Tyrolese peasants use fern-seed to discover buried gold and to prevent

money from decreasing, ii. 288

—— story of a girl who was forbidden to see the sun, i. 72

Ualaroi, the, of the Darling River, their belief as to initiation, ii. 233

Uaupes of Brazil, seclusion of girls at puberty among the, i. 61

Uganda, kings of, not allowed to set foot on ground, i. 3 _sq._;

life of the king of, bound up with barkcloth trees, ii. 160;

passage of sick man through a cleft stick or a narrow opening in, 181

_sq._;

cure for lightning-stroke in, 298 _n._ 2

_See also_ Baganda

Uisnech, in County Meath, great fair at, i. 158

Uist, Beltane cakes in, i. 154

——, North, need-fire in, i. 293 _sq._

——, South, fairies at Hallowe’en in, i. 226;

salt cake at Hallowe’en in, 238 _sq._

Uiyumkwi tribe, their treatment of girls at puberty, i. 39 _sq._

Ukami, in German East Africa, ii. 313

_Ukpong_, external soul in Calabar, ii. 206

Ulad Bu Aziz, Arab tribe in Morocco, their Midsummer fires, i. 214

Umbrellas in ritual, i. 20 _n._ 1, 31

Uncleanness, ceremonial, among the Indians of Costa Rica, i. 65 _n._ 1;

and sanctity not clearly differentiated in the primitive mind, 97 _sq._

Uncleanness of women at menstruation, i. 76 _sqq._

_See also_ Menstruous

Unguent made from fat of crocodiles and snakes, i. 14

Universal healer, name given to mistletoe, ii. 77

Unlucky, Midsummer Day regarded as, ii. 29

—— children passed through narrow openings, ii. 190

Unmasking a were-wolf or witch by wounding him or her, i. 315, 321

Unmatjera tribe of Central Australia, their rites of initiation, ii. 234;

initiation of a medicine-man in the, 238

Up-helly-a’, at Lerwick, i. 269 _n._

Uraons. _See_ Oraons

Urabunna tribe of Central Australia, their rites of initiation, ii. 234

_Ustrels_, a species of vampyre in Bulgaria, i. 284

Vagney, in the Vosges, Christmas custom at, i. 254

Vagueness and inconsistency of primitive thought, ii. 301 _sq._

Val di Ledro, effigy burnt in the, at Carnival, i. 120

Valais, the canton of, Midsummer fires in, i. 172;

cursing a mist in, 280

Valenciennes, Lenten fire-custom at, i. 114 _n._ 4

Valentines at bonfires, i. 109 _sq._

Vallancey, General Charles, on Hallowe’en customs in Ireland, i. 241 _sq._

Vallée des Bagnes, cursing a mist in the, i. 280

Vampyres, need-fire kindled as a safeguard against, i. 284 _sqq._, 344

Vapour bath, i. 40

Var, Midsummer fires in the French department of, i. 193

Varro, on the fire-walk of the Hirpi Sorani, ii. 14 _n._ 3

Vase, external soul of habitual criminal in a, ii. 145 _sq._

Vecoux, in the Vosges, i. 254

Vedic hymns, the fire-god Agni in the, ii. 295 _sq._

Vegetables at Midsummer, their fertilizing influence on women, ii. 51

Vegetation, spirit of, burnt in effigy, ii. 21 _sq._;

reasons for burning, 23;

leaf-clad representative of, burnt, 25

—— -spirits, W. Mannhardt’s view that the victims burnt by the Druids

represented, ii. 43

Velten, C., on an African Balder, ii. 312 _sq._

_Verbascum_, mullein, gathered at Midsummer, ii. 63 _sq._;

its relation to the sun, 64

_Verbena officinalis_, vervain, gathered at Midsummer, ii. 62

Verges, in the Jura, Lenten fire-custom at, i. 114 _sq._

Vermin exorcized with torches, i. 340

_Versipellis_, a were-wolf, i. 314 _n._ 1

Vervain, garlands or chaplets of, at Midsummer, i. 162, 163, 165;

burnt in the Midsummer fires, 195;

used in exorcism, ii. 62 _n._ 4;

a protection against thunder and lightning, sorcerers, demons, and

thieves, 62;

gathered at Midsummer, 62

Vespasian family, the oak of the, ii. 168

Vesper-bell on Midsummer Eve, ii. 62

Vessels, special, used by menstruous women, i. 86, 90;

used by girls at puberty, 93

Vesta, sacred fire in the temple of, annually kindled, i. 138;

the fire of, at Rome, fed with oak-wood, ii. 91, 286

Vestal Virgins relit the sacred fire of Vesta, i. 138;

their rule of celibacy, 138 _n._ 5

Vestini, the ancient, i. 209

Veth, P. J., on the Golden Bough, ii. 319

Victims, human, claimed by St. John on St. John’s Day (Midsummer Day), i.

27, 29;

claimed by water at Midsummer, ii. 26 _sqq._

Victoria, aborigines of, their custom as to emu fat, i. 13;

their dread of women at menstruation, 77 _sq._

—— sex totems in, ii. 217

Vidovec in Croatia, Midsummer fires at, i. 178

Vienne, department of, Midsummer fires in the, i. 191;

the Yule log in, 251

_Vilavou_, New Year’s Men, name given to newly initiated lads in Fiji, ii.

244

Village surrounded with a ring of fire as a protection against an evil

spirit, i. 282

Vimeux, Lenten fires at, i. 113

Vintage, omens of, i. 164

Vipers sacred to balsam trees in Arabia, ii. 44 _n._ 1

Virbius at Nemi interpreted as an oak-spirit, ii. 295

Virgil, on the fire-walk of the Hirpi Sorani, ii. 14;

his account of the Golden Bough, 284 _sq._, 286, 293 _sq._, 315 _sqq._

Virgin, the, blesses the fruits of the earth, i. 118;

the hair of the Holy, found in ashes of Midsummer fire, 182 _sq._, 191;

feast of the Nativity of the, 220 _sq._;

and child supposed to sit on the Yule log, 253 _sq._

Virgins of the Sun at Cuzco, i. 132;

the Vestal, and the sacred fire, 136

Virginia, rites of initiation among the Indians of, ii. 266 _sq._

Virginity, test of, by blowing up a flame, i. 137 _n._

Virility supposed to be lost by contact with menstruous women, i. 81

_Viscum album_, common mistletoe, ii. 315 _sqq._;

_Viscum quernum_, 317

Visiter, the Christmas, i. 261 _sq._, 263, 264

Viti Levu, the largest of the Fijian Islands, ii. 243

Vitrolles, bathing at Midsummer in, i. 194

Vogel Mountains, i. 118

Voigtland, bonfires on Walpurgis Night in, i. 160;

tree and person thrown into water on St. John’s Day in, ii. 27 _sq._;

divination by flowers on Midsummer Eve in, 53;

mountain arnica gathered at Midsummer in, 57 _sq._;

wild thyme gathered at Midsummer in, 64;

precautions against witches in, 73 _sq._

Volga, the Cheremiss of the, i. 181

Volksmarsen in Hesse, Easter fires at, i. 140

_Voluspa_, the Sibyl’s prophecy in the, i. 102 _sq._

Voralberg, in the Tyrol, “burning the witch” at, i. 116

Vorges, near Laon, Midsummer fires at, i. 187

Vosges, Midsummer fires in the, i. 188, 336;

the Yule log in the, 254;

cats burnt alive on Shrove Tuesday in the, ii. 40

—— Mountains, Lenten fires in the, i. 109;

witches as hares in the, 318;

magic herbs culled on Eve of St. John in the, ii. 47

_Vrid-eld_, need-fire, i. 280

Vultures, lives of persons bound up with those of, ii. 201, 202

Wadai, ceremony of the new fire in, i. 134, 140

Wadoe, the, of German East Africa, ii. 312

Wafiomi, seclusion of girls at puberty among the, i. 28

Wagstadt in Silesia, Judas ceremony at, i. 146 _n._ 3

Wajagga, the, of German East Africa, birth-plants among the, ii. 160

Wakelbura tribe (Australia), dread and seclusion of women at menstruation

in the, i. 78

Wakondyo, their custom as to the afterbirth, ii. 162 _sq._

Wales, Snake Stones in, i. 15 _sq._;

Beltane fires and cakes in, 155 _sq._;

Midsummer fires in, 200 _sq._;

divination at Hallowe’en in, 229, 240 _sq._;

Hallowe’en fires in, 239 _sq._;

the Yule log in, 258;

burnt sacrifices to stop cattle-disease in, 301;

witches as hares in, 315 _n._ 1;

belief as to witches in, 321 _n._ 2;

bewitched things burnt in, 322;

divination by flowers on Midsummer Eve in, ii. 53;

St. John’s wort in, 55;

mistletoe to be shot or knocked down with stones in, 82;

mistletoe cut at Midsummer in, 86;

mistletoe used to make the dairy thrive in, 86;

Beltane fire kindled by the friction of oak-wood in, 91;

mistletoe gathered at Midsummer in, 293

Walhalla, i. 101

Walking over fire as a rite, ii. 3 _sqq._

Walls, fortified, of the ancient Gauls, i. 267 _sq._

Walnut, branches of, passed across Midsummer fires and fastened on

cattle-sheds, i. 191

Walos of Senegambia, their belief as to a sort of mistletoe, ii. 79 _sq._

Walpi, Pueblo Indian village, use of bull-roarers at, ii. 231

Walpurgis Day, i. 143

—— Night, witches abroad on, i. 159 _sq._;

a witching time, 295;

precautions against witches on, ii. 20 _n._;

witches active on, 73, 74

Wangen in Baden, Lenten fire-custom at, i. 117

Wanyamwezi, their belief as to wounded crocodiles, ii. 210 _n._ 1

Warlock, the invulnerable, stories of, ii. 97 _sqq._

Warriors tabooed, i. 5

Warwickshire, the Yule log in, i. 257

Washamba, the, of German East Africa, their custom at circumcision, ii.

183

Washington State, seclusion of girls at puberty among the Indians of, i.

43

Wasmes, processions with torches at, i. 108

Wasp, external soul of enchanter in a, ii. 143

Wasps, young men stung with, as an ordeal, i. 63

Wassgow mountains, the need-fire in the, i. 271

Water from sacred wells, i. 12;

menstruous women not to go near, 77;

consecrated at Easter, 122 _sqq._, 125;

turned to wine at Easter, 124;

improved by charred sticks of Midsummer fires, 184;

at Midsummer, people drenched with, 193 _sq._;

heated in need-fire and sprinkled on cattle, 289;

claims human victims at Midsummer, ii. 26 _sqq._;

supposed to acquire certain marvellous properties at Midsummer, 29

_sqq._;

haunted and dangerous at Midsummer, 31

Water of life, ii. 114 _sq._

—— of springs thought to acquire medicinal qualities on Midsummer Eve, i.

