The Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes was formed in
1918; its name was changed to Yugoslavia in 1929. Various
paramilitary bands resisted Nazi Germany's occupation and division
of Yugoslavia from 1941 to 1945, but fought each other and ethnic
opponents as much as the invaders. The military and political
movement headed by Josip TITO (Partisans) took full control of
Yugoslavia when German and Croatian separatist forces were defeated
in 1945. Although Communist, TITO's new government and his
successors (he died in 1980) managed to steer their own path between
the Warsaw Pact nations and the West for the next four and a half
decades. In 1989, Slobodan MILOSEVIC became president of the Serbian
Republic and his ultranationalist calls for Serbian domination led
to the violent breakup of Yugoslavia along ethnic lines. In 1991,
Croatia, Slovenia, and Macedonia declared independence, followed by
Bosnia in 1992. The remaining republics of Serbia and Montenegro
declared a new Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY) in April 1992
and under MILOSEVIC's leadership, Serbia led various military
campaigns to unite ethnic Serbs in neighboring republics into a
"Greater Serbia." These actions led to Yugoslavia being ousted from
the UN in 1992, but Serbia continued its - ultimately unsuccessful -
campaign until signing the Dayton Peace Accords in 1995. MILOSEVIC
kept tight control over Serbia and eventually became president of
the FRY in 1997. In 1998, an ethnic Albanian insurgency in the
formerly autonomous Serbian province of Kosovo provoked a Serbian
counterinsurgency campaign that resulted in massacres and massive
expulsions of ethnic Albanians living in Kosovo. The MILOSEVIC
government's rejection of a proposed international settlement led to
NATO's bombing of Serbia in the spring of 1999 and to the eventual
withdrawal of Serbian military and police forces from Kosovo in June
1999. UNSC Resolution 1244 in June 1999 authorized the stationing of
a NATO-led force (KFOR) in Kosovo to provide a safe and secure
environment for the region's ethnic communities, created a UN
interim Administration Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK) to foster
self-governing institutions, and reserved the issue of Kosovo's
final status for an unspecified date in the future. In 2001, UNMIK
promulgated a constitutional framework that allowed Kosovo to
establish institutions of self-government and led to Kosovo's first
parliamentary election. FRY elections in September 2000 led to the
ouster of MILOSEVIC and installed Vojislav KOSTUNICA as president. A
broad coalition of democratic reformist parties known as DOS (the
Democratic Opposition of Serbia) was subsequently elected to
parliament in December 2000 and took control of the government. DOS
arrested MILOSEVIC in 2001 and allowed for him to be tried in The
Hague for crimes against humanity. (MILOSEVIC died in March 2006
before the completion of his trial.) In 2001, the country's
suspension from the UN was lifted. In 2003, the FRY became Serbia
and Montenegro, a loose federation of the two republics with a
federal level parliament. Widespread violence predominantly
targeting ethnic Serbs in Kosovo in March 2004 caused the
international community to open negotiations on the future status of
Kosovo in January 2006. In May 2006, Montenegro invoked its right to
secede from the federation and - following a successful referendum -
it declared itself an independent nation on 3 June 2006. Two days
later, Serbia declared that it was the successor state to the union
of Serbia and Montenegro. A new Serbian constitution was approved in
October 2006 and adopted the following month. After 15 months of
inconclusive negotiations mediated by the UN and four months of
further inconclusive negotiations mediated by the US, EU, and
Russia, on 17 February 2008, the UNMIK-administered province of
Kosovo declared itself independent of Serbia.
Seychelles
A lengthy struggle between France and Great Britain for
the islands ended in 1814, when they were ceded to the latter.
Independence came in 1976. Socialist rule was brought to a close
with a new constitution and free elections in 1993. President
France-Albert RENE, who had served since 1977, was re-elected in
2001, but stepped down in 2004. Vice President James MICHEL took
over the presidency and in July 2006 was elected to a new five-year
term.
