The Tajik people came under Russian rule in the 1860s and
1870s, but Russia's hold on Central Asia weakened following the
Revolution of 1917. Bolshevik control of the area was fiercely
contested and not fully reestablished until 1925. Much of
present-day Sughd province was transferred from the Uzbekistan SSR
to newly formed Tajikistan SSR in 1929. Ethnic Uzbeks form a
substantial minority in Sughd province. Tajikistan became
independent in 1991 following the breakup of the Soviet Union, and
it is now in the process of strengthening its democracy and
transitioning to a free market economy after its 1992-97 civil war.
There have been no major security incidents in recent years,
although the country remains the poorest in the former Soviet
sphere. Attention by the international community in the wake of the
war in Afghanistan has brought increased economic development and
security assistance, which could create jobs and increase stability
in the long term. Tajikistan is in the early stages of seeking World
Trade Organization membership and has joined NATO's Partnership for
Peace.
Tanzania
Shortly after achieving independence from Britain in the
early 1960s, Tanganyika and Zanzibar merged to form the nation of
Tanzania in 1964. One-party rule came to an end in 1995 with the
first democratic elections held in the country since the 1970s.
Zanzibar's semi-autonomous status and popular opposition have led to
two contentious elections since 1995, which the ruling party won
despite international observers' claims of voting irregularities.
Thailand
A unified Thai kingdom was established in the mid-14th
century. Known as Siam until 1939, Thailand is the only Southeast
Asian country never to have been taken over by a European power. A
bloodless revolution in 1932 led to a constitutional monarchy. In
alliance with Japan during World War II, Thailand became a US ally
following the conflict. Thailand is currently facing separatist
violence in its southern ethnic Malay-Muslim provinces.
Timor-Leste
The Portuguese began to trade with the island of Timor
in the early 16th century and colonized it in mid-century.
Skirmishing with the Dutch in the region eventually resulted in an
1859 treaty in which Portugal ceded the western portion of the
island. Imperial Japan occupied Portuguese Timor from 1942 to 1945,
but Portugal resumed colonial authority after the Japanese defeat in
World War II. East Timor declared itself independent from Portugal
on 28 November 1975 and was invaded and occupied by Indonesian
forces nine days later. It was incorporated into Indonesia in July
1976 as the province of Timor Timur (East Timor). An unsuccessful
campaign of pacification followed over the next two decades, during
which an estimated 100,000 to 250,000 individuals lost their lives.
On 30 August 1999, in a UN-supervised popular referendum, an
overwhelming majority of the people of Timor-Leste voted for
independence from Indonesia. Between the referendum and the arrival
of a multinational peacekeeping force in late September 1999,
anti-independence Timorese militias - organized and supported by the
Indonesian military - commenced a large-scale, scorched-earth
campaign of retribution. The militias killed approximately 1,400
Timorese and forcibly pushed 300,000 people into western Timor as
refugees. The majority of the country's infrastructure, including
homes, irrigation systems, water supply systems, and schools, and
nearly 100% of the country's electrical grid were destroyed. On 20
September 1999 the Australian-led peacekeeping troops of the
International Force for East Timor (INTERFET) deployed to the
country and brought the violence to an end. On 20 May 2002,
Timor-Leste was internationally recognized as an independent state.
In late April 2006, internal tensions threatened the new nation's
security when a military strike led to violence and a near breakdown
of law and order in Dili. At the request of the Government of
Timor-Leste, an Australian-led International Stabilization Force
(ISF) deployed to Timor-Leste in late May. In August, the UN
Security Council established the UN Integrated Mission in
Timor-Leste (UNMIT), which included an authorized police presence of
over 1,600 personnel. In subsequent months, many of the ISF soldiers
were replaced by UN police officers; approximately 80 ISF officers
remained as of January 2008. From April to June 2007, the Government
of Timor-Leste held presidential and parliamentary elections in a
largely peaceful atmosphere with the support and assistance of UNMIT
and international donors.