172

——, rites of, at Midsummer festival in Morocco, i. 216;

at New Year in Morocco, 218

—— spirits, offerings to, at Midsummer, ii. 28

Wayanas of French Guiana, ordeals among the, i. 63 _sq._

Weariness, magical plants placed in shoes a charm against, ii. 54, 60

Weaver, the wicked, of Rotenburg, ii. 289 _sq._

Weeks, Rev. John H., on rites of initiation on the Lower Congo, ii. 255

_n._ 1

Weeping of girl at puberty, i. 24, 29

Weidenhausen, in Westphalia, the Yule log at, i. 248

Wells, sacred, in Scotland, i. 12;

menstruous women kept from, 81, 96 _sq._;

charred sticks of Midsummer fires thrown into, 184;

crowned with flowers at Midsummer, ii. 28

——, holy, resorted to on Midsummer Eve in Ireland, i. 205 _sq._

——, the Lord of the, ii. 28

Welsh cure for whooping-cough, ii. 180, 192 _n._ 1

—— name, alleged, for mistletoe, ii. 286 _n._ 3

_See also_ Wales

Wends, their faith in Midsummer herbs, ii. 54

—— of Saxony, their idea as to wood of trees struck by lightning, ii. 297

—— of the Spreewald gather herbs and flowers at Midsummer, ii. 48;

their belief as to the divining-rod, 68 _n._ 4

Wensley-dale, the Yule log in, i. 256

Were-tigers in China and the East Indies, i. 310 _sq._, 313 _n._ 1

—— -wolf, how a man becomes a, i. 310 _n._ 1;

story in Petronius, 313 _sq._

—— -wolves compelled to resume their human shape by wounds inflicted on

them, i. 308 _sqq._;

put to death, 311;

and the full moon, 314 _n._ 1;

and witches, parallelism between, 315, 321

Werner, Miss Alice, on a soul-box, ii. 156 _n._ 1;

on African Balders, 314

Westenberg, J. C., on the Batta theory of souls, ii. 223 _n._ 2

Westermarck, Dr. Edward, on New Year rites in Morocco, i. 218;

on Midsummer festival in North Africa, 219;

his theory that the fires of the fire-festivals are purificatory, 329

_sq._;

on water at Midsummer, ii. 31

Westphalia, Easter fires in, i. 140;

the Yule log in, 248;

divination by orpine at Midsummer in, ii. 61;

camomile gathered at Midsummer in, 63;

the Midsummer log of oak in, 92 _n._ 1

Wetteren, wicker giants at, ii. 35

_Wetterpfähle_, oak sticks charred in Easter bonfires, i. 145

Wexford, Midsummer fires in, i. 203

Whalton, in Northumberland, Midsummer fires at, i. 198

Wheat thrown on the man who brings in the Christmas log, i. 260, 262, 264;

protected against mice by mugwort, ii. 58 _sq._

Wheel, fire kindled by the rotation of a, i. 177, 179, 270, 273, 289

_sq._, 292, 335 _sq._, ii. 91;

as a symbol of the sun, i. 334 _n._ 1, 335;

as a charm against witchcraft, 345 _n._ 3

——, burning, rolled down hill, i. 116, 117 _sq._, 119, 141, 143, 161, 162

_sq._, 163 _sq._, 166, 173, 174, 201, 328, 334, 337 _sq._,

338;

thrown into the air at Midsummer, 179;

rolled over fields at Midsummer to fertilize them, 191, 340 _sq._;

perhaps intended to burn witches, 345

Wherry, Mrs., i. 108 _n._ 2, ii. 36 _n._ 1

Whips cracked to drive away witches, ii. 74

Whitby, the Yule log at, i. 256

White, Rev. G. E., on passing through a ring of red-hot iron, ii. 186;

on passing sheep through a rifted rock, 189 _sq._

White birds, ten, external soul in, ii. 142

—— bulls sacrificed by Druids at cutting the mistletoe, ii. 77

—— chalk, bodies of newly initiated lads coated with, ii. 241

—— clay, bodies of novices at initiation smeared with, ii. 255 _n._ 1, 257

—— cloth, fern-seed caught in a, i. 65, ii. 291;

springwort caught in a, i. 70;

mistletoe caught in a, ii. 77, 293;

used to catch the Midsummer bloom of the oak, 292, 293

—— cock burnt in Midsummer bonfire, ii. 40

—— herb, external souls of two brothers in a, ii. 143

—— horse, effigy of, carried through Midsummer fire, i. 203

—— Sunday, i. 117 _n._ 1

Whiteborough, in Cornwall, Midsummer fires on, i. 199

Whooping-cough cured by crawling under a bramble, ii. 180;

Bulgarian cure for, 181;

child passed under an ass as a cure for, 192

Wicked Sower, driving away the, i. 107, 118

Wicken (rowan) tree, a protection against witchcraft, i. 326, 327 _n._ 1

Wicker giants at popular festivals in Europe, ii. 33 _sqq._;

burnt in summer bonfires, 38

Wiesensteig, in Swabia, witch as horse at, i. 319

“Wild fire,” the need-fire, i. 272, 273, 277

Wilde, Lady, her description of Midsummer fires in Ireland, i. 204 _sq._

Wilken, G. A., on the external soul, ii. 96 _n._ 1

Wilkes, Charles, on seclusion of girls at puberty, i. 43

Will-fire, or need-fire, i. 288, 297

Willow, mistletoe growing on, ii. 79, 315, 316;

children passed through a cleft willow-tree as a cure, 170;

crawling through a hoop of willow branches as a cure, 184;

crawling under the root of a willow as a cure, 181;

Orpheus and the, 294

Wimmer, F., on the various sorts of mistletoe known to the ancients, ii.

318

Winamwanga, seclusion of girls at puberty among the, i. 24 _sq._;

their custom as to lightning-kindled fire, ii. 297 _sq._

Wind, bull-roarers sounded to raise a, ii. 232

Window, magic flowers to be passed through the, ii. 52

Wine thought to be spoiled by menstruous women, i. 96

Winenthal in Switzerland, new fire made by friction at Midsummer in the,

i. 169 _sq._

Winnebagoes, ritual of death and resurrection among the, ii. 268

Winnowing-basket, divination by, i. 236

Winter solstice, Persian festival of fire at the, i. 269

“Winter’s Grandmother,” burning the, i. 116

Winterbottom, Thomas, on a secret society of Sierra Leone, ii. 260

Wintun Indians of California, seclusion of girls among the, i. 42 _sq._

Witch, burning the, i. 116, 118 _sq._;

effigy of, burnt in bonfire, 159;

compelled to appear by burning an animal or part of an animal which she

has bewitched, 303, 305, 307 _sq._, 321 _sq._;

in form of a toad, 323.

_See also_ Witches

Witch, MacCrauford, the great arch, i. 293

“—— -shot,” a sudden stiffness in the back, i. 343 _n._, 345

Witch’s herb, St. John’s wort, ii. 56 _n._ 1

“—— nest,” a tangle of birch-branches, ii. 185

Witchcraft, bonfires a protection against, i. 108, 109;

holy water a protection against, 123;

cattle driven through Midsummer fire as a protection against, 175;

burs and mugwort a preservative against, 177, ii. 59 _sq._;

Midsummer fires a protection against, i. 185, 188;

a broom a protection against, 210;

need-fire kindled to counteract, 280, 292 _sq._, 293, 295;

in Devonshire, 302;

great dread of, in Europe, 340;

the fire-festivals regarded as a protection against, 342;

stiffness in the back attributed to, 343 _n._, 345;

colic and sore eyes attributed to, 344;

a wheel a charm against, 345 _n._;

thought to be the source of almost all calamities, ii. 19 _sq._;

leaping over bonfires as a protection against, 40;

its treatment by the Christian Church, 42;

and sorcery, Midsummer herbs and flowers a protection against, 45, 46,

49, 54, 55, 59, 60, 62, 64, 65, 66, 67, 72;

St. John’s wort a protection against, 54;

dwarf-elder used to detect, 64;

fern root a protection against, 67;

mistletoe a protection against, 85 _sq._, 282, 283, 294;

fatal to milk and butter, 86;

oak log a protection against, 92;

the rowan a protection against, i. 327 _n._ 1, ii. 184 _n._ 4, 185, 281;

children passed through a ring of yarn as a protection against, 185;

a “witch’s nest” (tangle of birch-branches) a protection against, 185.

_See also_ Sorcery

Witches not allowed to touch the bare ground, i. 5 _sq._;

burnt and beheaded, 6;

effigies of, burnt in bonfires, 107, 116 _sq._, 118 _sq._, 342, ii. 43;

charm to protect fields against, i. 121;

Beltane fires a protection against, 154;

cast spells on cattle, 154;

steal milk from cows, 154, 176, 343, ii. 74;

in the form of hares and cats, i. 157, 315 _n._ 1, 316 _sqq._, 317, 318,

319 _sq._, ii. 41, 311;

burnt on May Day, i. 157, 159, 160;

fires to burn the witches on the Eve of May Day (Walpurgis Night), 159

_sq._, ii. 20 _n._;

abroad on Walpurgis Night, i. 159 _sq._;

kept out by crosses, 160 _n._ 1;

driving away the, 160, 170, 171;

resort to the Blocksberg, 171;

Midsummer fires a protection against, 176, 180;

steal milk and butter at Midsummer, 185;

on Midsummer Eve, 210, ii. 19;

active on Hallowe’en and May Day, 19, 73 _sqq._, 184 _n._ 4, 185;

burnt in Hallowe’en fires, i. 232 _sq._;

abroad at Hallowe’en, 226, 245;

the Yule log a protection against, 258;

thought to cause cattle disease, 302 _sq._;

transformed into animals, 315 _sqq._;

as cockchafers, 322;

come to borrow, 322, 323, ii. 73;

cause hail and thunder-storms, i. 344;

brought down from the clouds by shots and smoke, 345 _sq._;

burning missiles hurled at, 345;

burnt or banned by fire, ii. 19 _sq._;

gather noxious plants on Midsummer Eve, 47;

gather St. John’s wort on St. John’s Eve, 56;

purple loosestrife a protection against, 65;

tortured in India, 159;

animal familiars of, 202.

_See also_ “Burning the Witches”

Witches at Ipswich, i. 304 _sq._

—— and hares in Yorkshire, ii. 197

—— and were-wolves, parallelism between, i. 315. 321

—— and wizards thought to keep their strength in their hair, ii. 158

_sq._;

put to death by the Aztecs, 159

—— and wolves the two great foes dreaded by herdsmen in Europe, i. 343

“——, Burning the,” a popular name for the fires of the festivals, ii. 43

Witches’ Sabbath on the Eve of May Day and Midsummer Eve, i. 171 _n._ 3,

181, ii. 73, 74

“Withershins,” against the sun, in curses and excommunication, i. 234

Witurna, a spirit whose voice is heard in the sound of the bull-roarer,

ii. 234

Wizards gather baleful herbs on the Eve of St. John, ii. 47;

gather purple loosestrife at Midsummer, 65;

animal familiars of, 196 _sq._, 201 _sq._

Woden, Odin, or Othin, the father of Balder, i. 101, 102, 103 _n._ 1

Wolf, Brotherhood of the Green, at Jumièges in Normandy, i. 185 _sq._, ii.

15 _n._, 25

—— clan in North-Western America, ii. 270, 271, 272 _n._ 1

—— masks worn by members of a Wolf secret society, ii. 270 _sq._

—— society among the Nootka Indians, rite of initiation into the, ii. 270

_sq._

Wolf’s hide, strap of, used by were-wolves, i. 310_ n._ 1

Wolfeck, in Austria, leaf-clad mummer on Midsummer Day at, ii. 25 _sq._

Wolfenbüttel, need-fire near, i. 277

Wolves and witches, the two great foes dreaded by herdsmen in Europe, i.

343

Woman burnt alive as a witch in Ireland in 1895, i. 323 _sq._

Women in hard labour, charm to help, i. 14;

after childbirth tabooed, 20;

who do not menstruate supposed to make gardens barren, 24;

impregnated by the sun, 74 _sq._;

impregnated by the moon, 75 _sq._;

at menstruation painted red, 78;

leap over Midsummer bonfires to ensure an easy delivery, 194, 339;

fertilized by tree-spirits, ii. 22;

barren, hope to conceive through fertilizing influence of vegetables,

51;

creep through a rifted rock to obtain an easy delivery, 189;

not allowed to see bull-roarers, 234, 235, 242.

