further efforts are being made to bring it
into popular favour.
The Ochrus vetch (_Lathyrus Ochrus_), locally known as "louvana," is a
fairly common spring crop, being grown for the sake of the seed which
provides a favourite Cypriot dish. The leaves are also used as a salad.
This crop is sown in the plains in January, but in the Karpas and some
other parts it is sown in the autumn.
Chick-peas (_Cicer arietinum_), locally called "revithia," grow well and
are cultivated to a moderate extent. Samples examined at the Imperial
Institute proved to be of normal composition. Two firms of produce
brokers in London stated that if quantities of about 5 tons at a time
could be delivered in England in as good a condition as the sample they
could be sold for human consumption and would be worth (1917) L20 to L24
per ton c.i.f., United Kingdom ports. If of inferior quality to the
sample they would be fit only for cattle food and fetch considerably
less (see BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE, vol. xv. 1917, p. 307).
Chick-peas when roasted are locally called "koudames" and are eaten in
the same way as ground-nuts, which they much resemble in flavour. They
are little, if at all, used in Cyprus as a cattle food.
_Potatoes_
The potato-growing industry in Cyprus has developed considerably in
recent years, as will be seen from the subjoined table of exports:
Year. Quantity. Value.
_Cwts._ L
1909 12,586 3,105
1910 14,983 3,839
1911 36,271 8,472
1912 45,336 10,348
1913 31,310 7,003
1914 54,203 11,741
1915 82,304 28,513
1916 136,027 74,632
1917 224,453 101,120
These figures, however, are a very inadequate indication of the actual
increase of production, inasmuch as the local consumption of this
vegetable before the war was confined almost entirely to the well-to-do
residents in the towns, whereas now it is rapidly becoming a staple food
of the people. This unascertainable but large local consumption must be
added to the latest export returns in order to arrive at an estimate of
present production.
The most favoured variety was at first, and with many growers still is,
what is known as the French potato, the original seed having been
brought from France. Irish potatoes (locally called "pittakoura") have
now largely displaced these, partly, no doubt, on account of the greater
facility of obtaining the latter seed during the war.
A native variety of potato, believed to have been imported by Syrian
Arabs in the sixteenth century, is still grown on a small scale in the
Marathassa valley. This potato has deep-set eyes and a luxuriant growth
above ground and possesses a characteristic sweet taste.
Great progress has been made within the last few years in the matter of
cultivation, and the old practice of planting broadcast on the flat has
given way to ridge planting at proper distances apart. The practice
formerly was to drop the potatoes into the plough furrow. These were
covered over by the return plough; every third furrow was sown.
The Egyptian demand and the purchases made for military purposes have
greatly stimulated production.
The good prices obtained have led, particularly in the Famagusta
district and in what are called the "red earth" villages, to much
activity and no small outlay in the matter of water-supply and
distribution, and in the use of chemical manures.
The custom has grown up for importers to send their seed potatoes for
planting in the higher parts of the Island. The produce therefrom is
exchanged with growers in the plains, who send up their plain-grown
tubers as seed to the cultivators in the hills. Merchants often
stipulate with the hill-growers that they shall have their crop at an
agreed, and generally a fairly high, figure. In this manner degeneration
of the seed has been retarded; but owing to the difficulty of obtaining
seed from outside during the war a certain amount of degeneration has
taken place.
Only one crop can be grown in the hills during the year, but in the
plains two crops are obtained. The one is planted in January and is dug
in May-June; the other is planted in July and dug in November. It is
found that the tubers lifted in the summer suffer greatly from the heat,
and heavy losses occur from rot, whether the tubers remain in the ground
or if they are dug and stored; and it is a question whether, when these
losses are taken into account, the summer crop is really profitable.
The average yield is sometimes put at 2,000 okes per donum, but 1,600
okes, or 2 tons, is probably a more accurate figure.
_Kolokas_ (_Colocasia antiquorum_)
This is a favourite food of the villager, but can only be grown where
there is an ample water-supply and on heavy land that holds the water.
It is an exhausting crop. The root only is eaten. It is sown in
March-April and dug about October-November.
_Onions_
These are generally grown, especially in the Paphos district; Famagusta
and Limassol following in the order named. The Paphos onions are
supposed to have particularly good keeping qualities. Both round
("strongyla") and long varieties ("tolmalikia") are grown; the latter
have less fleshy scales than the former.
Onions are grown either in irrigated gardens or in "livadhia," or
low-lying lands which retain their moisture, no irrigation being needed.
They are propagated by means of "konari" or bulblets. Lapithos in the
Kyrenia district makes a speciality of producing these from seed and
supplying them to the whole Island, although onions are grown for market
only on a limited scale in that area. The method is to plant out the
full-grown onions (locally called "mammes") and leave them to ripen
their seed. The seed is sown in February-March, at the rate of 20-25
okes per donum, from which some 3,000 okes of "konari" are raised. These
are then sold for planting out in October-November-December at the rate
of 40-50 okes per donum.
Onions are grown either in rows or broadcast. The native variety has the
outer scales of a reddish colour, but these have largely given way to
superior imported kinds.
FODDERS AND FEEDING STUFFS
_Carob Tree_
The carob (_Ceratonia siliqua_) is indigenous in Syria, and probably
also in the northern countries of Africa, whence it presumably spread to
certain parts of Asia Minor, to Greece, the Greek Islands and Southern
Italy.