Togo
French Togoland became Togo in 1960. Gen. Gnassingbe EYADEMA,
installed as military ruler in 1967, ruled Togo with a heavy hand
for almost four decades. Despite the facade of multiparty elections
instituted in the early 1990s, the government was largely dominated
by President EYADEMA, whose Rally of the Togolese People (RPT) party
has maintained power almost continually since 1967 and maintains a
majority of seats in today's legislature. Upon EYADEMA's death in
February 2005, the military installed the president's son, Faure
GNASSINGBE, and then engineered his formal election two months
later. Democratic gains since then allowed Togo to hold its first
relatively free and fair legislative elections in October 2007.
After years of political unrest and fire from international
organizations for human rights abuses, Togo is finally being
re-welcomed into the international community.
Tokelau
Originally settled by Polynesian emigrants from surrounding
island groups, the Tokelau Islands were made a British protectorate
in 1889. They were transferred to New Zealand administration in
1925. Referenda held in 2006 and 2007 to change the status of the
islands from that of a New Zealand territory to one of free
association with New Zealand did not meet the needed threshold for
approval.
Tonga
Tonga - unique among Pacific nations - never completely lost
its indigenous governance. The archipelagos of "The Friendly
Islands" were united into a Polynesian kingdom in 1845. Tonga became
a constitutional monarchy in 1875 and a British protectorate in
1900; it withdrew from the protectorate and joined the Commonwealth
of Nations in 1970. Tonga remains the only monarchy in the Pacific.
Trinidad and Tobago
First colonized by the Spanish, the islands came
under British control in the early 19th century. The islands' sugar
industry was hurt by the emancipation of the slaves in 1834.
Manpower was replaced with the importation of contract laborers from
India between 1845 and 1917, which boosted sugar production as well
as the cocoa industry. The discovery of oil on Trinidad in 1910
added another important export. Independence was attained in 1962.
The country is one of the most prosperous in the Caribbean thanks
largely to petroleum and natural gas production and processing.
Tourism, mostly in Tobago, is targeted for expansion and is growing.
The government is coping with a rise in violent crime.
Tunisia
Rivalry between French and Italian interests in Tunisia
culminated in a French invasion in 1881 and the creation of a
protectorate. Agitation for independence in the decades following
World War I was finally successful in getting the French to
recognize Tunisia as an independent state in 1956. The country's
first president, Habib BOURGUIBA, established a strict one-party
state. He dominated the country for 31 years, repressing Islamic
fundamentalism and establishing rights for women unmatched by any
other Arab nation. In November 1987, BOURGUIBA was removed from
office and replaced by Zine el Abidine BEN ALI in a bloodless coup.
BEN ALI is currently serving his fourth consecutive five-year term
as president; the next elections are scheduled for October 2009.
Tunisia has long taken a moderate, non-aligned stance in its foreign
relations. Domestically, it has sought to defuse rising pressure for
a more open political society.
Turkey
Modern Turkey was founded in 1923 from the Anatolian remnants
of the defeated Ottoman Empire by national hero Mustafa KEMAL, who
was later honored with the title Ataturk or "Father of the Turks."
Under his authoritarian leadership, the country adopted wide-ranging
social, legal, and political reforms. After a period of one-party
rule, an experiment with multi-party politics led to the 1950
election victory of the opposition Democratic Party and the peaceful
transfer of power. Since then, Turkish political parties have
multiplied, but democracy has been fractured by periods of
instability and intermittent military coups (1960, 1971, 1980),
which in each case eventually resulted in a return of political
power to civilians. In 1997, the military again helped engineer the
ouster - popularly dubbed a "post-modern coup" - of the then
Islamic-oriented government. Turkey intervened militarily on Cyprus
in 1974 to prevent a Greek takeover of the island and has since
acted as patron state to the "Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus,"
which only Turkey recognizes. A separatist insurgency begun in 1984
by the Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK) - now known as the People's
Congress of Kurdistan or Kongra-Gel (KGK) - has dominated the
Turkish military's attention and claimed more than 30,000 lives.
After the capture of the group's leader in 1999, the insurgents
largely withdrew from Turkey mainly to northern Iraq. In 2004, KGK
announced an end to its ceasefire and attacks attributed to the KGK
increased. Turkey joined the UN in 1945 and in 1952 it became a
member of NATO. In 1964, Turkey became an associate member of the
European Community; over the past decade, it has undertaken many
reforms to strengthen its democracy and economy enabling it to begin
accession membership talks with the European Union.