_See also_ Menstruous women

Wonghi or Wonghibon tribe of New South Wales, ritual of death and

resurrection at initiation among the, ii. 227

Wood, the King of the, at Nemi, i. 2, 285, 286, 295, 302, 309

Woodbine, sick children passed through a wreath of, ii. 184

Woodpecker brings the mythical springwort, ii. 70 _sq._

Wootton-Wawen, in Warwickshire, the Yule log at, i. 257

“Working for need-fire,” a proverb, i. 287 _sq._

Worms, popular cure for, i. 17

Wormwood (_Artemisia absinthium_), ii. 58 _n._ 3;

burnt to stupefy witches, i. 345;

superstitions concerning, ii. 61_ n._ 1

Worship of ancestors in Fiji, ii. 243 _sq._;

of the oak explained by the frequency with which oaks are struck by

lightning, 298 _sqq._

Worth, R. N., on burnt sacrifices in Devonshire, i. 302

Worthen, in Shropshire, the Yule log at, i. 257

Wotjobaluk, of South-Eastern Australia, sex totems among the, ii. 215

_sq._

Wounding were-wolves in order to compel them to resume their human shape,

i. 308 _sqq._

Wounds, St. John’s wort a balm for, ii. 55

Wreath of woodbine, sick children passed through a, ii. 184

Wreaths of flowers thrown across the Midsummer fires, i. 174;

superstitious uses made of the singed wreaths, 174;

hung over doors and windows at Midsummer, 201

Wurtemberg, Midsummer fires in, i. 166;

leaf-clad mummer at Midsummer in, ii. 26

Würzburg, Midsummer fires at, i. 165

Yabim, the, of New Guinea, girls at puberty secluded among the, i. 35;

use of bull-roarers among the, ii. 232;

rites of initiation among the, 239 _sqq._

Yaguas, Indians of the Amazon, girls at puberty secluded among the, i. 59

Yakut shamans keep their external souls in animals, ii. 196

Yakuts leap over fire after a burial, ii. 18

Yam, island of Torres Strait, treatment of girls at puberty in, i. 41

Yap, seclusion of girls at puberty in the island of, i. 36

Yaraikanna, the, of Northern Queensland, seclusion of girls at puberty

among the, i. 37 _sq._

Yarn, divination by, i. 235, 240, 241, 243;

sick children passed through a ring of, ii. 185

Yarra river in Victoria, i. 92 _n._ 1

Year called a fire, i. 137

Yellow Day of Beltane, i. 293

—— snow, the year of the, i. 294

Yibai, tribal subdivision of the Coast Murring tribe, ii. 236

Yoke, purification by passing under a, ii. 193 _sqq._;

ancient Italian practice of passing conquered enemies under a, 93 _sq._

York, custom formerly observed at Christmas in the cathedral at, ii. 291

_n._ 2

Yorkshire, belief as to menstruous women in, i. 96 _n._ 2;

Beal-fires on Midsummer Eve in, 198;

the Yule log in, 256 _sq._;

need-fire in, 286 _sqq._;

witch as hare in, 317, ii. 197

Yoruba-speaking negroes of the Slave Coast, use of bull-roarers among the,

ii. 229 _n._

Young, Hugh W., on the rampart of Burghead, i. 268 _n._ 1

Young, Issobell, buries ox and cat alive, i. 325

Ypres, wicker giants at, ii. 35

Yucatan, fire-walk among the Indians of, ii. 13 _sq._, 16

Yuin, the, of South-Eastern Australia, their sex totems, ii. 216;

totem names kept secret among, 225 _n._

Yukon, the Lower, i. 55

Yule cake, i. 257, 259, 261

—— candle, i. 255, 256, 260

—— log, i. 247 _sqq._;

in Germany, 247 _sqq._;

made of oak-wood, 248, 250, 251, 257, 258, 259, 260, 263, 264 _sq._, ii.

92;

a protection against conflagration, i. 248 _sq._, 250, 255, 256, 258;

a protection against thunder and lightning, 248, 249, 250, 252, 253,

254, 258, 264;

in Switzerland, 249;

in Belgium, 249;

in France, 249 _sqq._;

helps cows to calve, 250, 338;

in England, 255 _sq._;

in Wales, 258;

among the Servians, 258 _sqq._;

a protection against witches, 258;

in Albania, 264;

privacy of the ceremonial of the, 328;

explained as a sun-charm, 332;

made of fir, beech, holly, yew, crab-tree, or olive, ii. 92 _n._ 2

Yule Night in Sweden, customs observed on, i. 20 _sq._

Yuracares of Bolivia, seclusion of girls at puberty among the, i. 57 _sq._

_Zadrooga,_ Servian house-community, i. 259

Zambesi, the Barotse of the, i. 28

Zapotecs, supreme pontiff of the, not allowed to set foot on ground, i. 2;

the sun not allowed to shine on him, i. 19;

their belief that their lives were bound up with those of animals, ii.

212

Zemmur, the, of Morocco, their Midsummer custom, i. 215

Zerdusht and Isfendiyar, i. 104

Zeus and his sacred oak at Dodona, ii. 49 _sq._;

wood of white poplar used at Olympia in sacrificing to, 90 _n._ 1, 91

_n._ 7

—— and Danae, i. 74

—— and Hephaestus, i. 136

Zimbales, a province of the Philippines, superstition as to a parasitic

plant in, ii. 282 _n._ 1

Zoroaster, on the uncleanness of women

at menstruation, i. 95

Zoznegg, in Baden, Easter fires at, i. 145

Zulus, seclusion of girls at puberty among the, i. 22, 30;

fumigate their gardens with medicated smoke, 337;

their custom of fumigating sick cattle, ii. 13;

their belief as to ancestral spirits incarnate in serpents, 211

Zülz, in Silesia, Midsummer fires at, i. 170

Zuñi Indians of New Mexico, their new fires at the solstices, i. 132

_sq._;

use of bull-roarers among the, ii. 230 _n._, 231

Zurich, effigies burnt at, i. 120

FOOTNOTES

M1 Bonfires at the Pongol festival in Southern India.

1 Ch. E. Gover, “The Pongol Festival in Southern India,” _Journal of

the Royal Asiatic Society_, N.S., v. (1870) pp. 96 _sq._

M2 Bonfires at the Holi festival in Northern India. The village priest

expected to pass through the fire. Leaping over the ashes of the

fire to get rid of disease.

2 W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India_

(Westminster, 1896), ii. 314 _sqq._; Captain G. R. Hearn, “Passing

through the Fire at Phalon,” _Man_, v. (1905) pp. 154 _sq._ On the

custom of walking through fire, or rather over a furnace, see Andrew

Lang, _Modern Mythology_ (London, 1897), pp. 148-175; _id._, in

_Athenaeum_, 26th August and 14th October, 1899; _id._, in

_Folk-lore_, xii. (1901) pp. 452-455; _id._, in _Folk-lore_, xiv.

(1903) pp. 87-89. Mr. Lang was the first to call attention to the

wide prevalence of the rite in many parts of the world.

3 Pandit Janardan Joshi, in _North Indian Notes and Queries_, iii. pp.

92 _sq._, § 199 (September, 1893); W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and

Folk-lore of Northern India_ (Westminster, 1896), ii. 318 _sq._

4 E. T. Atkinson, “Notes on the History of Religion in the Himalayas

of the N.W. Provinces,” _Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal_,

liii. Part i. (Calcutta, 1884) p. 60. Compare W. Crooke, _Popular

Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India_ (Westminster, 1896), ii.

313 _sq._

M3 Vernal festival of fire in China. Ceremony to ensure an abundant

year. Walking through the fire. Ashes of the fire mixed with the

fodder of the cattle.

5 See above, vol. i. pp. 136 _sq._

6 G. Schlegel, _Uranographie Chinoise_ (The Hague and Leyden, 1875),

pp. 143 _sq._; _id._, “La fête de fouler le feu célébrée en Chine et

par les Chinois à Java,” _Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie_,

ix. (1896) pp. 193-195. Compare J. J. M. de Groot, _The Religious

System of China_, vi. (Leyden, 1910) pp. 1292 _sq._ According to

Professor Schlegel, the connexion between this festival and the old

custom of solemnly extinguishing and relighting the fire in spring

is unquestionable.

M4 Passage of the image of the deity through the fire. Passage of

inspired men through the fire in India.

_ 7 The Dying God_, p. 262.

8 (Sir) H. H. Risley, _Tribes and Castes of Bengal, Ethnographic

Glossary_ (Calcutta, 1891-1892), i. 255 _sq._ Compare W. Crooke,

_Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India_ (Westminster,

1896), i. 19; _id._, _Tribes and Castes of the North-Western

Provinces and Oudh_ (Calcutta, 1896), ii. 355. According to Sir

Herbert Risley, the trench filled with smouldering ashes is so

narrow (only a span and a quarter wide) “that very little dexterity

would enable a man to walk with his feet on either edge, so as not

to touch the smouldering ashes at the bottom.”

9 W. Crooke, _Tribes and Castes of the North-Western Provinces and

Oudh_, ii. 82.

10 M. J. Walhouse, “Passing through the Fire,” _Indian Antiquary_, vii.

(1878) pp. 126 _sq._ Compare J. A. Dubois, _Mœurs, Institutions et

Cérémonies des Peuples de l’Inde_ (Paris, 1825), ii. 373; E.

Thurston, _Ethnographic Notes in Southern India_ (Madras, 1906), pp.

471-486; G. F. D’Penha, in _Indian Antiquary_, xxxi. (1902) p. 392;

“Fire-walking in Ganjam,” _Madras Government Museum Bulletin_, vol.

iv. No. 3 (Madras, 1903), pp. 214-216. At Akka timanhully, one of

the many villages which help to make up the town of Bangalore in

Southern India, one woman at least from every house is expected to

walk through the fire at the village festival. Captain J. S. F.

Mackenzie witnessed the ceremony in 1873. A trench, four feet long

by two feet wide, was filled with live embers. The priest walked

through it thrice, and the women afterwards passed through it in

batches. Capt. Mackenzie remarks: “From the description one reads of

walking through fire, I expected something sensational. Nothing

could be more tame than the ceremony we saw performed; in which

there never was nor ever could be the slightest danger to life. Some

young girl, whose soles were tender, might next morning find that

she had a blister, but this would be the extent of harm she could

receive.” See Captain J. S. F. Mackenzie, “The Village Feast,”

_Indian Antiquary_, iii. (1874) pp. 6-9. But to fall on the hot

embers might result in injuries which would prove fatal, and such an

accident is known to have occurred at a village in Bengal. See H. J.

Stokes, “Walking through Fire,” _Indian Antiquary_, ii. (1873) pp.

190 _sq._ At Afkanbour, five days’ march from Delhi, the Arab

traveller Ibn Batutah saw a troop of fakirs dancing and even rolling

on the glowing embers of a wood fire. See _Voyages d’Ibn Batoutah_

(Paris, 1853-1858), ii. 6 _sq._, iii. 439.

M5 Hindoo fire-festival in honour of Darma Rajah and Draupadi.

Worshippers walking through the fire.

11 Sonnerat, _Voyage aux Indes orientales et à la Chine_ (Paris, 1782),

i. 247 _sq._

_ 12 Madras Government Museum, Bulletin_, vol. iv. No. 1 (Madras, 1901),

pp. 55-59; E. Thurston, _Ethnographic Notes in Southern India_

(Madras, 1906), pp. 471-474. One of the places where the

fire-festival in honour of Draupadi takes place annually is the

Allandur Temple, at St. Thomas’s Mount, near Madras. Compare

“Fire-walking Ceremony at the Dharmaraja Festival,” _The Quarterly

Journal of the Mythic Society_, vol. ii. No. 1 (October, 1910), pp.

29-32.

