Explored and settled by the Spanish in the 16th century,
Panama broke with Spain in 1821 and joined a union of Colombia,
Ecuador, and Venezuela - named the Republic of Gran Colombia. When
the latter dissolved in 1830, Panama remained part of Colombia. With
US backing, Panama seceded from Colombia in 1903 and promptly signed
a treaty with the US allowing for the construction of a canal and US
sovereignty over a strip of land on either side of the structure
(the Panama Canal Zone). The Panama Canal was built by the US Army
Corps of Engineers between 1904 and 1914. In 1977, an agreement was
signed for the complete transfer of the Canal from the US to Panama
by the end of the century. Certain portions of the Zone and
increasing responsibility over the Canal were turned over in the
subsequent decades. With US help, dictator Manuel NORIEGA was
deposed in 1989. The entire Panama Canal, the area supporting the
Canal, and remaining US military bases were transferred to Panama by
the end of 1999. In October 2006, Panamanians approved an ambitious
plan to expand the Canal. The project, which began in 2007 and could
double the Canal's capacity, is expected to be completed in 2014-15.
Papua New Guinea
The eastern half of the island of New Guinea -
second largest in the world - was divided between Germany (north)
and the UK (south) in 1885. The latter area was transferred to
Australia in 1902, which occupied the northern portion during World
War I and continued to administer the combined areas until
independence in 1975. A nine-year secessionist revolt on the island
of Bougainville ended in 1997 after claiming some 20,000 lives.
Paracel Islands
The Paracel Islands are surrounded by productive
fishing grounds and by potential oil and gas reserves. In 1932,
French Indochina annexed the islands and set up a weather station on
Pattle Island; maintenance was continued by its successor, Vietnam.
China has occupied the Paracel Islands since 1974, when its troops
seized a South Vietnamese garrison occupying the western islands.
China built a military installation on Mischief Reef in 1999. The
islands are claimed by Taiwan and Vietnam.
Paraguay
In the disastrous War of the Triple Alliance (1865-70) -
between Paraguay and Argentina, Brazil, and Uruguay - Paraguay lost
two-thirds of all adult males and much of its territory. It
stagnated economically for the next half century. In the Chaco War
of 1932-35, Paraguay won large, economically important areas from
Bolivia. The 35-year military dictatorship of Alfredo STROESSNER
ended in 1989, and, despite a marked increase in political
infighting in recent years, Paraguay has held relatively free and
regular presidential elections since then.
Peru
Ancient Peru was the seat of several prominent Andean
civilizations, most notably that of the Incas whose empire was
captured by the Spanish conquistadors in 1533. Peruvian independence
was declared in 1821, and remaining Spanish forces defeated in 1824.
After a dozen years of military rule, Peru returned to democratic
leadership in 1980, but experienced economic problems and the growth
of a violent insurgency. President Alberto FUJIMORI's election in
1990 ushered in a decade that saw a dramatic turnaround in the
economy and significant progress in curtailing guerrilla activity.
Nevertheless, the president's increasing reliance on authoritarian
measures and an economic slump in the late 1990s generated mounting
dissatisfaction with his regime, which led to his ouster in 2000. A
caretaker government oversaw new elections in the spring of 2001,
which ushered in Alejandro TOLEDO as the new head of government -
Peru's first democratically elected president of Native American
ethnicity. The presidential election of 2006 saw the return of Alan
GARCIA who, after a disappointing presidential term from 1985 to
1990, returned to the presidency with promises to improve social
conditions and maintain fiscal responsibility.