Turkmenistan
Eastern Turkmenistan for centuries formed part of the
Persian province of Khurasan; in medieval times Merv (today known as
Mary) was one of the great cities of the Islamic world and an
important stop on the Silk Road. Annexed by Russia between 1865 and
1885, Turkmenistan became a Soviet republic in 1924. It achieved
independence upon the dissolution of the USSR in 1991. Extensive
hydrocarbon/natural gas reserves could prove a boon to this
underdeveloped country if extraction and delivery projects were to
be expanded. The Turkmenistan Government is actively seeking to
develop alternative petroleum transportation routes to break
Russia's pipeline monopoly. President for Life Saparmurat NYYAZOW
died in December 2006, and Turkmenistan held its first
multi-candidate presidential electoral process in February 2007.
Gurbanguly BERDIMUHAMEDOW, a vice premier under NYYAZOW, emerged as
the country's new president.
Turks and Caicos Islands
The islands were part of the UK's Jamaican
colony until 1962, when they assumed the status of a separate crown
colony upon Jamaica's independence. The governor of The Bahamas
oversaw affairs from 1965 to 1973. With Bahamian independence, the
islands received a separate governor in 1973. Although independence
was agreed upon for 1982, the policy was reversed and the islands
remain a British overseas territory.
Tuvalu
In 1974, ethnic differences within the British colony of the
Gilbert and Ellice Islands caused the Polynesians of the Ellice
Islands to vote for separation from the Micronesians of the Gilbert
Islands. The following year, the Ellice Islands became the separate
British colony of Tuvalu. Independence was granted in 1978. In 2000,
Tuvalu negotiated a contract leasing its Internet domain name ".tv"
for $50 million in royalties over a 12-year period.
Uganda
The colonial boundaries created by Britain to delimit Uganda
grouped together a wide range of ethnic groups with different
political systems and cultures. These differences prevented the
establishment of a working political community after independence
was achieved in 1962. The dictatorial regime of Idi AMIN (1971-79)
was responsible for the deaths of some 300,000 opponents; guerrilla
war and human rights abuses under Milton OBOTE (1980-85) claimed at
least another 100,000 lives. The rule of Yoweri MUSEVENI since 1986
has brought relative stability and economic growth to Uganda. During
the 1990s, the government promulgated non-party presidential and
legislative elections.
Ukraine
Ukraine was the center of the first eastern Slavic state,
Kyivan Rus, which during the 10th and 11th centuries was the largest
and most powerful state in Europe. Weakened by internecine quarrels
and Mongol invasions, Kyivan Rus was incorporated into the Grand
Duchy of Lithuania and eventually into the Polish-Lithuanian
Commonwealth. The cultural and religious legacy of Kyivan Rus laid
the foundation for Ukrainian nationalism through subsequent
centuries. A new Ukrainian state, the Cossack Hetmanate, was
established during the mid-17th century after an uprising against
the Poles. Despite continuous Muscovite pressure, the Hetmanate
managed to remain autonomous for well over 100 years. During the
latter part of the 18th century, most Ukrainian ethnographic
territory was absorbed by the Russian Empire. Following the collapse
of czarist Russia in 1917, Ukraine was able to bring about a
short-lived period of independence (1917-20), but was reconquered
and forced to endure a brutal Soviet rule that engineered two
artificial famines (1921-22 and 1932-33) in which over 8 million
died. In World War II, German and Soviet armies were responsible for
some 7 to 8 million more deaths. Although final independence for
Ukraine was achieved in 1991 with the dissolution of the USSR,
democracy remained elusive as the legacy of state control and
endemic corruption stalled efforts at economic reform,
privatization, and civil liberties. A peaceful mass protest "Orange
Revolution" in the closing months of 2004 forced the authorities to
overturn a rigged presidential election and to allow a new
internationally monitored vote that swept into power a reformist
slate under Viktor YUSHCHENKO. Subsequent internal squabbles in the
YUSHCHENKO camp allowed his rival Viktor YANUKOVYCH to stage a
comeback in parliamentary elections and become prime minister in
August of 2006. An early legislative election, brought on by a
political crisis in the spring of 2007, saw Yuliya TYMOSHENKO, as
head of an "Orange" coalition, installed as a new prime minister in
December 2007.