M6 Fire-festival of the Badagas in Southern India. Sacred fire made by

friction. Walking through the fire. Cattle driven over the hot

embers. The fire-walk preceded by a libation of milk and followed by

ploughing and sowing.

13 E. Thurston, _Castes and Tribes of Southern India_ (Madras, 1909),

i. 98 _sq._; _id._, _Ethnographic Notes in Southern India_ (Madras,

1906), pp. 476 _sq._

14 E. Thurston, _Castes and Tribes of Southern India_ (Madras, 1909),

i. 100 _sq._

15 F. Metz, _The Tribes inhabiting the Neilgherry Hills_, Second

Edition (Mangalore, 1864), p. 55.

M7 The fire-walk in Japan.

16 “A Japanese Fire-walk,” _American Anthropologist_, New Series, v.

(1903) pp. 377-380. The ceremony has been described to me by two

eye-witnesses, Mr. Ernest Foxwell of St. John’s College, Cambridge,

and Miss E. P. Hughes, formerly Principal of the Teachers’ Training

College, Cambridge. Mr. Foxwell examined the feet of the performers

both before and after their passage through the fire and found no

hurt. The heat was so great that the sweat ran down him as he stood

near the bed of glowing charcoal. He cannot explain the immunity of

the performers. He informs me that the American writer Percival

Lowell walked in the fire and was burned so severely that he was

laid up in bed for three weeks; while on the other hand a Scotch

engineer named Hillhouse passed over the hot charcoal unscathed.

Several of Miss Hughes’s Japanese pupils also went through the

ordeal with impunity, but one of them burned a toe. Both before and

after walking through the fire the people dipped their feet in a

white stuff which Miss Hughes was told was salt. Compare W. G.

Aston, _Shinto_ (London, 1905), p. 348: “At the present day plunging

the hand into boiling water, walking barefoot over a bed of live

coals, and climbing a ladder formed of sword-blades set edge upwards

are practised, not by way of ordeal, but to excite the awe and

stimulate the piety of the ignorant spectators.”

M8 The fire-walk in Fiji, Tahiti, the Marquesas Islands, and Trinidad.

17 Basil Thomson, _South Sea Yarns_ (Edinburgh and London, 1894), pp.

195-207. Compare F. Arthur Jackson, “A Fijian Legend of the Origin

of the _Vilavilairevo_ or Fire Ceremony,” _Journal of the Polynesian

Society_, vol. iii. No. 2 (June, 1894), pp. 72-75; R. Fulton, “An

Account of the Fiji Fire-walking Ceremony, or _Vilavilairevo_, with

a probable explanation of the mystery,” _Transactions and

Proceedings of the New Zealand Institute_, xxxv. (1902) pp. 187-201;

Lieutenant Vernon H. Haggard, in _Folk-lore_, xiv. (1903) pp. 88

_sq._

18 S. P. Langley, “The Fire-walk Ceremony in Tahiti,” _Report of the

Smithsonian Institution for 1901_ (Washington, 1902), pp. 539-544;

_id._, in _Folk-lore_, xiv. (1901) pp. 446-452; “More about

Fire-walking,” _Journal of the Polynesian Society_, vol. x. No. 1

(March, 1901), pp. 53 _sq._ In his _Modern Mythology_ (pp. 162-165)

Andrew Lang quotes from _The Polynesian Society’s Journal_, vol. ii.

No. 2, pp. 105-108, an account of the fire-walk by Miss Tenira

Henry, which seems to refer to Raiatea, one of the Tahitian group of

islands.

_ 19 Annales de l’Association de la Propagation de la Foi_, lxix. (1897)

pp. 130-133. But in the ceremony here described the chief performer

was a native of Huahine, one of the Tahitian group of islands. The

wood burned in the furnace was hibiscus and native chestnut

(_Inocarpus edulis_). Before stepping on the hot stones the

principal performer beat the edge of the furnace twice or thrice

with _ti_ leaves (dracaena).

_ 20 Les Missions Catholiques_, x. (1878) pp. 141 _sq._; A. Lang,

_Modern Mythology_, p. 167, quoting Mr. Henry R. St. Clair.

M9 Hottentot custom of driving their sheep through fire and smoke.

21 Peter Kolben, _The Present State of the Cape of Good Hope_, Second

Edition (London, 1738), i. 129-133.

M10 Fire applied to sick cattle by the Nandi and Zulus.

22 A. C. Hollis, _The Nandi_ (Oxford, 1909), pp. 45 _sq._

23 Rev. Joseph Shooter, _The Kafirs of Natal_ (London, 1857), p. 35.

M11 Indians of Yucatan walk over hot embers in order to avert

calamities.

24 Diego de Landa, _Relation des choses de Yucatan_ (Paris, 1864), pp.

231, 233.

M12 The fire-walk in antiquity, at Castabala in Cappadocia and at Mount

Soracte near Rome.

25 Strabo, xii. 2. 7, p. 537. Compare _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second

Edition, pp. 89, 134 _sqq._

26 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ vii. 19; Virgil, _Aen._ xi. 784 _sqq._ with the

comment of Servius; Strabo, v. 2. 9, p. 226; Dionysius

Halicarnasensis, _Antiquit. Rom._ iii. 32. From a reference to the

custom in Silius Italicus (v. 175 _sqq._) it seems that the men

passed thrice through the furnace holding the entrails of the

sacrificial victims in their hands. The learned but sceptical Varro

attributed their immunity in the fire to a drug with which they took

care to anoint the soles of their feet before they planted them in

the furnace. See Varro, cited by Servius, on Virgil, _Aen._ xi. 787.

The whole subject has been treated by W. Mannhardt (_Antike Wald-

und Feldkulte_, Berlin, 1877, pp. 327 _sqq._), who compares the

rites of these “Soranian Wolves” with the ceremonies performed by

the brotherhood of the Green Wolf at Jumièges in Normandy. See

above, vol. i. pp. 185 _sq._

27 L. Preller (_Römische Mythologie_,3 i. 268), following G. Curtius,

would connect the first syllable of Soranus and Soracte with the

Latin _sol_, “sun.” However, this etymology appears to be at the

best very doubtful. My friend Prof. J. H. Moulton doubts whether

_Soranus_ can be connected with _sol_; he tells me that the

interchange of _l_ and _r_ is rare. He would rather connect

_Soracte_ with the Greek ὕραξ, “a shrew-mouse.” In that case Apollo

Soranus might be the equivalent of the Greek Apollo Smintheus, “the

Mouse Apollo.” Professor R. S. Conway also writes to me (11th

November 1902) that _Soranus_ and _Soracte_ “have nothing to do with

_sol_; _r_ and _l_ are not confused in Italic.”

28 Livy, xxvi. 11. About this time the Carthaginian army encamped only

three miles from Rome, and Hannibal in person, at the head of two

thousand cavalry, rode close up to the walls and leisurely

reconnoitered them. See Livy, xxvi. 10; Polybius, ix. 5-7.

M13 Little evidence to shew that the fire-walk is a sun-charm.

29 Above, p. 1.

30 Above, p. 15.

31 Above, pp. 13 _sq._

M14 On the other hand there is much to be said for the view that the

fire-walk is a form of purification, the flames being thought either

to burn up or repel the powers of evil. Custom of stepping over fire

for the purpose of getting rid of a ghost. Widows fumigated to free

them from their husbands’ ghosts.

32 Above, p. 8, compare p. 3.

33 J. J. M. de Groot, _The Religious System of China_, i. (Leyden,

1892), p. 355; _id._ vi. (Leyden, 1910) p. 942.

34 Rev. J. H. Gray, _China_ (London, 1878), i. 287, 305; J. J. M. de

Groot, _op. cit._ i. 32, vi. 942.

35 J. J. M. de Groot, _op. cit._ i. 137, vi. 942.

36 J. G. Gmelin, _Reise durch Sibirien_ (Göttingen, 1751-1752), i. 333.

37 W. L. Priklonski, “Ueber das Schamenthum bei den Jakuten,” in A.

Bastian’s _Allerlei aus Volks- und Menschenkunde_ (Berlin, 1888), i.

219. Compare Vasilij Priklonski, “Todtengebräuche der Jakuten,”

_Globus_, lix. (1891) p. 85.

38 J. A. H. Louis, _The Gates of Thibet_ (Calcutta, 1894), p. 116.

39 E. Allegret, “Les Idées religieuses des Fañ (Afrique Occidentale),”

_Revue de l’Histoire des Religions_, l. (1904) p. 220.

40 A. B. Ellis, _The Ewe-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast of West

Africa_ (London, 1890), p. 160.

M15 Hence it seems probable that the chief use of the fire in the

fire-festivals of Europe was to destroy or repel the witches, to

whose maleficent arts the people ascribed most of their troubles.

41 Above, pp. 162, 163, 211, 212, 214, 215, 217.

42 See the references above, vol. i. p. 342 note 2.

43 See the references above, vol. i. p. 342 note 3.

44 See _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 52 _sqq._, 127;

_The Scapegoat_, pp. 157 _sqq._ Compare R. Kühnau, _Schlesische

Sagen_ (Berlin, 1910-1913), iii. p. 69, No. 1428: “In the county of

Glatz the people believe that on Walpurgis Night (the Eve of May

Day) the witches under cover of the darkness seek to harm men in all

sorts of ways. To guard themselves against them the people set small

birch trees in front of the house-door on the previous day, and are

of opinion that the witches must count all the leaves on these

little trees before they can get into the house. While they are

still at this laborious task, the day dawns and the dreaded guests

must retire to their own realm”; _id._, iii. p. 39, No. 1394: “On

St. John’s Night (between the 23rd and 24th of June) the witches

again busily bestir themselves to force their way into the houses of

men and the stalls of cattle. People stick small twigs of oak in the

windows and doors of the houses and cattle-stalls to keep out the

witches. This is done in the neighbourhood of Patschkau and

generally in the districts of Frankenstein, Münsterberg, Grottkau,

and Neisse. In the same regions they hang garlands, composed of oak

leaves intertwined with flowers, at the windows. The garland must be

woven in the house itself and may not be carried over any threshold;

it must be hung out of the window on a nail, which is inserted

there.” Similar evidence might be multiplied almost indefinitely.

M16 The effigies burnt in the fires probably represent witches.

M17 Possibly some of the effigies burnt in the fires represent

tree-spirits or spirits of vegetation.

_ 45 The Golden Bough_, Second Edition (London, 1900), ii. 314-316.

_ 46 The Dying God_, pp. 249 _sqq._

47 Above, vol. i. p. 117, compare pp. 143, 144.

48 See above, vol. i. p. 120.

_ 49 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 56 _sqq._

50 Above, vol. i. pp. 120, 167.

51 Above, vol. i. pp. 115 _sq._, 116, 142, 173 _sq._, 185, 191, 192,

193, 209.

52 Above, vol. i. p. 120.

53 Above, vol. i. p. 116. But the effigy is called the Witch.

M18 Reasons for burning effigies of the spirit of vegetation or for

passing them through the fire.

54 The chapter has since been expanded into the four volumes of _The

Dying God_, _Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild_, and _The

Scapegoat_.

_ 55 The Dying God_, p. 262.

M19 The custom of passing images of gods or their living representatives

through the fires may be simply a form of purification.

56 Above, pp. 9, 10, 14.

57 Among the Klings of Southern India the ceremony of walking over a

bed of red-hot ashes is performed by a few chosen individuals, who

are prepared for the rite by a devil-doctor or medicine-man. The

eye-witness who describes the ceremony adds: “As I understood it,

they took on themselves and expiated the sins of the Kling community

for the past year.” See the letter of Stephen Ponder, quoted by

Andrew Lang, _Modern Mythology_ (London, 1897), p. 160.