Philippines
The Philippine Islands became a Spanish colony during
the 16th century; they were ceded to the US in 1898 following the
Spanish-American War. In 1935 the Philippines became a
self-governing commonwealth. Manuel QUEZON was elected president and
was tasked with preparing the country for independence after a
10-year transition. In 1942 the islands fell under Japanese
occupation during World War II, and US forces and Filipinos fought
together during 1944-45 to regain control. On 4 July 1946 the
Republic of the Philippines attained its independence. The 20-year
rule of Ferdinand MARCOS ended in 1986, when a "people power"
movement in Manila ("EDSA 1") forced him into exile and installed
Corazon AQUINO as president. Her presidency was hampered by several
coup attempts, which prevented a return to full political stability
and economic development. Fidel RAMOS was elected president in 1992
and his administration was marked by greater stability and progress
on economic reforms. In 1992, the US closed its last military bases
on the islands. Joseph ESTRADA was elected president in 1998, but
was succeeded by his vice-president, Gloria MACAPAGAL-ARROYO, in
January 2001 after ESTRADA's stormy impeachment trial on corruption
charges broke down and another "people power" movement ("EDSA 2")
demanded his resignation. MACAPAGAL-ARROYO was elected to a six-year
term as president in May 2004. The Philippine Government faces
threats from three terrorist groups on the US Government's Foreign
Terrorist Organization list, but in 2006 and 2007 scored some major
successes in capturing or killing key wanted terrorists. Decades of
Muslim insurgency in the southern Philippines have led to a peace
accord with one group and an ongoing cease-fire and peace talks with
another.
Pitcairn Islands
Pitcairn Island was discovered in 1767 by the
British and settled in 1790 by the Bounty mutineers and their
Tahitian companions. Pitcairn was the first Pacific island to become
a British colony (in 1838) and today remains the last vestige of
that empire in the South Pacific. Outmigration, primarily to New
Zealand, has thinned the population from a peak of 233 in 1937 to
less than 50 today.
Poland
Poland is an ancient nation that was conceived near the
middle of the 10th century. Its golden age occurred in the 16th
century. During the following century, the strengthening of the
gentry and internal disorders weakened the nation. In a series of
agreements between 1772 and 1795, Russia, Prussia, and Austria
partitioned Poland amongst themselves. Poland regained its
independence in 1918 only to be overrun by Germany and the Soviet
Union in World War II. It became a Soviet satellite state following
the war, but its government was comparatively tolerant and
progressive. Labor turmoil in 1980 led to the formation of the
independent trade union "Solidarity" that over time became a
political force and by 1990 had swept parliamentary elections and
the presidency. A "shock therapy" program during the early 1990s
enabled the country to transform its economy into one of the most
robust in Central Europe, but Poland still faces the lingering
challenges of high unemployment, underdeveloped and dilapidated
infrastructure, and a poor rural underclass. Solidarity suffered a
major defeat in the 2001 parliamentary elections when it failed to
elect a single deputy to the lower house of Parliament, and the new
leaders of the Solidarity Trade Union subsequently pledged to reduce
the Trade Union's political role. Poland joined NATO in 1999 and the
European Union in 2004. With its transformation to a democratic,
market-oriented country largely completed, Poland is an increasingly
active member of Euro-Atlantic organizations.
Portugal
Following its heyday as a world power during the 15th and
16th centuries, Portugal lost much of its wealth and status with the
destruction of Lisbon in a 1755 earthquake, occupation during the
Napoleonic Wars, and the independence in 1822 of Brazil as a colony.
A 1910 revolution deposed the monarchy; for most of the next six
decades, repressive governments ran the country. In 1974, a
left-wing military coup installed broad democratic reforms. The
following year, Portugal granted independence to all of its African
colonies. Portugal is a founding member of NATO and entered the EC
(now the EU) in 1986.
Puerto Rico
Populated for centuries by aboriginal peoples, the
island was claimed by the Spanish Crown in 1493 following COLUMBUS'
second voyage to the Americas. In 1898, after 400 years of colonial
rule that saw the indigenous population nearly exterminated and
African slave labor introduced, Puerto Rico was ceded to the US as a
result of the Spanish-American War. Puerto Ricans were granted US
citizenship in 1917. Popularly-elected governors have served since
1948. In 1952, a constitution was enacted providing for internal
self government. In plebiscites held in 1967, 1993, and 1998, voters
chose not to alter the existing political status.
Qatar
Ruled by the Al-Thani family since the mid-1800s, Qatar
transformed itself from a poor British protectorate noted mainly for
pearling into an independent state with significant oil and natural
gas revenues. During the late 1980s and early 1990s, the Qatari
economy was crippled by a continuous siphoning off of petroleum
revenues by the Amir, who had ruled the country since 1972. His son,
the current Amir HAMAD bin Khalifa Al-Thani, overthrew him in a
bloodless coup in 1995. In 2001, Qatar resolved its longstanding
border disputes with both Bahrain and Saudi Arabia. As of 2007, oil
and natural gas revenues had enabled Qatar to attain the highest per
capita income in the world.
