SOME RECENT TENDENCIES IN SCIENCE
SCIENTIFIC METHOD.--In the last chapter, attention was drawn to some
important attempts to supply science with a sound philosophy of method,
i.e. to give a critical account of those processes, logical and
otherwise, which issue in what is called "scientific knowledge."
The general results of these attempts was to re-enforce the validity of
sound scientific method _within its own sphere_. But, at the same time,
it was felt likely to prove an unreliable guide elsewhere.
THE NEW PHYSICS.--Meanwhile, while the logic of science was being
scrutinised by philosophers, scientific research was itself going
steadily forward, and fresh discoveries of a highly important nature
were coming to light. In the sphere of physical science, more
especially, revolutions of Copernican proportions quietly took place.
The whole subject of physics is of a highly technical nature, quite
unsuitable for discussion here, and, indeed, entirely beyond the range
of the present writer.
To indicate the nature of the discoveries which were made, however,
involves few technicalities: though the method by which these were
demonstrated and established must remain obscure to all but mathematical
specialists.
COLLAPSE OF THE ATOMIC THEORY.--Dalton's theory of atoms was described
in a previous chapter. It is hardly possible to exaggerate the
importance attached by materialists, ever since Lucretius, to the
conception of indivisible and indestructible atoms. It was regarded as
integral to materialism, and never was the prestige of this theory
higher than during the nineteenth century, which "will go down in
scientific history as the era of the atomic theory of matter."
Towards the close of the century, the theory collapsed. Atoms were found
to be neither indivisible nor indestructible; and the process of the
breaking up of the atom has actually been observed.
As is very generally known, it is in the case of a particular element,
_radium_, that this phenomenon occurs. That substance, wherever it
occurs, is undergoing a continual process of disintegration; radium
atoms are continually breaking up into more elementary bodies.
Were it not for the fact that radium itself is the product of the
disintegration of another element, it would be impossible to account for
its survival. It continually evaporates (the life of radium is only 2500
years) but it is as continually renewed by the infinitely slower
disintegration of uranium.
ELECTRONS.--The particles into which the radium atom disintegrates are
known as _electrons_. And according to the new theory of matter, not
only radium atoms, but the atoms of all the other elements (hitherto
regarded as irreducible) are composed of electrons, differently grouped.
The radium atom is infinitely more unstable than the atoms of the other
elements; but it is possible to conceive of the disintegration of these
also. They are all alike composed of the same elementary
particles--different compounds of the same primitive substance.
MATTER A FORM OF ELECTRICITY.--And the most remarkable part of the new
theory is that these primitive particles of which material atoms are
composed, are themselves the units which constitute what we call
"electricity." Thus matter and electricity are now expressed in common
terms--they are regarded as different manifestations of the same
substance. And of the two conceptions--matter and electricity--it is the
latter that is the more simple and fundamental. As a high authority puts
it:
"Whereas through the greater part of the nineteenth century, 'matter'
was the concept which was looked upon as fundamental in physical
science, and of which there was a curious accidental property called
electricity, it now appears that electricity must be more fundamental
than matter, in the sense that our more elementary matter must now be
conceived as a manifestation of extremely complex electrical
phenomena."[64]
As to whether the electrons themselves, in their turn, are irreducible
units, there may be room for doubt. According to Professor J. Larmor the
electron is "a nucleus of intrinsic strain in the ether."[65] If this
view be sound, matter may be regarded as a manifestation of the ether;
"a persistent strain-form flitting through an universal sea of ether."
As to the nature of the ether, that is a subject of speculation among
physicists. It is variously described as an "elastic fluid," and as "a
fairly close packed conglomerate of minute grains in continual
oscillation."[66] It may indeed be said that modern physical theories
have succeeded in reducing matter, which seems comparatively knowable,
to a substance of which little is known and, therefore, of which much
can be postulated; it can be called sub-natural, or super-natural,
according to taste.
We may, perhaps, satisfy ourselves with the words of Professor Tait: "We
do not know, and are probably incapable of discovering, _what_ matter
is"; and "The discovery of the ultimate nature of matter is probably
beyond the range of human intelligence."[67]
And yet we can agree with Mr. Arthur Balfour when he says[68] "we know
too much about matter to be materialists." That, in itself, a generation
ago would have been regarded as a large admission from the standpoint of
physical science.