United Arab Emirates
The Trucial States of the Persian Gulf coast
granted the UK control of their defense and foreign affairs in 19th
century treaties. In 1971, six of these states - Abu Zaby, 'Ajman,
Al Fujayrah, Ash Shariqah, Dubayy, and Umm al Qaywayn - merged to
form the United Arab Emirates (UAE). They were joined in 1972 by
Ra's al Khaymah. The UAE's per capita GDP is on par with those of
leading West European nations. Its generosity with oil revenues and
its moderate foreign policy stance have allowed the UAE to play a
vital role in the affairs of the region.
United Kingdom
As the dominant industrial and maritime power of the
19th century, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland played
a leading role in developing parliamentary democracy and in
advancing literature and science. At its zenith, the British Empire
stretched over one-fourth of the earth's surface. The first half of
the 20th century saw the UK's strength seriously depleted in two
World Wars and the Irish republic withdraw from the union. The
second half witnessed the dismantling of the Empire and the UK
rebuilding itself into a modern and prosperous European nation. As
one of five permanent members of the UN Security Council, a founding
member of NATO, and of the Commonwealth, the UK pursues a global
approach to foreign policy; it currently is weighing the degree of
its integration with continental Europe. A member of the EU, it
chose to remain outside the Economic and Monetary Union for the time
being. Constitutional reform is also a significant issue in the UK.
The Scottish Parliament, the National Assembly for Wales, and the
Northern Ireland Assembly were established in 1999, but the latter
was suspended until May 2007 due to wrangling over the peace process.
United States
Britain's American colonies broke with the mother
country in 1776 and were recognized as the new nation of the United
States of America following the Treaty of Paris in 1783. During the
19th and 20th centuries, 37 new states were added to the original 13
as the nation expanded across the North American continent and
acquired a number of overseas possessions. The two most traumatic
experiences in the nation's history were the Civil War (1861-65), in
which a northern Union of states defeated a secessionist Confederacy
of 11 southern slave states, and the Great Depression of the 1930s,
an economic downturn during which about a quarter of the labor force
lost its jobs. Buoyed by victories in World Wars I and II and the
end of the Cold War in 1991, the US remains the world's most
powerful nation state. The economy is marked by steady growth, low
unemployment and inflation, and rapid advances in technology.
United States Pacific Island Wildlife Refuges
All of the following
US Pacific island territories except Midway Atoll constitute the
Pacific Remote Islands National Wildlife Refuge Complex and as such
are managed by the Fish and Wildlife Service of the US Department of
the Interior. Midway Atoll NWR has been included in a Refuge Complex
with the Hawaiian Islands NWR and also designated as part of
Papahanaumokuakea Marine National Monument. These remote refuges are
the most widespread collection of marine- and terrestrial-life
protected areas on the planet under a single country's jurisdiction.
They sustain many endemic species including corals, fish, shellfish,
marine mammals, seabirds, water birds, land birds, insects, and
vegetation not found elsewhere.
Baker Island: The US took possession of the island in 1857, and its
guano deposits were mined by US and British companies during the
second half of the 19th century. In 1935, a short-lived attempt at
colonization began on this island but was disrupted by World War II
and thereafter abandoned. The island was established as a National
Wildlife Refuge in 1974.
Howland Island: Discovered by the US early in the 19th century, the
uninhabited atoll was officially claimed by the US in 1857. Both US
and British companies mined for guano deposits until about 1890. In
1935, a short-lived attempt at colonization began on this island,
similar to the effort on nearby Baker Island, but was disrupted by
World War II and thereafter abandoned. The famed American aviatrix
Amelia EARHART disappeared while seeking out Howland Island as a
refueling stop during her 1937 round-the-world flight; Earhart
Light, a day beacon near the middle of the west coast, was named in
her memory. The island was established as a National Wildlife Refuge
in 1974.
Jarvis Island: First discovered by the British in 1821, the
uninhabited island was annexed by the US in 1858, but abandoned in
1879 after tons of guano had been removed. The UK annexed the island
in 1889, but never carried out plans for further exploitation. The
US occupied and reclaimed the island in 1935 until it was abandoned
in 1942 during World War II. The island was established as a
National Wildlife Refuge in 1974.