At the time of Christ, and for some centuries later, this tree was known
to the Greeks by the name of keronia or keratea, being the Greek for
horns, and is given to the locust or carob bean from its supposed
resemblance to goats' horns. It is also known in different parts of
Cyprus under the following names; teratsia (a corruption of keratea),
xylokeratea, kountouroudia, koutsoupia and charoupia. The last named is
of Arabic origin (kharroub) and the same root of the word is common all
over Europe. Moreover, the fruit varies slightly according to locality,
and develops local characteristics which have acquired for it
distinctive local names; thus in Kyrenia District we have templiotike
and kyrionitike, in the Karpas there is the sarakine (introduced by
Saracens?) and elsewhere the vaklitike and kombote. This bean or pod,
which when ripe is of a chocolate colour, contains from 6 to 10 hard
seeds, embedded in a sweet, pithy, honey-like substance which imparts
the flavour so much appreciated by animals.
The carob tree belongs to the natural order Leguminosae, sub-order
Caesalpinae, and is the only species of the genus _Ceratonia_. It is an
evergreen, long-lived tree, growing to a height of 30 ft. and sometimes
even to 50 and 60 ft. It thrives in most kinds of soil, especially in
porous, marly and even volcanic soils, but not in marshy lands. Owing to
its long tap root it resists drought well, and is to be found growing
well in rocky land such as is common in many of the carob areas of
Cyprus. It is very generally found intermixed with the olive tree and up
to about the same altitude.
A succession of flowers is produced from July to September or October,
and in favourable years up to December and even later, and in
July-August the tree bears both flowers and ripe fruit. The collection
of the latter commences about mid-August, the exact date being annually
fixed separately in each district by the Commissioner. This is done in
order to prevent the fruit from being stolen.
Recent investigations made by the Agricultural Department go to prove
that the fruit-producing carob tree of Cyprus is really hermaphrodite,
though there yet remains much room for investigation and the point is
not finally settled. The others are true male trees. The hermaphrodite
carob trees which form practically the whole of the fruit-producing
trees of the Island are cleistogamous (_i.e._ self-fertilised before the
calyx opens) and short-stamened.
There are also certain trees self-produced from seed which are superior
to the ordinary so-called wild tree. These bear fruit which is straight
and short but more or less marketable, and these are known as
"kountoura" (short) or "apostoliki," as though sent by chance or by
Providence. The word "apostoliki" is applied in Cyprus to other kinds of
trees or fruit showing similar phenomena.
There are several millions of these trees in the State forests, and yet
more privately owned. It frequently happens that, owing to the wide
powers of testamentary disposition, a single tree passes by inheritance
to several heirs.
Many thousands of carob plants are annually raised in the Government
gardens and issued at a trifling charge. The common method of
propagation has been to sow the seeds in pots, and when the plant is
from 18 in. to 2 ft. high it is ready for transplanting. The seed, which
is very hard, is softened by placing it in a cauldron or saucepan of
cold water. The water is then brought to the boil. On arriving at
boiling-point the water is cooled and should then be changed and the
seed left to steep for twenty-four hours. Owing to the long tap root,
sowing in ordinary nursery beds has not been satisfactory, as the
plants, which certainly make better growth than in pots, do not
transplant well.
The foregoing methods have to a great extent been superseded by that of
germinating the seed in damp sand and sowing direct in the field in
properly prepared holes. Little watering is needed if the holes are deep
and the soil kept friable. A top mulch is useful to conserve the
moisture.
Transplanting from pots or beds is best done when the plants are twelve
months old and about 12 in. high, after that it is precarious. Grafting
may be done as soon as the stem is thick enough to take a graft, either
before or after transplanting.
The tree is liable to attack by insects and other pests. Scale
(_Aspidiotus ceratoniae_) is very common; but the greatest damage of late
years has been caused by the fly _Cecidomyia ceratoniae_, which lays its
eggs on the flowers or newly-set fruit, and the grub feeds on the bean,
causing it to become stunted and of no commercial value. This stunted
condition is locally known as "brachycarpia" and has been the subject of
careful scientific study and practical treatment by the Agricultural
Department during the last few years. Very satisfactory results have
been recorded from the campaigns, which have so far been limited to the
Kyrenia District, and these have justified the extension of compulsory
treatment to other infected areas. This and other pests, such as
_Myelois ceratoniae_, _Cossus liniperda_ (a lepidopterous boring insect),
a species of _Mycetiasis_, and a small hymenopterous fly which has
lately appeared and is now under investigation, have, no doubt, checked
production. The attacks of _Cecidomyia_, when serious, reduce the yield
by 80 per cent. or over, and normally may lessen it by 40 to 50 per
cent.
Much damage is also caused by rats (_Mus alexandrinus_), which gnaw the
bark of the branches, causing them to dry up. Their destruction is
encouraged by Government by the payment of 1 cp. per tail.
Carob gathering commences about mid-August and lasts for about a month.
The beans are knocked down with long sticks, put into sacks and brought
into store, or heaped up in the open air, where they often remain for
several weeks. This is a safe procedure, as there is little rainfall at
that season, and what might fall would not harm the beans, which would
quickly dry again.
It is not easy to estimate the yield per donum of carob trees, but
assuming that the trees were planted 30 ft. apart, and there were 16
medium-sized trees to the donum, the yield would average somewhere about
1,260 okes to the donum. The yield varies from year to year, a good year
generally being followed by a moderate year. The fruit may be destroyed
by frost in January and February, knocked off by hail-stones in March
and April or scorched by hot winds in May or June. A full-sized,
well-cultivated tree can give up to 720 okes. Taking good and bad years,
the value of the annual produce of a medium-sized tree is 5_s_.