Romania
The principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia - for centuries
under the suzerainty of the Turkish Ottoman Empire - secured their
autonomy in 1856; they united in 1859 and a few years later adopted
the new name of Romania. The country gained recognition of its
independence in 1878. It joined the Allied Powers in World War I and
acquired new territories - most notably Transylvania - following the
conflict. In 1940, Romania allied with the Axis powers and
participated in the 1941 German invasion of the USSR. Three years
later, overrun by the Soviets, Romania signed an armistice. The
post-war Soviet occupation led to the formation of a Communist
"people's republic" in 1947 and the abdication of the king. The
decades-long rule of dictator Nicolae CEAUSESCU, who took power in
1965, and his Securitate police state became increasingly oppressive
and draconian through the 1980s. CEAUSESCU was overthrown and
executed in late 1989. Former Communists dominated the government
until 1996 when they were swept from power. Romania joined NATO in
2004 and the EU in 2007.
Russia
Founded in the 12th century, the Principality of Muscovy, was
able to emerge from over 200 years of Mongol domination (13th-15th
centuries) and to gradually conquer and absorb surrounding
principalities. In the early 17th century, a new Romanov Dynasty
continued this policy of expansion across Siberia to the Pacific.
Under PETER I (ruled 1682-1725), hegemony was extended to the Baltic
Sea and the country was renamed the Russian Empire. During the 19th
century, more territorial acquisitions were made in Europe and Asia.
Defeat in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-05 contributed to the
Revolution of 1905, which resulted in the formation of a parliament
and other reforms. Repeated devastating defeats of the Russian army
in World War I led to widespread rioting in the major cities of the
Russian Empire and to the overthrow in 1917 of the imperial
household. The Communists under Vladimir LENIN seized power soon
after and formed the USSR. The brutal rule of Iosif STALIN (1928-53)
strengthened Communist rule and Russian dominance of the Soviet
Union at a cost of tens of millions of lives. The Soviet economy and
society stagnated in the following decades until General Secretary
Mikhail GORBACHEV (1985-91) introduced glasnost (openness) and
perestroika (restructuring) in an attempt to modernize Communism,
but his initiatives inadvertently released forces that by December
1991 splintered the USSR into Russia and 14 other independent
republics. Since then, Russia has shifted its post-Soviet democratic
ambitions in favor of a centralized semi-authoritarian state whose
legitimacy is buttressed, in part, by carefully managed national
elections, former President PUTIN's genuine popularity, and the
prudent management of Russia's windfall energy wealth. Russia has
severely disabled a Chechen rebel movement, although violence still
occurs throughout the North Caucasus.
Rwanda
In 1959, three years before independence from Belgium, the
majority ethnic group, the Hutus, overthrew the ruling Tutsi king.
Over the next several years, thousands of Tutsis were killed, and
some 150,000 driven into exile in neighboring countries. The
children of these exiles later formed a rebel group, the Rwandan
Patriotic Front (RPF), and began a civil war in 1990. The war, along
with several political and economic upheavals, exacerbated ethnic
tensions, culminating in April 1994 in the genocide of roughly
800,000 Tutsis and moderate Hutus. The Tutsi rebels defeated the
Hutu regime and ended the killing in July 1994, but approximately 2
million Hutu refugees - many fearing Tutsi retribution - fled to
neighboring Burundi, Tanzania, Uganda, and Zaire. Since then, most
of the refugees have returned to Rwanda, but several thousand
remained in the neighboring Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC;
the former Zaire) and formed an extremist insurgency bent on
retaking Rwanda, much as the RPF tried in 1990. Despite substantial
international assistance and political reforms - including Rwanda's
first local elections in March 1999 and its first post-genocide
presidential and legislative elections in August and September 2003
- the country continues to struggle to boost investment and
agricultural output, and ethnic reconciliation is complicated by the
real and perceived Tutsi political dominance. Kigali's increasing
centralization and intolerance of dissent, the nagging Hutu
extremist insurgency across the border, and Rwandan involvement in
two wars in recent years in the neighboring DRC continue to hinder
Rwanda's efforts to escape its bloody legacy.