M20 Yet at some of the fire-festivals the pretence of burning live

persons in the fires points to a former custom of human sacrifice.

_ 58 The Dying God_, pp. 205 _sqq._; _Spirits of the Corn and of the

Wild_, i. 216 _sqq._

59 Above, vol. i. p. 120.

60 Above, vol. i. p. 186.

61 Above, vol. i. p. 148.

62 Above, vol. i. p. 233.

63 Above, vol. i. p. 194.

64 W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, p. 524.

_ 65 Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern_ (Munich,

1860-1867), iii. 956; W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, p. 524. In the

neighbourhood of Breitenbrunn the lad who collects fuel at this

season has his face blackened and is called “the Charcoal Man”

(_Bavaria_, etc., ii. 261).

66 A. Birlinger, _Volksthümliches aus Schwaben_ (Freiburg im Breisgau,

1861-1862), ii. 121 _sq._, § 146; W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, pp.

524 _sq._

M21 In pagan Europe the water as well as the fire seems to have claimed

its human victim on Midsummer Day. Custom of throwing a man and a

tree into the water on St. John’s Day.

67 E. Meier, _Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben_

(Stuttgart, 1852), pp. 428 _sq._, §§ 120, 122; O. Freiherr von

Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Das festliche Jahr_ (Leipsic, 1863), p. 194;

J. A. E. Köhler, _Volksbrauch, Aberglauben, Sagen und andre alte

Ueberlieferungen im Voigtlande_ (Leipsic, 1867), p. 176; J. V.

Grohmann, _Aberglauben und Gebräuche aus Böhmen und Mähren_ (Prague

and Leipsic, 1864), p. 49, § 311; W. J. A. Tettau und J. D. H.

Temme, _Die Volkssagen Ost-preussens, Litthauens und West-preussens_

(Berlin, 1837), pp. 277 _sq._; K. Haupt, _Sagenbuch der Lausitz_

(Leipsic, 1862-1863), i. 48; R. Eisel, _Sagenbuch des Voigtlandes_

(Gera, 1871), p. 31, Nr. 62.

68 Montanus, _Die deutschen Volksfeste, Volksbräuche und deutscher

Volksglaube_ (Iserlohn, N.D.), p. 34.

69 E. Hoffmann-Krayer, _Feste und Bräuche des Schweizervolkes_ (Zurich,

1913), p. 163.

70 E. H. Meyer, _Badisches Volksleben_ (Strasburg, 1900), p. 507.

71 J. A. E. Köhler, _loc. cit._ Tacitus tells us that the image of the

goddess Nerthus, her vestments, and chariot were washed in a certain

lake, and that immediately afterwards the slaves who ministered to

the goddess were swallowed by the lake (_Germania_, 40). The

statement may perhaps be understood to mean that the slaves were

drowned as a sacrifice to the deity. Certainly we know from Tacitus

(_Germania_, 9 and 39) that the ancient Germans offered human

sacrifices.

M22 Loaves and flowers thrown into the water on St. John’s Day, perhaps

as substitutes for human beings.

72 E. Meier, _Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben_

(Stuttgart, 1852), p. 429, § 121.

73 O. Frh. von Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Fest-Kalender aus Böhmen_

(Prague, N.D.), p. 311.

74 Karl Lynker, _Deutsche Sagen und Sitten in hessischen Gauen_2

(Cassel and Göttingen, 1860), pp. 253, 254, §§ 335, 336.

M23 Midsummer Day deemed unlucky and dangerous.

75 E. H. Meyer, _Badisches Volksleben_ (Strasburg, 1900), p. 506.

76 Giuseppe Pitrè, _Spettacoli e Feste Popolari Siciliane_ (Palermo,

1881), p. 313.

M24 In Europe people used to bathe on Midsummer Eve or Midsummer Day,

because water was thought to acquire wonderful medicinal virtues at

that time.

77 J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 i. 489 _sq._, iii. 487; A. Wuttke,

_Der deutsche Volksaberglaube_2 (Berlin, 1869), p. 77 § 92; O.

Freiherr von Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Das festliche Jahr_ (Leipsic,

1863), p. 193; F. J. Vonbun, _Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie_

(Chur, 1862), p. 133; P. Drechsler, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube

in Schlesien_ (Leipsic, 1903-1906), i. 143 § 161; Karl Haupt,

_Sagenbuch der Lausitz_ (Leipsic, 1862-1863), i. 248, No. 303; F. J.

Wiedemann, _Aus dem inneren und äusseren Leben der Ehsten_ (St.

Petersburg, 1876), p. 415; L. Lloyd, _Peasant Life in Sweden_

(London, 1870), pp. 261 _sq._; Paul Sébillot, _Le Folk-lore de

France_ (Paris, 1904-1907), ii. 160 _sq._; T. F. Thiselton Dyer,

_British Popular Customs_ (London, 1876), pp. 322 _sq._, 329 _sq._

For more evidence, see above, vol. i. pp. 193, 194, 205 _sq._, 208,

210, 216; _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second Edition, pp. 204 _sqq._

78 Le Baron de Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Calendrier Belge_ (Brussels,

1861-1862), i. 420 _sq._; E. Monseur, _Le Folklore Wallon_

(Brussels, N.D.), p. 130; P. Sébillot, _Le Folk-lore de France_, ii.

374 _sq._

79 E. Hoffmann-Krayer, _Feste und Bräuche des Schweizervolkes_ (Zurich,

1913), p. 163. See above, p. 27.

M25 Similar customs and beliefs as to water at Midsummer in Morocco.

80 E. Westermarck, “Midsummer Customs in Morocco,” _Folk-lore_, xvi.

(1905) pp. 31 _sq._; _id._, _Ceremonies and Beliefs connected with

Agriculture, certain Dates of the Solar Year, and the Weather in

Morocco_ (Helsingfors, 1913), pp. 84-86; E. Doutté, _Magie et

Religion dans l’Afrique du Nord_ (Algiers, 1908), pp. 567 _sq._ See

also above, vol. i. p. 216.

81 See above, vol. i. pp. 213-219.

82 E. Westermarck, _Ceremonies and Beliefs connected with Agriculture,

certain Dates of the Solar Year, and the Weather in Morocco_

(Helsingfors, 1913), pp. 94 _sq._

83 This has been rightly pointed out by Dr. Edward Westermarck

(“Midsummer Customs in Morocco,” _Folk-lore_, xvi. (1905) p. 46).

M26 Human sacrifices by fire among the ancient Gauls. Men and animals

enclosed in great wicker-work images and burnt alive.

84 Caesar, _Bell. Gall._ vi. 15; Strabo, iv. 4. 5, p. 198; Diodorus

Siculus, v. 32. See W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, pp. 525 _sqq._

85 Strabo, iv. 4. 4, p. 197: τὰς δὲ φονικὰς δίκας μάλιστα τούτοις

[_i.e._ the Druids] ἐπετέτραπτο δικάζειν, ὅταν τε φορὰ τούτων ᾖ,

φορὰν καὶ τῆς χώρας νομίζουσιν ὑπάρχειν. On this passage see W.

Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, pp. 529 _sqq._; and below, pp. 42 _sq._

M27 As the fertility of the land was supposed to depend on these

sacrifices, Mannhardt interpreted the victims as representatives of

tree-spirits or spirits of vegetation.

_ 86 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 80 _sqq._

M28 Wicker-work giants at popular festivals in modern Europe. The giant

at Douay on July the seventh. The giants at Dunkirk on Midsummer

Day.

87 Madame Clément, _Histoire des fêtes civiles et religieuses du

département du Nord_2 (Cambrai, 1836), pp. 193-200; A. de Nore,

_Coutumes, Mythes et Traditions des Provinces de France_, (Paris and

Lyons, 1846), pp. 323 _sq._; F. W. Fairholt, _Gog and Magog, the

Giants in Guildhall, their real and legendary History_ (London,

1859), pp. 78-87; W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, p. 523, note. It is

said that the giantess made her first appearance in 1665, and that

the children were not added to the show till the end of the

seventeenth century. In the eighteenth century the procession took

place on the third Sunday in June, which must always have been

within about a week of Midsummer Day (H. Gaidoz, “Le dieu gaulois du

soleil et le symbolisme de la roue,” _Revue Archéologique_, iii.

série iv. 32 _sq._).

_ 88 The Gentleman’s Magazine_, xxix. (1759), pp. 263-265; Madame

Clément, _Histoire des fêtes civiles et religieuses du département

du Nord_,2 pp. 169-175; A. de Nore, _Coutumes, Mythes et Traditions

des Provinces de France_, pp. 328-332. Compare John Milner, _The

History, Civil and Ecclesiastical, and Survey of the Antiquities of

Winchester_ (Winchester, N.D.), i. 8 _sq._ note 6; John Brand,

_Popular Antiquities of Great Britain_ (London, 1882-1883), i. 325

_sq._; James Logan, _The Scottish Gael or Celtic Manners_, edited by

Rev. Alex. Stewart (Inverness, N.D.), ii. 358. According to the

writer in _The Gentleman’s Magazine_ the name of the procession was

the Cor-mass.

M29 Wicker-work giants in Brabant and Flanders.

89 Madame Clément, _Histoire des fêtes civiles et religieuses_, etc.,

_de la Belgique méridionale_, etc. (Avesnes, 1846), p. 252; Le Baron

de Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Calendrier Belge_ (Brussels, 1861-1862),

i. 123-126. We may conjecture that the Flemish _Reuze_, like the

_Reuss_ of Dunkirk, is only another form of the German _Riese_,

“giant.”

90 F. W. Fairholt, _Gog and Magog, the Giants in Guildhall, their real

and legendary History_ (London, 1859), pp. 64-78. For the loan of

this work and of the one cited in the next note I have to thank Mrs.

Wherry, of St. Peter’s Terrace, Cambridge.

91 E. Fourdin, “La foire d’Ath,” _Annales du Cercle Archéologique de

Mons_, ix. (Mons, 1869) pp. 7, 8, 12, 36 _sq._ The history of the

festival has been carefully investigated, with the help of documents

by M. Fourdin. According to him, the procession was religious in its

origin and took its rise from a pestilence which desolated Hainaut

in 1215 (_op. cit._ pp. 1 _sqq._). He thinks that the effigies of

giants were not introduced into the procession till between 1450 and

1460 (_op. cit._ p. 8).

M30 Midsummer giants in England.

92 George Puttenham, _The Arte of English Poesie_ (London, 1811,

reprint of the original edition of London, 1589), book iii. chapter

vi. p. 128. On the history of the English giants and their relation

to those of the continent, see F. W. Fairholt, _Gog and Magog, the

Giants in Guildhall, their real and legendary History_ (London,

1859).

93 Joseph Strutt, _The Sports and Pastimes of the People of England_,

New Edition, by W. Hone (London, 1834), pp. xliii.-xlv.; F. W.

Fairholt, _Gog and Magog, the Giants in Guildhall_ (London, 1859),

pp. 52-59.

94 F. W. Fairholt, _op. cit._ pp. 59-61.

95 F. W. Fairholt, _op. cit._ pp. 61-63.

M31 Wicker-work giants burnt at or near Midsummer.

96 Felix Liebrecht, _Des Gervasius von Tilbury Otia Imperialia_

(Hanover, 1856), pp. 212 _sq._; A. de Nore, _Coutumes, Mythes, et

Traditions des Provinces de France_, pp. 354 _sq._; W. Mannhardt,

_Baumkultus_, p. 514.

97 W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, pp. 514, 523.

M32 Animals burnt in the Midsummer bonfires. Serpents formerly burnt in

the Midsummer fire at Luchon. Cats formerly burnt in the Midsummer,

Easter, and Lenten bonfires.

_ 98 Athenaeum_, 24th July 1869, p. 115; W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, pp.