Sierra Leone
Democracy is slowly being reestablished after the civil
war from 1991 to 2002 that resulted in tens of thousands of deaths
and the displacement of more than 2 million people (about one-third
of the population). The military, which took over full
responsibility for security following the departure of UN
peacekeepers at the end of 2005, is increasingly developing as a
guarantor of the country's stability. The armed forces remained on
the sideline during the 2007 presidential election, but still look
to the UN Integrated Office in Sierra Leone (UNIOSIL) - a civilian
UN mission - to support efforts to consolidate peace. The new
government's priorities include furthering development, creating
jobs, and stamping out endemic corruption.
Singapore
Singapore was founded as a British trading colony in 1819.
It joined the Malaysian Federation in 1963 but separated two years
later and became independent. Singapore subsequently became one of
the world's most prosperous countries with strong international
trading links (its port is one of the world's busiest in terms of
tonnage handled) and with per capita GDP equal to that of the
leading nations of Western Europe.
Slovakia
The dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire at the close
of World War I allowed the Slovaks to join the closely related
Czechs to form Czechoslovakia. Following the chaos of World War II,
Czechoslovakia became a Communist nation within Soviet-dominated
Eastern Europe. Soviet influence collapsed in 1989 and
Czechoslovakia once more became free. The Slovaks and the Czechs
agreed to separate peacefully on 1 January 1993. Slovakia joined
both NATO and the EU in the spring of 2004.
Slovenia
The Slovene lands were part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire
until the latter's dissolution at the end of World War I. In 1918,
the Slovenes joined the Serbs and Croats in forming a new
multinational state, which was named Yugoslavia in 1929. After World
War II, Slovenia became a republic of the renewed Yugoslavia, which
though Communist, distanced itself from Moscow's rule. Dissatisfied
with the exercise of power by the majority Serbs, the Slovenes
succeeded in establishing their independence in 1991 after a short
10-day war. Historical ties to Western Europe, a strong economy, and
a stable democracy have assisted in Slovenia's transformation to a
modern state. Slovenia acceded to both NATO and the EU in the spring
of 2004.
Solomon Islands
The UK established a protectorate over the Solomon
Islands in the 1890s. Some of the bitterest fighting of World War II
occurred on this archipelago. Self-government was achieved in 1976
and independence two years later. Ethnic violence, government
malfeasance, and endemic crime have undermined stability and civil
society. In June 2003, then Prime Minister Sir Allan KEMAKEZA sought
the assistance of Australia in reestablishing law and order; the
following month, an Australian-led multinational force arrived to
restore peace and disarm ethnic militias. The Regional Assistance
Mission to the Solomon Islands (RAMSI) has generally been effective
in restoring law and order and rebuilding government institutions.
Somalia
Britain withdrew from British Somaliland in 1960 to allow
its protectorate to join with Italian Somaliland and form the new
nation of Somalia. In 1969, a coup headed by Mohamed SIAD Barre
ushered in an authoritarian socialist rule that managed to impose a
degree of stability in the country for a couple of decades. After
the regime's collapse early in 1991, Somalia descended into turmoil,
factional fighting, and anarchy. In May 1991, northern clans
declared an independent Republic of Somaliland that now includes the
administrative regions of Awdal, Woqooyi Galbeed, Togdheer, Sanaag,
and Sool. Although not recognized by any government, this entity has
maintained a stable existence and continues efforts to establish a
constitutional democracy, including holding municipal,
parliamentary, and presidential elections. The regions of Bari,
Nugaal, and northern Mudug comprise a neighboring self-declared
autonomous state of Puntland, which has been self-governing since
1998 but does not aim at independence; it has also made strides
toward reconstructing a legitimate, representative government but
has suffered some civil strife. Puntland disputes its border with
Somaliland as it also claims portions of eastern Sool and Sanaag.
Beginning in 1993, a two-year UN humanitarian effort (primarily in
the south) was able to alleviate famine conditions, but when the UN
withdrew in 1995, having suffered significant casualties, order
still had not been restored. A two-year peace process, led by the
Government of Kenya under the auspices of the Intergovernmental
Authority on Development (IGAD), concluded in October 2004 with the
election of Abdullahi YUSUF Ahmed as President of the Transitional
Federal Government (TFG) of Somalia and the formation of an interim
government, known as the Somalia Transitional Federal Institutions
(TFIs). The Somalia TFIs include a 275-member parliamentary body,
known as the Transitional Federal Assembly (TFA), a transitional
Prime Minister, Nur "Adde" Hassan HUSSEIN, and a 90-member cabinet.