Saint Barthelemy
Discovered in 1493 by Christopher COLUMBUS who
named it for his brother Bartolomeo, St. Barthelemy was first
settled by the French in 1648. In 1784, the French sold the island
to Sweden, who renamed the largest town Gustavia, after the Swedish
King GUSTAV III, and made it a free port; the island prospered as a
trade and supply center during the colonial wars of the 18th
century. France repurchased the island in 1878 and placed it under
the administration of Guadeloupe. St. Barthelemy retained its free
port status along with various Swedish appelations such as Swedish
street and town names, and the three-crown symbol on the coat of
arms. In 2003, the populace of the island voted to secede from
Guadeloupe and in 2007, the island became a French overseas
collectivity.
Saint Helena
Saint Helena is a British Overseas Territory consisting
of Saint Helena and Ascension Islands, and the island group of
Tristan da Cunha.
Saint Helena: Uninhabited when first discovered by the Portuguese in
1502, Saint Helena was garrisoned by the British during the 17th
century. It acquired fame as the place of Napoleon BONAPARTE's
exile, from 1815 until his death in 1821, but its importance as a
port of call declined after the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869.
During the Anglo-Boer War in South Africa, several thousand Boer
prisoners were confined on the island between 1900 and 1903.
Ascension Island: This barren and uninhabited island was discovered
and named by the Portuguese in 1503. The British garrisoned the
island in 1815 to prevent a rescue of Napoleon from Saint Helena and
it served as a provisioning station for the Royal Navy's West Africa
Squadron on anti-slavery patrol. The island remained under Admiralty
control until 1922, when it became a dependency of Saint Helena.
During World War II, the UK permitted the US to construct an
airfield on Ascension in support of trans-Atlantic flights to Africa
and anti-submarine operations in the South Atlantic. In the 1960s
the island became an important space tracking station for the US. In
1982, Ascension was an essential staging area for British forces
during the Falklands War, and it remains a critical refueling point
in the air-bridge from the UK to the South Atlantic.
Tristan da Cunha: The island group consists of the islands of
Tristan da Cunha, Nightingale, Inaccessible, and Gough. Tristan da
Cunha is named after its Portuguese discoverer (1506); it was
garrisoned by the British in 1816 to prevent any attempt to rescue
Napoleon from Saint Helena. Gough and Inaccessible Islands have been
designated World Heritage Sites. South Africa leases a site for a
meteorological station on Gough Island.
Saint Kitts and Nevis
First settled by the British in 1623, the
islands became an associated state with full internal autonomy in
1967. The island of Anguilla rebelled and was allowed to secede in
1971. Saint Kitts and Nevis achieved independence in 1983. In 1998,
a vote in Nevis on a referendum to separate from Saint Kitts fell
short of the two-thirds majority needed. Nevis continues in its
efforts to try and separate from Saint Kitts.
Saint Lucia
The island, with its fine natural harbor at Castries,
was contested between England and France throughout the 17th and
early 18th centuries (changing possession 14 times); it was finally
ceded to the UK in 1814. Even after the abolition of slavery on its
plantations in 1834, Saint Lucia remained an agricultural island,
dedicated to producing tropical commodity crops. Self-government was
granted in 1967 and independence in 1979.
Saint Martin
Although sighted by Christopher COLUMBUS in 1493 and
claimed for Spain, it was the Dutch who occupied the island in 1631
and set about exploiting its salt deposits. The Spanish retook the
island in 1633, but continued to be harassed by the Dutch. The
Spanish finally relinquished St. Martin to the French and Dutch, who
divided it amongst themselves in 1648. The cultivation of sugar cane
introduced slavery to the island in the late 18th century; the
practice was not abolished until 1848. The island became a free port
in 1939; the tourism industry was dramatically expanded during the
1970s and 1980s. In 2003, the populace of St. Martin voted to secede
from Guadeloupe and in 2007, the northern portion of the island
became a French overseas collectivity.