515 _sq._ From a later account we learn that about the year 1890 the

custom of lighting a bonfire and dancing round it was still observed

at Bagnères de Luchon on Midsummer Eve, but the practice of burning

live serpents in it had been discontinued. The fire was kindled by a

priest. See _Folk-lore_, xii. (1901) pp. 315-317.

99 A. Breuil, “Du culte de St.-Jean Baptiste,” _Mémoires de la Société

des Antiquaires de Picardie_, viii. (1845) pp. 187 _sq._; Collin de

Plancy, _Dictionnaire Infernal_ (Paris, 1825-1826), iii. 40; A. de

Nore, _Coutumes, Mythes et Traditions des Provinces de France_, pp.

355 _sq._; J. W. Wolf, _Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie_

(Göttingen and Leipsic, 1852-1857), ii. 388; E. Cortet, _Essai sur

les Fêtes Religieuses_ (Paris, 1867), pp. 213 _sq._; Laisnel de la

Salle, _Croyances et Légendes du Centre de la France_ (Paris, 1875),

i. 82; W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, p. 515.

100 Tessier, in _Mémoires et Dissertations publiés par la Société Royale

des Antiquaires de France_, v. (1823) p. 388; W. Mannhardt,

_Baumkultus_, p. 515.

101 Alexandre Bertrand, _La Religion des Gaulois_ (Paris, 1897), p. 407.

102 J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 i. 519; W. Mannhardt,

_Baumkultus_, p. 515.

103 W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, p. 515; Montanus, _Die deutschen

Volksfesten, Volksbräuche und deutscher Volksglaube_ (Iserlohn,

N.D.), p. 34.

104 W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, p. 515.

105 A. Meyrac, _Traditions, Coutumes, Légendes, et Contes des Ardenness_

(Charleville, 1890), p. 68.

106 Above, vol. i. p. 142.

M33 Thus the sacrificial rites of the ancient Gauls have their

counterparts in the popular festivals of modern Europe.

M34 The men, women, and animals burnt at these festivals were perhaps

thought to be witches or wizards in disguise.

107 Strabo, iv. 4. 5, p. 198, καὶ ἄλλα δὲ ἀνθρωποθυσιῶν εἴδη λέγεται;

καὶ γὰρ κατετόξευόν τινας καὶ ἀνεσταύρουν ἐν τοῖς ἱεροῖς καὶ

κατασκευάσαντες κολοσσὸν χόρτου καὶ ξύλων, ἐμβαλόντες εἰς τοῦτον

βοσκήματα καὶ θηρία παντοῖα καὶ ἀνθρώπους ὡλοκαύτουν.

108 Above, p. 39.

109 Marie Trevelyan, _Folk-lore and Folk-stories of Wales_ (London,

1909), pp. 214, 301 _sq._; Ulrich Jahn, _Hexenwesen und Zauberei in

Pommern_ (Breslau, 1886), p. 7; _id._, _Volkssagen aus Pommern und

Rügen_ (Stettin, 1886), p. 353, No. 446.

110 See above, vol. i. p. 315 _n._ 1.

111 The treatment of magic and witchcraft by the Christian Church is

described by W. E. H. Lecky, _History of the Rise and Influence of

the Spirit of Rationalism in Europe_, New Edition (London, 1882), i.

1 _sqq._ Four hundred witches were burned at one time in the great

square of Toulouse (W. E. H. Lecky, _op. cit._ ii. 38). Writing at

the beginning of the eighteenth century Addison observes: “Before I

leave Switzerland I cannot but observe, that the notion of

witchcraft reigns very much in this country. I have often been tired

with accounts of this nature from very sensible men, who are most of

them furnished with matters of fact which have happened, as they

pretend, within the compass of their own knowledge. It is certain

there have been many executions on this account, as in the canton of

Berne there were some put to death during my stay at Geneva. The

people are so universally infatuated with the notion, that if a cow

falls sick, it is ten to one but an old woman is clapt up in prison

for it, and if the poor creature chance to think herself a witch,

the whole country is for hanging her up without mercy.” See _The

Works of Joseph Addison_, with notes by R. Hurd, D.D. (London,

1811), vol. ii., “Remarks on several Parts of Italy,” p. 196.

112 Strabo, iv. 4. 4, p. 197. See the passage quoted above, p. 32, note

2.

M35 Mannhardt thought that the men and animals whom the Druids burned in

wickerwork images represented spirits of vegetation, and that the

burning of them was a charm to secure a supply of sunshine for the

crops.

113 W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, pp. 532-534.

_ 114 Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild_, i. 270-305.

115 Some of the serpents worshipped by the old Prussians lived in hollow

oaks, and as oaks were sacred among the Prussians, the serpents may

possibly have been regarded as genii of the trees. See Simon Grunau,

_Preussischer Chronik_, herausgegeben von Dr. M. Perlbach, i.

(Leipsic, 1876) p. 89; Christophor Hartknoch, _Alt und Neues

Preussen_ (Frankfort and Leipsic, 1684), pp. 143, 163. Serpents

played an important part in the worship of Demeter, but we can

hardly assume that they were regarded as embodiments of the goddess.

See _Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild_, ii. 17 _sq._

116 For example, in China the spirits of plants are thought to assume

the form of snakes oftener than that of any other animal. Chinese

literature abounds with stories illustrative of such

transformations. See J. J. M. de Groot, _The Religious System of

China_, iv. (Leyden, 1901) pp. 283-286. In Siam the spirit of the

_takhien_ tree is said to appear sometimes in the shape of a serpent

and sometimes in that of a woman. See Adolph Bastian, _Die Voelker

des Oestlichen Asien_, iii. (Jena, 1867) p. 251. The vipers that

haunted the balsam trees in Arabia were regarded by the Arabs as

sacred to the trees (Pausanias, ix. 28. 4); and once in Arabia, when

a wood hitherto untouched by man was burned down to make room for

the plough, certain white snakes flew out of it with loud

lamentations. No doubt they were supposed to be the dispossessed

spirits of the trees. See J. Wellhausen, _Reste Arabischen

Heidentums_2 (Berlin, 1897), pp. 108 _sq._

M36 It is a common belief in Europe that plants acquire certain magical,

but transient, virtues on Midsummer Eve. Magical plants culled on

Midsummer Eve (St. John’s Eve) or Midsummer Day (St. John’s Day) in

France. St. John’s herb.

117 J. L. M. Noguès, _Les mœurs d’autrefois en Saintonge et en Aunis_

(Saintes, 1891), p. 71. Amongst the superstitious practices

denounced by the French writer J. B. Thiers in the seventeenth

century was “the gathering of certain herbs between the Eve of St.

John and the Eve of St. Peter and keeping them in a bottle to heal

certain maladies.” See J. B. Thiers, _Traité des Superstitions_

(Paris, 1679), p. 321.

118 A. de Nore, _Coutumes, Mythes et Traditions des Provinces de France_

(Paris and Lyons, 1846), pp. 150 _sq._

119 Jules Lecœur, _Esquisses du Bocage Normand_ (Condé-sur-Noireau,

1883-1887), ii. 8, 244; Amélie Bosquet, _La Normandie romanesque et

merveilleuse_ (Paris and Rouen, 1845), p. 294.

120 De la Loubere, _Du Royaume de Siam_ (Amsterdam, 1691), i. 202. The

writer here mentions an Italian mode of divination practised on

Midsummer Eve. People washed their feet in wine and threw the wine

out of the window. After that, the first words they heard spoken by

passers-by were deemed oracular.

121 Aubin-Louis Millin, _Voyage dans les Départements du Midi de la

France_ (Paris, 1807-1811), iii. 344 _sq._

122 Alexandre Bertrand, _La Religion des Gaulois_ (Paris, 1897), p. 124.

In French the name of St. John’s herb (_herbe de la Saint-Jean_) is

usually given to _millepertius_, that is, St. John’s wort, which is

quite a different flower. See below, pp. 54 _sqq._ But “St. John’s

herb” may well be a general term which in different places is

applied to different plants.

123 Bruno Stehle, “Aberglauben, Sitten und Gebräuche in Lothringen,”

_Globus_, lix. (1891) p. 379.

124 L. F. Sauvé, _Le Folk-lore des Hautes-Vosges_ (Paris, 1889), pp. 168

_sq._

M37 Magical plants culled on Midsummer Eve or Midsummer Day in the Tyrol

and Germany.

125 I. V. Zingerle, “Wald, Bäume, Kräuter,” _Zeitschrift für deutsche

Mythologie und Sittenkunde_, i. (1853) pp. 332 _sq._; _id._,

_Sitten, Bräuche und Meinungen des Tiroler Volkes_2 (Innsbruck,

1871), p. 158, §§ 1345, 1348.

126 Christian Schneller, _Märchen und Sagen aus Wälschtirol_ (Innsbruck,

1867), p. 237, § 24.

127 J. H. Schmitz, _Sitten und Bräuche, Lieder, Sprüchwörter und Räthsel

des Eifler Volkes_ (Treves, 1856-1858), i. 40.

128 J. H. Schmitz, _op. cit._ i. 42.

129 A. Kuhn, _Märkische Sagen und Märchen_ (Berlin, 1843), p. 330.

130 K. Bartsch, _Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche aus Mecklenburg_ (Vienna,

1879-1880), ii. p. 287, § 1436.

131 W. von Schulenburg, _Wendische Volkssagen und Gebräuche aus dem

Spreewald_ (Leipsic, 1880), p. 254.

132 M. Prätorius, _Deliciae Prussicae_ (Berlin, 1871), pp. 24 _sq._

Kaupole is probably identical in name with Kupole or Kupalo, as to

whom see _The Dying God_, pp. 261 _sq._

M38 Magical plants culled on Midsummer Eve (St. John’s Eve) or Midsummer

Day in Austria and Russia.

133 Alois John, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube im deutschen Westböhmen_

(Prague, 1905), p. 86.

134 R. F. Kaindl, _Die Huzulen_ (Vienna, 1894), pp. 78, 90, 93, 105;

_id._, “Zauberglaube bei den Huzulen,” _Globus_, lxxvi. (1899) p.

256.

135 Dr. F. Tetzner, “Die Tschechen und Mährer in Schlesien,” _Globus_,

lxxviii. (1900) p. 340.

136 J. B. Holzmayer, “Osiliana,” _Verhandlungen der gelehrten Estnischen

Gesellschaft_, vii. Heft 2 (Dorpat, 1872), p. 62.

137 P. Einhorn, “Wiederlegunge der Abgötterey: der ander (_sic_) Theil,”

printed at Riga in 1627, and reprinted in _Scriptores rerum

Livonicarum_, ii. (Riga and Leipsic, 1848) pp. 651 _sq._

138 J. G. Kohl, _Die deutsch-russischen Ostseeprovinzen_ (Dresden and

Leipsic, 1841), ii. 26.

M39 Magical plants culled on St. John’s Eve or St. John’s Day among the

South Slavs, in Macedonia, and Bolivia.

139 A. Strausz, _Die Bulgaren_ (Leipsic, 1898), pp. 348, 386.

140 F. S. Krauss, _Volksglaube und religiöser Brauch der Südslaven_

(Münster i. W., 1890), p. 34.

141 G. F. Abbott, _Macedonian Folk-lore_ (Cambridge, 1903), pp. 54, 58.

142 H. A. Weddell, _Voyage dans le Nord de la Bolivie et dans les

parties voisines du Pérou_ (Paris and London, 1853), p. 181.

M40 Magical plants culled at Midsummer among the Mohammedans of Morocco.