The TFIs are based on the Transitional Federal Charter, which
outlines a five-year mandate leading to the establishment of a new
Somali constitution and a transition to a representative government
following national elections. While its institutions remain weak,
the TFG continues to reach out to Somali stakeholders and work with
international donors to help build the governance capacity of the
TFIs and work towards national elections in 2009. In June 2006, a
loose coalition of clerics, business leaders, and Islamic court
militias known as the Council of Islamic Courts (CIC) defeated
powerful Mogadishu warlords and took control of the capital. The
Courts continued to expand militarily throughout much of southern
Somalia and threatened to overthrow the TFG in Baidoa. Ethiopian and
TFG forces, concerned over links between some CIC factions and the
al-Qaida East Africa network and the al-Qaida operatives responsible
for the bombings of the US embassies in Tanzania and Kenya in 1998,
intervened in late December 2006, resulting in the collapse of the
CIC as an organization. However, the TFG continues to face violent
resistance from extremist elements, such as the al-Shabaab militia
previously affiliated with the now-defunct CIC.
South Africa
Dutch traders landed at the southern tip of modern day
South Africa in 1652 and established a stopover point on the spice
route between the Netherlands and the East, founding the city of
Cape Town. After the British seized the Cape of Good Hope area in
1806, many of the Dutch settlers (the Boers) trekked north to found
their own republics. The discovery of diamonds (1867) and gold
(1886) spurred wealth and immigration and intensified the
subjugation of the native inhabitants. The Boers resisted British
encroachments but were defeated in the Boer War (1899-1902);
however, the British and the Afrikaners, as the Boers became known,
ruled together under the Union of South Africa. In 1948, the
National Party was voted into power and instituted a policy of
apartheid - the separate development of the races. The first
multi-racial elections in 1994 brought an end to apartheid and
ushered in black majority rule.
South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands
The islands, which have
large bird and seal populations, lie approximately 1,000 km east of
the Falkland Islands and have been under British administration
since 1908 - except for a brief period in 1982 when Argentina
occupied them. Grytviken, on South Georgia, was a 19th and early
20th century whaling station. Famed explorer Ernest SHACKLETON
stopped there in 1914 en route to his ill-fated attempt to cross
Antarctica on foot. He returned some 20 months later with a few
companions in a small boat and arranged a successful rescue for the
rest of his crew, stranded off the Antarctic Peninsula. He died in
1922 on a subsequent expedition and is buried in Grytviken. Today,
the station houses scientists from the British Antarctic Survey.
Recognizing the importance of preserving the marine stocks in
adjacent waters, the UK, in 1993, extended the exclusive fishing
zone from 12 nm to 200 nm around each island.
Southern Ocean
A large body of recent oceanographic research has
shown that the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC), an ocean current
that flows from west to east around Antarctica, plays a crucial role
in global ocean circulation. The region where the cold waters of the
ACC meet and mingle with the warmer waters of the north defines a
distinct border - the Antarctic Convergence - which fluctuates with
the seasons, but which encompasses a discrete body of water and a
unique ecologic region. The Convergence concentrates nutrients,
which promotes marine plant life, and which in turn allows for a
greater abundance of animal life. In the spring of 2000, the
International Hydrographic Organization decided to delimit the
waters within the Convergence as a fifth world ocean - the Southern
Ocean - by combining the southern portions of the Atlantic Ocean,
Indian Ocean, and Pacific Ocean. The Southern Ocean extends from the
coast of Antarctica north to 60 degrees south latitude, which
coincides with the Antarctic Treaty Limit and which approximates the
extent of the Antarctic Convergence. As such, the Southern Ocean is
now the fourth largest of the world's five oceans (after the Pacific
Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, and Indian Ocean, but larger than the Arctic
Ocean). It should be noted that inclusion of the Southern Ocean does
not imply recognition of this feature as one of the world's primary
oceans by the US Government.