Saint Pierre and Miquelon
First settled by the French in the early
17th century, the islands represent the sole remaining vestige of
France's once vast North American possessions.
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
Resistance by native Caribs
prevented colonization on St. Vincent until 1719. Disputed between
France and the United Kingdom for most of the 18th century, the
island was ceded to the latter in 1783. Between 1960 and 1962, Saint
Vincent and the Grenadines was a separate administrative unit of the
Federation of the West Indies. Autonomy was granted in 1969 and
independence in 1979.
Samoa
New Zealand occupied the German protectorate of Western Samoa
at the outbreak of World War I in 1914. It continued to administer
the islands as a mandate and then as a trust territory until 1962,
when the islands became the first Polynesian nation to reestablish
independence in the 20th century. The country dropped the "Western"
from its name in 1997.
San Marino
The third smallest state in Europe (after the Holy See
and Monaco), San Marino also claims to be the world's oldest
republic. According to tradition, it was founded by a Christian
stonemason named Marinus in A.D. 301. San Marino's foreign policy is
aligned with that of Italy; social and political trends in the
republic also track closely with those of its larger neighbor.
Sao Tome and Principe
Discovered and claimed by Portugal in the late
15th century, the islands' sugar-based economy gave way to coffee
and cocoa in the 19th century - all grown with plantation slave
labor, a form of which lingered into the 20th century. While
independence was achieved in 1975, democratic reforms were not
instituted until the late 1980s. The country held its first free
elections in 1991, but frequent internal wrangling between the
various political parties precipitated repeated changes in
leadership and two failed coup attempts in 1995 and 2003. The recent
discovery of oil in the Gulf of Guinea promises to attract increased
attention to the small island nation.
Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabia is the birthplace of Islam and home to
Islam's two holiest shrines in Mecca and Medina. The king's official
title is the Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques. The modern Saudi
state was founded in 1932 by ABD AL-AZIZ bin Abd al-Rahman AL SAUD
(Ibn Saud) after a 30-year campaign to unify most of the Arabian
Peninsula. A male descendent of Ibn Saud, his son ABDALLAH bin Abd
al-Aziz, rules the country today as required by the country's 1992
Basic Law. Following Iraq's invasion of Kuwait in 1990, Saudi Arabia
accepted the Kuwaiti royal family and 400,000 refugees while
allowing Western and Arab troops to deploy on its soil for the
liberation of Kuwait the following year. The continuing presence of
foreign troops on Saudi soil after the liberation of Kuwait became a
source of tension between the royal family and the public until all
operational US troops left the country in 2003. Major terrorist
attacks in May and November 2003 spurred a strong on-going campaign
against domestic terrorism and extremism. King ABDALLAH has
continued the cautious reform program begun when he was crown
prince. To promote increased political participation, the government
held elections nationwide from February through April 2005 for half
the members of 179 municipal councils. In December 2005, King
ABDALLAH completed the process by appointing the remaining members
of the advisory municipal councils. The country remains a leading
producer of oil and natural gas and holds more than 20% of the
world's proven oil reserves. The government continues to pursue
economic reform and diversification, particularly since Saudi
Arabia's accession to the WTO in December 2005, and promotes foreign
investment in the kingdom. A burgeoning population, aquifer
depletion, and an economy largely dependent on petroleum output and
prices are all ongoing governmental concerns.
Senegal
The French colonies of Senegal and the French Sudan were
merged in 1959 and granted their independence as the Mali Federation
in 1960. The union broke up after only a few months. Senegal joined
with The Gambia to form the nominal confederation of Senegambia in
1982, but the envisaged integration of the two countries was never
carried out, and the union was dissolved in 1989. The Movement of
Democratic Forces in the Casamance (MFDC) has led a low-level
separatist insurgency in southern Senegal since the 1980s, and
several peace deals have failed to resolve the conflict.
Nevertheless, Senegal remains one of the most stable democracies in
Africa. Senegal was ruled by a Socialist Party for 40 years until
current President Abdoulaye WADE was elected in 2000. He was
reelected in February 2007, but complaints of fraud led opposition
parties to boycott June 2007 legislative polls. Senegal has a long
history of participating in international peacekeeping.