RESULTS OF THE NEW PHYSICS.--The reduction of knowable and tangible
matter to intangible electricity or unknowable ether may not seem to be
much of an advance from the point of view of those who are interested in
establishing a spiritual theory of the universe. But electricity is a
species of energy which can be expressed in terms of will--which is the
only kind of energy that we are acquainted with at first hand. "What is
objectively energy is subjectively will; or, in other words, manifested
energy is the visibility of will."[69] And so far as the "unknowable"
ether is concerned, it gives less scope to those powers of dogmatism,
the exercise of which characterised scientists of the old materialistic
school; and it is the habit of oracular pronouncements which does the
harm, by rendering any intellectual or spiritual progress impossible. In
any case, whatever be the substitute which is to replace the old theory,
we may congratulate ourselves, with Professor J. S. Haldane, that "we
have parted once for all with the notion of a real and self-existent
Material universe; and we must remember where we now are."[70]
THE NEW BIOLOGY.--But if the results of the new physics have been
disturbing to those who had hoped that materialism was a finally
established theory, the results of recent biological research have been
equally embarrassing to them. The anti-mechanistic trend of recent
biological theory is only too evident. The organism is regarded no
longer by the majority of biologists as fully explicable in terms of
mechanics and chemistry. To quote Professor Haldane again, "The main
outstanding fact is that the mechanistic account of the universe breaks
down completely in connection with the phenomena of life.... In the case
of life, the facts are inconsistent with the physical and chemical
account of phenomena."[71]
The organism can no longer be regarded as even an extremely complex kind
of machine; that word will not cover the facts, and biologists are
compelled to look elsewhere for a less misleading terminology. To
describe the organism as a machine, is to give to that word a very
comprehensive connotation. For the organism is a machine different in
kind from any that has been constructed by man; it is "a self-stoking,
self-repairing, self-preservative, self-adjusting, self-increasing,
self-producing engine."[72]
THE RESEARCHES OF DRIESCH.--Just as modern physics is concerned with the
infinitely small--the ultra-microscopic, in fact--so modern biologists
are concentrating attention upon microscopic organisms, where life is
seen at its lowest terms, and where (if anywhere) they may expect to
discover what are the _differentia_ of life, i.e. what are the qualities
that distinguish living organic from inorganic matter. Perhaps the most
notable of the researches conducted in this sphere, of recent years,
have been those of Professor Driesch, who expounded his results in the
_Gifford Lectures_ for 1907-1908 (_The Science and Philosophy of the
Organism_).
The phenomena upon which Driesch lays considerable stress are those
which occur upon a division of certain living embryos. An embryo, when
cut in half, displays remarkable powers of self-adjustment and continued
development. Each half can, as it were, regulate itself, and make a
fresh start; a process which results in two self-contained organisms,
though of smaller size than would have resulted from a single undivided
organism. The cells which compose the organism seem able to adapt
themselves to whatever demands are made upon them. Like workmen building
a bridge, all of them _can_ do every single act--if need arise--and the
result of their labours is a perfect bridge, even if some of the workmen
fall sick or are killed or injured in an accident.
Driesch sums up the results of his researches by saying:
"There is something in the organism's behaviour--in the widest sense of
the word--which is opposed to an inorganic resolution of the same (i.e.
to its complete expression in terms of chemistry and physics), and which
shows that the living organism is more than a sum or aggregate of its
parts; that it is insufficient to call the organism 'a typically
combined body' (i.e., a machine), without further explanation."[73]
THE PROBLEM OF LIFE.--The problem is: What is it in an organism which
causes it to behave in a fashion so impossible for any machine? To
answer this question satisfactorily would be to have solved the mystery
of life. Biologists do not answer the question; they do not say what
this peculiar potency is, but they give it a name. Driesch calls it
_entelechy_, i.e. "purposiveness," and he also speaks of _psychoids_,
i.e. "primitive minds." Names do not carry us very far; but the mere
fact that biologists have gone to the trouble of providing a name, is
important. It constitutes an admission on their part that there is
something mysterious about the organism; for it has been a principle of
modern science since the days of Galileo never to appeal to mysterious
causes if known ones can be found. The _deus ex machina_ method seems to
them fundamentally unsound, and so it is. If every difficulty were
considered solved merely by the word "mystery," knowledge would never
advance. Labelled ignorance is still ignorance. It is not names, but
things that are important. But in this particular instance the
application of the name _entelechy_ indicates that, in the opinion of
such an authority as Driesch, at any rate, something exists which no
merely physical or chemical term can completely describe. And Driesch
is typical of the trend of much modern biology. It is only the very
extreme optimists who now look for a final explanation of the living
organism in terms of physics and chemistry.
RESULTS OF THE NEW BIOLOGY.--But if life resists all attempts to reduce
it to matter and motion, we are confronted with the breakdown of the
mechanical theory of the universe, which has been slowly but
progressively elaborated since the days of Leonardo da Vinci, and
applied impartially to the organic and the inorganic spheres. But this
ultra-dogmatic theory now seems too cramped to contain the facts; even
scientists resent the claims of materialist-mechanical orthodoxy. Some
indeed adopt not merely a critical, but a provocative attitude, and seek
to discredit the prestige of mechanics. Professor J. S. Haldane not only
vindicates the freedom, but prophesies the speedy advance of biology to
a position of pre-eminence. Not only are biological phenomena
irreducible to terms of mechanics, but it is mechanics that will have to
be re-interpreted in terms of biology.