Johnston Atoll: Both the US and the Kingdom of Hawaii annexed
Johnston Atoll in 1858, but it was the US that mined the guano
deposits until the late 1880s. Johnston and Sand Islands were
designated wildlife refuges in 1926. The US Navy took over the atoll
in 1934, and subsequently the US Air Force assumed control in 1948.
The site was used for high-altitude nuclear tests in the 1950s and
1960s, and until late in 2000 the atoll was maintained as a storage
and disposal site for chemical weapons. Munitions destruction,
cleanup, and closure of the facility was completed by May 2005. The
Fish and Wildlife Service and the US Air Force are currently
discussing future management options; in the interim, Johnston Atoll
and the three-mile Naval Defensive Sea around it remain under the
jurisdiction and administrative control of the US Air Force.
Kingman Reef: The US annexed the reef in 1922. Its sheltered lagoon
served as a way station for flying boats on Hawaii-to-American Samoa
flights during the late 1930s. There are no terrestrial plants on
the reef, which is frequently awash, but it does support abundant
and diverse marine fauna and flora. In 2001, the waters surrounding
the reef out to 12 nm were designated a US National Wildlife Refuge.
Midway Islands: The US took formal possession of the islands in
1867. The laying of the trans-Pacific cable, which passed through
the islands, brought the first residents in 1903. Between 1935 and
1947, Midway was used as a refueling stop for trans-Pacific flights.
The US naval victory over a Japanese fleet off Midway in 1942 was
one of the turning points of World War II. The islands continued to
serve as a naval station until closed in 1993. Today the islands are
a National Wildlife Refuge and are the site of the world's largest
Laysan albatross colony.
Palmyra Atoll: The Kingdom of Hawaii claimed the atoll in 1862, and
the US included it among the Hawaiian Islands when it annexed the
archipelago in 1898. The Hawaii Statehood Act of 1959 did not
include Palmyra Atoll, which is now partly privately owned by the
Nature Conservancy with the rest owned by the Federal government and
managed by the US Fish and Wildlife Service. These organizations are
managing the atoll as a wildlife refuge. The lagoons and surrounding
waters within the 12 nm US territorial seas were transferred to the
US Fish and Wildlife Service and designated as a National Wildlife
Refuge in January 2001.
Uruguay
Montevideo, founded by the Spanish in 1726 as a military
stronghold, soon took advantage of its natural harbor to become an
important commercial center. Claimed by Argentina but annexed by
Brazil in 1821, Uruguay declared its independence four years later
and secured its freedom in 1828 after a three-year struggle. The
administrations of President Jose BATLLE in the early 20th century
established widespread political, social, and economic reforms that
established a statist tradition. A violent Marxist urban guerrilla
movement named the Tupamaros, launched in the late 1960s, led
Uruguay's president to cede control of the government to the
military in 1973. By yearend, the rebels had been crushed, but the
military continued to expand its hold over the government. Civilian
rule was not restored until 1985. In 2004, the left-of-center Frente
Amplio Coalition won national elections that effectively ended 170
years of political control previously held by the Colorado and
Blanco parties. Uruguay's political and labor conditions are among
the freest on the continent.
Uzbekistan
Russia conquered Uzbekistan in the late 19th century.
Stiff resistance to the Red Army after World War I was eventually
suppressed and a socialist republic set up in 1924. During the
Soviet era, intensive production of "white gold" (cotton) and grain
led to overuse of agrochemicals and the depletion of water supplies,
which have left the land poisoned and the Aral Sea and certain
rivers half dry. Independent since 1991, the country seeks to
gradually lessen its dependence on agriculture while developing its
mineral and petroleum reserves. Current concerns include terrorism
by Islamic militants, economic stagnation, and the curtailment of
human rights and democratization.
Vanuatu
Multiple waves of colonizers, each speaking a distinct
language, migrated to the New Hebrides in the millennia preceding
European exploration in the 18th century. This settlement pattern
accounts for the complex linguistic diversity found on the
archipelago to this day. The British and French, who settled the New
Hebrides in the 19th century, agreed in 1906 to an Anglo-French
Condominium, which administered the islands until independence in
1980, when the new name of Vanuatu was adopted.