143 W. Westermarck, “Midsummer Customs in Morocco,” _Folk-lore_, xvi.

(1905) p. 35; _id._, _Ceremonies and Beliefs connected with

Agriculture, certain Dates of the Solar Year, and the Weather in

Morocco_ (Helsingfors, 1913), pp. 88 _sq._

M41 Seven different sorts of magical plants gathered at Midsummer. Nine

different sorts of plants gathered at Midsummer. Dreams of love on

flowers at Midsummer Eve. Love’s watery mirror at Midsummer Eve.

144 J. Lecœur, _Esquisses du Bocage Normand_ (Condé-sur-Noireau,

1883-1887), ii. 9.

145 K. Bartsch, _Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche aus Mecklenburg_ (Vienna,

1879-1890), ii. 285.

146 J. A. E. Köhler, _Volksbrauch, Aberglauben, Sagen und andre alte

Ueberlieferungen im Voigtlande_ (Leipsic, 1867), p. 376.

147 O. Freiherr von Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Fest-Kalender aus Böhmen_

(Prague, N.D.), p. 312.

148 Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _loc. cit._

149 M. Töppen, _Aberglauben aus Masuren_2 (Danzig, 1867), p. 72.

M42 Garlands of flowers of nine sorts gathered at Midsummer and used in

divination and medicine.

150 Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _loc. cit._

151 J. A. E. Köhler, _Volksbrauch_, etc., _im Voigtlande_, p. 376.

152 C. Lemke, _Volksthümliches in Ostpreussen_ (Mohrungen, 1884-1887),

i. 20.

153 P. Drechsler, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien_ (Leipsic,

1903-1906), i. 144 _sq._

154 Le Baron de Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Calendrier Belge_ (Brussels,

1861-1862), i. 423.

155 Marie Trevelyan, _Folk-lore and Folk-stories of Wales_ (London,

1909), p. 252.

156 M. Töppen, _Aberglauben aus Masuren_,2 p. 72.

157 M. Töppen, _op. cit._ p. 71.

158 A. Wiedemann, _Aus dem inneren und äussern Leben der Ehsten_ (St.

Petersburg, 1876), pp. 362 _sq._

159 L. Lloyd, _Peasant Life in Sweden_ (London, 1870), pp. 267 _sq._

160 Willibald Müller, _Beiträge zur Volkskunde der Deutschen in Mähren_

(Vienna and Olmütz, 1893), p. 264.

161 W. von Schulenburg, _Wendisches Volksthum_ (Berlin, 1882), p. 145.

M43 St. John’s wort (_Hypericum perforatum_) gathered for magical

purposes at Midsummer. St. John’s blood on St. John’s Day.

162 Montanus, _Die deutschen Volksfeste, Volksbräuche und deutscher

Volksglaube_ (Iserlohn, N.D.), p. 145; A. Wuttke, _Der deutsche

Volksaberglaube_2 (Berlin, 1869), p. 100, § 134; I. V. Zingerle,

“Wald, Bäume, Kräuter,” _Zeitschrift für deutsche Mythologie und

Sittenkunde_, i. (1853) p. 329; A. Schlossar, “Volksmeinung und

Volksaberglaube aus der deutschen Steiermark,” _Germania_, N.R.,

xxiv. (1891) p. 387; E. Meier, _Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche

aus Schwaben_ (Stuttgart, 1852), p. 428; J. Brand, _Popular

Antiquities of Great Britain_ (London, 1882-1883), i. 307, 312; T.

F. Thiselton Dyer, _Folk-lore of Plants_ (London, 1889), pp. 62,

286; Rev. Hilderic Friend, _Flowers and Flower Lore_, Third Edition

(London, 1886), pp. 147, 149, 150, 540; G. Finamore, _Credenze, Usi

e Costumi Abruzzesi_ (Palermo, 1890), pp. 161 _sq._; G. Pitrè,

_Spettacoli e Feste Popolari Siciliane_ (Palermo, 1881), p. 309. One

authority lays down the rule that you should gather the plant

fasting and in silence (J. Brand, _op. cit._ p. 312). According to

Sowerby, the _Hypericum perforatum_ flowers in England about July

and August (_English Botany_, vol. v. London, 1796, p. 295). We

should remember, however, that in the old calendar Midsummer Day

fell twelve days later than at present. The reform of the calendar

probably put many old floral superstitions out of joint.

163 Bingley, _Tour round North Wales_ (1800), ii. 237, quoted by T. F.

Thiselton Dyer, _British Popular Customs_ (London, 1876), p. 320.

Compare Marie Trevelyan, _Folk-lore and Folk-stories of Wales_

(London, 1909), p. 251: “St. John’s, or Midsummer Day, was an

important festival. St. John’s wort, gathered at noon on that day,

was considered good for several complaints. The old saying went that

if anybody dug the devil’s bit at midnight on the eve of St. John,

the roots were then good for driving the devil and witches away.”

Apparently by “the devil’s bit” we are to understand St. John’s

wort.

164 J. L. M. Noguès, _Les mœurs d’autrefois en Saintonge et en Aunis_

(Saintes, 1891), pp. 71 _sq._

165 Alois John, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube im deutschen Westböhmen_

(Prague, 1905), p. 84. They call the plant “witch’s herb”

(_Hexenkraut_).

166 James Sowerby, _English Botany_, vol. v. (London, 1796), p. 295.

167 Montanus, _Die deutschen Volksfeste, Volksbräuche und deutscher

Volksglaube_ (Iserlohn, N.D.), p. 35.

168 T. F. Thiselton Dyer, _Folk-lore of Plants_ (London, 1889), p. 286;

K. Bartsch, _Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche aus Mecklenburg_, ii. p.

291, § 1450_a_. The Germans of Bohemia ascribe wonderful virtues to

the red juice extracted from the yellow flowers of St. John’s wort

(W. Müller, _Beiträge zur Volkskunde der Deutschen in Mähren_,

Vienna and Olmütz, 1893, p. 264).

169 K. Bartsch, _op. cit._ ii. p. 286, § 1433. The blood is also a

preservative against many diseases (_op. cit._ ii. p. 290, § 1444).

170 A. Kuhn, _Märkische Sagen und Märchen_ (Berlin, 1843), p. 387, §

105.

_ 171 Die gestriegelte Rockenphilosophie_5 (Chemnitz, 1759), pp. 246

_sq._; Montanus, _Die deutschen Volksfesten, Volksbräuche und

deutscher Volksglaube_, p. 147.

172 Berthold Seeman, _Viti, An Account of a Government Mission to the

Vitian or Fijian Islands in the years 1860-61_ (Cambridge, 1862), p.

63.

M44 Mouse-ear hawkweed (_Hieracium pilosella_) gathered for magical

purposes at Midsummer.

173 James Sowerby, _English Botany_, vol. xvi. (London, 1803) p. 1093.

174 K. Seifart, _Sagen, Märchen, Schwänke und Gebräuche aus Stadt und

Stift Hildesheim_2 (Hildesheim, 1889), p. 177, § 12.

175 C. L. Rochholz, _Deutscher Glaube und Brauch_ (Berlin, 1867), i. 9.

176 J. V. Grohmann, _Aberglauben und Gebräuche aus Böhmen und Mähren_

(Prague and Leipsic, 1864), p. 98, § 681.

177 A. Wuttke, _Der deutsche Volksaberglaube_2 (Berlin, 1869), p. 100, §

134.

M45 Mountain arnica gathered for magical purposes at Midsummer.

178 J. A. E. Köhler, _Volksbrauch, Aberglauben, Sagen und andre alte

Ueberlieferungen im Voigtlande_ (Leipsic, 1867), p. 376. The belief

and practice are similar at Grün, near Asch, in Western Bohemia. See

Alois John, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube im deutschen Westböhmen_

(Prague, 1905), p. 84.

179 F. Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_ (Munich, 1848-1855),

ii. 299; _Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern_,

iii. (Munich, 1865), p. 342; I. V. Zingerle, _Sitten, Bräuche und

Meinungen des Tiroler Volkes_2 (Innsbruck, 1871), p. 160, § 1363.

M46 Mugwort (_Artemisia vulgaris_) gathered for magical purposes at

Midsummer. Mugwort in China and Japan.

180 J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 ii. 1013; A. de Gubernatis,

_Mythologie des Plantes_ (Paris, 1878-1882), i. 189 _sq._; Rev.

Hilderic Friend, _Flowers and Flower Lore_, Third Edition (London,

1886), p. 75. In England mugwort is very common in waste ground,

hedges, and the borders of fields. It flowers throughout August and

later. The root is woody and perennial. The smooth stems, three or

four feet high, are erect, branched, and leafy, and marked by many

longitudinal purplish ribs. The pinnatified leaves alternate on the

stalk; they are smooth and dark green above, cottony and very white

below. The flowers are in simple leafy spikes or clusters; the

florets are purplish, furnished with five stamens and five

awl-shaped female flowers, which constitute the radius. The whole

plant has a weak aromatic scent and a slightly bitter flavour. Its

medical virtues are of no importance. See James Sowerby, _English

Botany_, xiv. (London, 1802) p. 978. Altogether it is not easy to

see why such an inconspicuous and insignificant flower should play

so large a part in popular superstition. Mugwort (_Artemisia

vulgaris_) is not to be confounded with wormwood (_Artemisia

absinthium_), which is quite a different flower in appearance,

though it belongs to the same genus. Wormwood is common in England,

flowering about August. The flowers are in clusters, each of them

broad, hemispherical, and drooping, with a buff-coloured disc. The

whole plant is of a pale whitish green and clothed with a short

silky down. It is remarkable for its intense bitterness united to a

peculiar strong aromatic odour. It is often used to keep insects

from clothes and furniture, and as a medicine is one of the most

active bitters. See James Sowerby, _English Botany_, vol. xviii.

(London, 1804) p. 1230.

181 Breuil, “Du culte de St.-Jean-Baptiste,” _Mémoires de la Société des

Antiquaires de Picardie_, viii. (1845) p. 224, note 1, quoting the

curé of Manancourt, near Péronne.

182 L. Pineau, _Le folk-lore du Poitou_ (Paris, 1892), p. 499.

183 J. V. Grohmann, _Aberglauben und Gebräuche aus Böhmen und Mähren_

(Prague and Leipsic, 1864), pp. 90 _sq._, §§ 635-637.

184 F. Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_, i. p. 249, § 283; J.

Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 ii. 1013; I. V. Zingerle, in

_Zeitschrift für deutsche Mythologie und Sittenkunde_, i. (1853) p.

331. and _ib._ iv. (1859) p. 42 (quoting a work of the seventeenth

century); F. J. Vonbun, _Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie_ (Chur,

1862), p. 133, note 1. See also above, vol. i. pp. 162, 163, 165,

174, 177.

185 A. de Gubernatis, _Mythologie der Plantes_ (Paris, 1878-1882), i.

190, quoting Du Cange.

186 A. de Nore, _Coutumes, Mythes et Traditions des Provinces de France_

(Paris and Lyons, 1846), p. 262.

187 Jules Lecœur, _Esquisses du Bocage Normand_ (Condé-sur-Noireau,

1883-1886), ii. 8.

188 Joseph Train, _Historical and Statistical Account of the Isle of

Man_ (Douglas, Isle of Man, 1845), ii. 120.

189 Le Baron de Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Calendrier Belge_ (Brussels,

1861-1862), i. 422.

190 J. J. M. de Groot, _The Religious System of China_, vi. (Leyden,

1910) p. 1079, compare p. 947.

191 J. J. M. de Groot, _op. cit._ vi. 947.

192 J. J. M. de Groot, _op. cit._ vi. 946 _sq._

193 Rev. John Batchelor, _The Ainu and their Folk-lore_ (London, 1901),

p. 318, compare pp. 315 _sq._, 329, 370, 372.

_ 194 Zeitschrift für deutsche Mythologie und Sittenkunde_, iv. (1859) p.