"It is at least evident that the extension of biological conceptions to
the whole of nature may be much nearer than seemed conceivable even a
few years ago. When the day of that extension comes, the physical and
chemical world as we now conceive it--the world of atoms and
energy--will be recognised as nothing but an appearance ... it will
stand confessed as a world of abstractions like that of the pure
mathematicians."[74]
THE NEW PSYCHOLOGY.--Not only physical and biological, but psychological
science will contribute very largely to the reconstruction of view which
is now taking place. Particular attention is due to those branches of
psychology which deal experimentally with the subconscious, with
instincts, with the phenomena of thought transference, psychotherapy,
and of so-called "spiritualism." In none of these spheres can research
yet be said to have proceeded far enough to justify the luxury of
dogmatising over results. Considerable confusion of opinion may still
exist, but it is now generally recognised that there is a wide sphere of
research in psychical regions which is practically a _terra incognita_.
And those most competent to judge of results seem to be most cautious in
their statements. We are in the position of not knowing what a day may
bring forth; and an expectant agnosticism with regard to many problems
is perhaps the right attitude to adopt. The somewhat arrogant negations
of the last generation are now out of place; they were never, in the
strict sense, scientific, and they are now demodes. It is extremely
difficult to imagine a return to the view which dismisses "mind"
from the universe as being an obscure by-product of matter, or a
comparatively insignificant "epiphenomenon" accompanying certain obscure
chemical or mechanical processes. The old theories, gratifying in their
simplicity, will no longer cover the facts.
PSYCHICAL RESEARCH.--One particular branch of experimental psychology,
which has attracted a large measure of public attention, calls for a few
remarks. The attempt has been made to give experimental proof of the
existence of "disembodied spirits," human or otherwise. The whole
subject, exceptionally exposed as it is to the influence of prejudices
of various kinds, requires to be treated with great caution, and it is
inadvisable, in the present condition of the problem, to make dogmatic
statements in any direction.
What appears to be certain is that the occurrence is well established of
various _phenomena_ which it is extremely difficult to explain in
accordance with our present knowledge of matter, of space, or of mental
action.
The occurrence of such phenomena is no longer disputed; but it is over
the _explanation_ of them that controversy is active. And it seems quite
certain that the very least in the way of concessions that these new
facts will force from conservative scientists is _a radical revision of
current notions of the range of human mental action_. The mind is
evidently capable of producing certain effects--even upon matter--which
would have seemed incredible a short while ago.
So much is the least that may be expected. But in the view of many
competent and highly scientific observers, some far more radical
revision of our notions may be necessary. Some scientists of good repute
(e.g. Sir Oliver Lodge, in England, and Flammarion and others on the
Continent) are convinced that the facts can only adequately be explained
by reference to another world--interlocked, as it were, with this.[75]
And it has to be admitted that this, what may be called more "advanced"
explanation, is more in accordance than the other with a rather
universal tradition or assumption of mankind in all ages.
It will be easily seen that the whole subject is one of the most extreme
difficulty. There is a general hesitancy in accepting what is called the
"spirit hypothesis," so long as any other can be found; a hesitancy
justified in view of the extreme complexity of the world we live in
(where so much is even yet unknown), and in view of the great difficulty
which there seems to be in adducing _exact_ proofs of the "spirit
theory."
A REASONABLE ATTITUDE.--We shall, no doubt, be wise at present to refuse
to cry "Proven," and whilst admitting that all things are
possible--perhaps even probable--to await with patience the results of
further investigation.
It has to be admitted that, while many people are superstitious and
easily attracted by picturesque theories, there are others who are as
prejudiced, in their way, against new ideas, as were those astronomers
who, being committed to Ptolemaic views, refused to look through
Galileo's telescope. It is not only theologians who have, in the history
of thought, been guilty of obscurantism. In the early days of hypnotic
experiments the scientific world in general "pooh-poohed" the idea of
hypnotism; and it took a considerable time before it would allow itself
to be convinced that such a thing was possible. Facts, in the end, were
too strong even for prejudice. It is facts, eventually, that decide
matters; and, no doubt, before a very long period has elapsed,
sufficient facts will have accumulated to allow the scientific world to
form more definite and better-grounded opinions than are possible
to-day.
Meanwhile, the ordinary man will do well to remember that the universe
is really a very wonderful place, and that the knowledge of the wisest
of us about it can only be described as infinitesimal. The traditions of
nineteenth-century materialism are still strong amongst us, even with
those who are least conscious of them. But there are more things in
heaven and earth than are dreamt of in that philosophy.
RESULTS.--These new conceptions of matter, of life, and of mind, which
are the products of the new physics, the new biology, and the new
psychology respectively, may be confidently left to themselves to work
out their own salvation. They have the strength of youth. What is
evident is that we have crossed the threshold of a new era in the
history of science. The outlook of the future will be as different from
that of the recent past as was the new science of Galileo, Descartes,
and Newton from the dogmatic but fanciful notions which the Scholastic
theologians had borrowed from Aristotle, and sought to impose as a
permanent revelation.
The current of thought is never stayed. The future is obscure, but one
thing is certain, that the coming generations will see catastrophic
changes in the outlook of science; and the materialistic and mechanistic
_weltanschauung_, which lately seemed so formidable, may soon become as
superannuated as astrology. The theory which overshadowed the religious
life of a century, and which had become more and more menacing as
scientific knowledge increased in extent and popularity, has fallen into
discredit. Its prestige will not revive.