Spain
Spain's powerful world empire of the 16th and 17th centuries
ultimately yielded command of the seas to England. Subsequent
failure to embrace the mercantile and industrial revolutions caused
the country to fall behind Britain, France, and Germany in economic
and political power. Spain remained neutral in World Wars I and II
but suffered through a devastating civil war (1936-39). A peaceful
transition to democracy following the death of dictator Francisco
FRANCO in 1975, and rapid economic modernization (Spain joined the
EU in 1986) have given Spain one of the most dynamic economies in
Europe and made it a global champion of freedom. Continuing
challenges include Basque Fatherland and Liberty (ETA) terrorism,
illegal immigration, and slowing economic growth.
Spratly Islands
The Spratly Islands consist of more than 100 small
islands or reefs. They are surrounded by rich fishing grounds and
potentially by gas and oil deposits. They are claimed in their
entirety by China, Taiwan, and Vietnam, while portions are claimed
by Malaysia and the Philippines. About 45 islands are occupied by
relatively small numbers of military forces from China, Malaysia,
the Philippines, Taiwan, and Vietnam. Brunei has established a
fishing zone that overlaps a southern reef but has not made any
formal claim.
Sri Lanka
The first Sinhalese arrived in Sri Lanka late in the 6th
century B.C. probably from northern India. Buddhism was introduced
in about the mid-third century B.C., and a great civilization
developed at the cities of Anuradhapura (kingdom from circa 200 B.C.
to circa A.D. 1000) and Polonnaruwa (from about 1070 to 1200). In
the 14th century, a south Indian dynasty established a Tamil kingdom
in northern Sri Lanka. The coastal areas of the island were
controlled by the Portuguese in the 16th century and by the Dutch in
the 17th century. The island was ceded to the British in 1796,
became a crown colony in 1802, and was united under British rule by
1815. As Ceylon, it became independent in 1948; its name was changed
to Sri Lanka in 1972. Tensions between the Sinhalese majority and
Tamil separatists erupted into war in 1983. Tens of thousands have
died in the ethnic conflict that continues to fester. After two
decades of fighting, the government and Liberation Tigers of Tamil
Eelam (LTTE) formalized a cease-fire in February 2002 with Norway
brokering peace negotiations. Violence between the LTTE and
government forces intensified in 2006 and the government regained
control of the Eastern Province in 2007. In January 2008, the
government officially withdrew from the ceasefire, and has begun
engaging the LTTE in the northern portion of the country.
Sudan
Military regimes favoring Islamic-oriented governments have
dominated national politics since independence from the UK in 1956.
Sudan was embroiled in two prolonged civil wars during most of the
remainder of the 20th century. These conflicts were rooted in
northern economic, political, and social domination of largely
non-Muslim, non-Arab southern Sudanese. The first civil war ended in
1972 but broke out again in 1983. The second war and famine-related
effects resulted in more than four million people displaced and,
according to rebel estimates, more than two million deaths over a
period of two decades. Peace talks gained momentum in 2002-04 with
the signing of several accords. The final North/South Comprehensive
Peace Agreement (CPA), signed in January 2005, granted the southern
rebels autonomy for six years. After which, a referendum for
independence is scheduled to be held. A separate conflict, which
broke out in the western region of Darfur in 2003, has displaced
nearly two million people and caused an estimated 200,000 to 400,000
deaths. The UN took command of the Darfur peacekeeping operation
from the African Union on 31 December 2007. As of early 2008,
peacekeeping troops were struggling to stabilize the situation,
which has become increasingly regional in scope, and has brought
instability to eastern Chad, and Sudanese incursions into the
Central African Republic. Sudan also has faced large refugee
influxes from neighboring countries, primarily Ethiopia and Chad.
Armed conflict, poor transport infrastructure, and lack of
government support have chronically obstructed the provision of
humanitarian assistance to affected populations.
Suriname
First explored by the Spaniards in the 16th century and
then settled by the English in the mid-17th century, Suriname became
a Dutch colony in 1667. With the abolition of slavery in 1863,
workers were brought in from India and Java. Independence from the
Netherlands was granted in 1975. Five years later the civilian
government was replaced by a military regime that soon declared a
socialist republic. It continued to exert control through a
succession of nominally civilian administrations until 1987, when
international pressure finally forced a democratic election. In
1990, the military overthrew the civilian leadership, but a
democratically elected government - a four-party New Front coalition
- returned to power in 1991 and has ruled since; the coalition
expanded to eight parties in 2005.
Svalbard
First discovered by the Norwegians in the 12th century, the
islands served as an international whaling base during the 17th and
18th centuries. Norway's sovereignty was recognized in 1920; five
years later it officially took over the territory.
Swaziland
Autonomy for the Swazis of southern Africa was guaranteed
by the British in the late 19th century; independence was granted in
1968. Student and labor unrest during the 1990s pressured King
MSWATI III, the world's last absolute monarch, to grudgingly allow
political reform and greater democracy, although he has backslid on
these promises in recent years. A constitution came into effect in
2006, but political parties remain banned. The African United
Democratic Party tried unsuccessfully to register as an official
political party in mid 2006. Talks over the constitution broke down
between the government and progressive groups in 2007. Swaziland
recently surpassed Botswana as the country with the world's highest
known HIV/AIDS prevalence rate.
Sweden
A military power during the 17th century, Sweden has not
participated in any war in almost two centuries. An armed neutrality
was preserved in both World Wars. Sweden's long-successful economic
formula of a capitalist system interlarded with substantial welfare
elements was challenged in the 1990s by high unemployment and in
2000-02 by the global economic downturn, but fiscal discipline over
the past several years has allowed the country to weather economic
vagaries. Sweden joined the EU in 1995, but the public rejected the
introduction of the euro in a 2003 referendum.
Switzerland
The Swiss Confederation was founded in 1291 as a
defensive alliance among three cantons. In succeeding years, other
localities joined the original three. The Swiss Confederation
secured its independence from the Holy Roman Empire in 1499. A
constitution of 1848, subsequently modified in 1874, replaced the
confederation with a centralized federal government. Switzerland's
sovereignty and neutrality have long been honored by the major
European powers, and the country was not involved in either of the
two World Wars. The political and economic integration of Europe
over the past half century, as well as Switzerland's role in many UN
and international organizations, has strengthened Switzerland's ties
with its neighbors. However, the country did not officially become a
UN member until 2002. Switzerland remains active in many UN and
international organizations but retains a strong commitment to
neutrality.
Syria
Following the breakup of the Ottoman Empire during World War
I, France administered Syria until its independence in 1946. The
country lacked political stability, however, and experienced a
series of military coups during its first decades. Syria united with
Egypt in February 1958 to form the United Arab Republic. In
September 1961, the two entities separated, and the Syrian Arab
Republic was reestablished. In November 1970, Hafiz al-ASAD, a
member of the Socialist Ba'th Party and the minority Alawite sect,
seized power in a bloodless coup and brought political stability to
the country. In the 1967 Arab-Israeli War, Syria lost the Golan
Heights to Israel. During the 1990s, Syria and Israel held
occasional peace talks over its return. Following the death of
President al-ASAD, his son, Bashar al-ASAD, was approved as
president by popular referendum in July 2000. Syrian troops -
stationed in Lebanon since 1976 in an ostensible peacekeeping role -
were withdrawn in April 2005. During the July-August 2006 conflict
between Israel and Hizballah, Syria placed its military forces on
alert but did not intervene directly on behalf of its ally Hizballah.
Taiwan
In 1895, military defeat forced China to cede Taiwan to
Japan. Taiwan reverted to Chinese control after World War II.
Following the Communist victory on the mainland in 1949, 2 million
Nationalists fled to Taiwan and established a government using the
1946 constitution drawn up for all of China. Over the next five
decades, the ruling authorities gradually democratized and
incorporated the local population within the governing structure. In
2000, Taiwan underwent its first peaceful transfer of power from the
Nationalist to the Democratic Progressive Party. Throughout this
period, the island prospered and became one of East Asia's economic
"Tigers." The dominant political issues continue to be the
relationship between Taiwan and China - specifically the question of
eventual unification - as well as domestic political and economic
reform.