42; Montanus, _Die deutschen Volksfeste_, p. 141. The German name of

mugwort (_Beifuss_) is said to be derived from this superstition.

195 K. Bartsch, _Sagen, Märchen, und Gebräuche aus Mecklenburg_ (Vienna,

1879-1880), ii. 290, § 1445.

196 Montanus, _Die deutschen Volksfeste_, p. 141.

197 J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities of Great Britain_ (London,

1882-1883), i. 334 _sq._, quoting Lupton, Thomas Hill, and Paul

Barbette. A precisely similar belief is recorded with regard to

wormwood (_armoise_) by the French writer J. B. Thiers, who adds

that only small children and virgins could find the wonderful coal.

See J. B. Thiers, _Traité des Superstitions_5 (Paris, 1741), i. 300.

In Annam people think that wormwood puts demons to flight; hence

they hang up bunches of its leaves in their houses at the New Year.

See Paul Giran, _Magie et Religion Annamites_ (Paris, 1912), p. 118,

compare pp. 185, 256.

198 C. Lemke, _Volksthümliches in Ostpreussen_ (Mohrungen, 1884-1887),

i. 21. As to mugwort (German _Beifuss_, French _armoise_), see

further A. de Gubernatis, _Mythologie des Plantes_, ii. 16 _sqq._;

J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 iii. 356 _sq._

M47 Orpine (_Sedum telephium_) used in divination at Midsummer.

199 James Sowerby, _English Botany_, vol. xix. (London, 1804) p. 1319.

200 John Aubrey, _Remains of Gentilisme and Judaisme_ (London, 1881),

pp. 25 _sq._; J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities of Great Britain_

(London, 1882-1883), i. 329 _sqq._; Rev. Hilderic Friend, _Flowers

and Flower Lore_, Third Edition (London, 1886), p. 136; D. H.

Moutray Read, “Hampshire Folk-lore,” _Folk-lore_, xxii. (1911) p.

325. Compare J. Sowerby, _English Botany_, vol. xix. (London, 1804),

p. 1319: “Like all succulent plants this is very tenacious of life,

and will keep growing long after it has been torn from its native

spot. The country people in Norfolk sometimes hang it up in their

cottages, judging by its vigour of the health of some absent

friend.” It seems that in England the course of love has sometimes

been divined by means of sprigs of red sage placed in a basin of

rose-water on Midsummer Eve (J. Brand, _op. cit._ i. 333).

201 M. Töppen, _Aberglauben aus Masuren_2 (Danzig, 1867), pp. 71 _sq._;

A. Kuhn, _Sagen, Gebräuche und Märchen aus Westfalen_ (Leipsic,

1859), ii. 176, § 487; E. Hoffmann-Krayer, _Feste und Bräuche des

Schweizervolkes_ (Zurich, 1913), p. 163. In Switzerland the species

employed for this purpose on Midsummer day is _Sedum reflexum_. The

custom is reported from the Emmenthal. In Germany a root of orpine,

dug up on St. John’s morning and hung between the shoulders, is

sometimes thought to be a cure for hemorrhoids (Montanus, _Die

deutschen Volksfeste_, p. 145). Perhaps the “oblong, tapering,

fleshy, white lumps” of the roots (J. Sowerby, _English Botany_,

vol. xix. London, 1804, p. 1319) are thought to bear some likeness

to the hemorrhoids, and to heal them on the principle that the

remedy should resemble the disease.

M48 Vervain gathered for magical purposes at Midsummer. Magical virtue

of four-leaved clover on Midsummer Eve.

202 See above, vol. i. pp. 162, 163, 165. In England vervain (_Verbena

officinalis_) grows not uncommonly by road sides, in dry sunny

pastures, and in waste places about villages. It flowers in July.

The flowers are small and sessile, the corolla of a very pale lilac

hue, its tube enclosing the four short curved stamens. The root of

the plant, worn by a string round the neck, is an old superstitious

medicine for scrofulous disorders. See James Sowerby, _English

Botany_, vol. xi. (London, 1800) p. 767.

203 Dr. Otero Acevado, in _Le Temps_, September 1898. See above, vol. i.

p. 208, note 1.

204 Le Baron de Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Calendrier Belge_ (Brussels,

1861-1862), i. 422.

205 A. de Nore, _Coutumes, Mythes et Traditions des Provinces de

France_, p. 262; Amélie Bosquet, _La Normandie romanesque et

merveilleuse_, p. 294; J. Lecœur, _Esquisses du Bocage Normand_, i.

287, ii. 8. In Saintonge and Aunis the plant was gathered on

Midsummer Eve for the purpose of evoking or exorcising spirits (J.

L. M. Noguès, _Les mœurs d’autrefois en Saintonge et en Aunis_, p.

72).

206 J. V. Grohmann, _Aberglauben und Gebräuche aus Böhmen und Mähren_,

p. 207, § 1437.

207 A. Kuhn, _Sagen, Gebräuche und Märchen aus Westfalen_ (Leipsic,

1859), ii. 177, citing Chambers, _Edinburgh Journal_, 2nd July 1842.

208 I. V. Zingerle, _Sitten, Bräuche und Meinungen des Tiroler Volkes_2

(Innsbruck, 1871), p. 107, § 919.

209 Laisnel de la Salle, _Croyances et Légendes du Centre de la France_

(Paris, 1875), i. 288.

210 J. L. M. Noguès, _Les mœurs d’autrefois en Saintonge et en Aunis_,

pp. 71 _sq._

211 Le Baron de Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Calendrier Belge_, i. 423.

M49 Camomile gathered for magical purposes at Midsummer.

212 W. Kolbe, _Hessische Volks-Sitten und Gebräuche_2 (Marburg, 1888),

p. 72; Sophus Bugge, _Studien über die Entstehung der nordischen

Götter- und Heldensagen_ (Munich, 1889), pp. 35, 295 _sq._; Fr.

Kauffmann, _Balder_ (Strasburg, 1902), pp. 45, 61. The flowers of

common camomile (_Anthemis nobilis_) are white with a yellow disk,

which in time becomes conical. The whole plant is intensely bitter,

with a peculiar but agreeable smell. As a medicine it is useful for

stomachic troubles. In England it does not generally grow wild. See

James Sowerby, _English Botany_, vol. xiv. (London, 1802) p. 980.

213 A. Kuhn, _Sagen, Gebräuche und Märchen aus Westfalen_ (Leipsic,

1859), ii. 177, § 488.

214 M. Töppen, _Aberglauben aus Masuren_2 (Danzig, 1867), p. 71.

M50 Mullein (_Verbascum_) gathered for magical purposes at Midsummer.

215 A. Witzschel, _Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen_ (Vienna,

1878), p. 289, § 139.

216 W. J. A. von Tettau und J. D. H. Temme, _Volkssagen Ostpreussens,

Litthauens und Westpreussens_ (Berlin, 1837), p. 283.

217 James Sowerby, _English Botany_, vol. vii. (London, 1798), p. 487.

As to great mullein or high taper, see _id._, vol. viii. (London,

1799), p. 549.

218 Tettau und Temme, _loc. cit._ As to mullein at Midsummer, see also

above, vol. i. pp. 190, 191.

M51 Seeds of fir-cones, wild thyme, elder-flowers, and purple

loosestrife gathered for magical purposes at Midsummer.

219 J. V. Grohmann, _Aberglauben und Gebräuche aus Böhmen und Mähren_,

p. 205, § 1426.

220 J. V. Grohmann, _op. cit._ p. 93, § 648.

221 J. A. E. Köhler, _Volksbrauch, Aberglauben, Sagen und andre alte

Ueberlieferungen im Voigtlande_ (Leipsic, 1867), p. 377.

222 Alois John, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube im deutschen Westböhmen_

(Prague, 1905), p. 84.

223 J. N. Ritter von Alpenburg, _Mythen und Sagen Tirols_ (Zurich,

1857), p. 397.

224 C. Russwurm, “Aberglaube aus Russland,” _Zeitschrift für deutsche

Mythologie und Sittenkunde_, iv. (1859) pp. 153 _sq._ The purple

loosestrife is one of our most showy English wild plants. In July

and August it may be seen flowering on the banks of rivers, ponds,

and ditches. The separate flowers are in axillary whorls, which

together form a loose spike of a reddish variable purple. See James

Sowerby, _English Botany_, vol. xv. (London, 1802) p. 1061.

M52 Magical properties attributed to fern seed at Midsummer.

225 J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, i. 314 _sqq._; Hilderic Friend,

_Flowers and Flower Lore_, Third Edition (London, 1886), pp. 60, 78,

150, 279-283; Miss C. S. Burne and Miss G. F. Jackson, _Shropshire

Folk-lore_ (London, 1883), p. 242; Marie Trevelyan, _Folk-lore and

Folk-stories of Wales_ (London, 1909), pp. 89 _sq._; J. B. Thiers,

_Traité des Superstitions_ (Paris, 1679), p. 314; J. Lecœur,

_Esquisses du Bocage Normand_, i. 290; P. Sébillot, _Coutumes

populaires de la Haute-Bretagne_ (Paris, 1886), p. 217; _id._,

_Traditions et Superstitions de la Haute-Bretagne_ (Paris, 1882),

ii. 336; A. Wuttke, _Der deutsche Volksaberglaube_2 (Berlin, 1869),

pp. 94 _sq._, § 123; F. J. Vonbun, _Beiträge zur deutschen

Mythologie_ (Chur, 1862), pp. 133 _sqq._; Montanus, _Die deutschen

Volksfesten_, p. 144; K. Bartsch, _Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche aus

Mecklenburg_, ii. 288, § 1437; M. Töppen, _Aberglauben aus

Masuren_,2 p. 72; A. Schlossar, “Volksmeinung und Volksaberglaube

aus der deutschen Steiermark,” _Germania_, N.R., xxiv. (1891) p.

387; Theodor Vernaleken, _Mythen und Bräuche des Volkes in

Oesterreich_ (Vienna, 1859), p. 309; J. N. Ritter von Alpenburg,

_Mythen und Sagen Tirols_ (Zurich, 1857), pp. 407 _sq._; I. V.

Zingerle, _Sitten, Bräuche und Meinungen des Tiroler Volkes_2

(Innsbruck, 1871), p. 103, § 882, p. 158, § 1350; Christian

Schneller, _Märchen und Sagen aus Wälschtirol_ (Innsbruck, 1867), p.

237; J. V. Grohmann, _Aberglauben und Gebräuche aus Böhmen und

Mähren_, p. 97, §§ 673-677; Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Fest-Kalendar

aus Böhmen_ (Prague, N.D.), pp. 311 _sq._; W. Müller, _Beiträge zur

Volkskunde der Deutschen in Mähren_ (Vienna and Olmutz, 1893), p.

265; R. F. Kaindl, _Die Huzulen_ (Vienna, 1894), p. 106; _id._,

“Zauberglaube bei den Huzulen,” _Globus_, lxxvi. (1899) p. 275; P.

Drechsler, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien_ (Leipsic,

1903-1906), i. 142, § 159; G. Finamore, _Credenze, Usi e Costumi

Abruzzesi_ (Palermo, 1890), p. 161; C. Russwurm, “Aberglaube in

Russland,” _Zeitschrift für deutsche Mythologie und Sittenkunde_,

iv. (1859) pp. 152 _sq._; A. de Gubernatis, _Mythologie des Plantes_

(Paris, 1878-1882), ii. 144 _sqq._ The practice of gathering ferns

or fern seed on the Eve of St. John was forbidden by the synod of

Ferrara in 1612. See J. B. Thiers, _Traité des Superstitions_5

(Paris, 1741), i. 299 _sq._ In a South Slavonian story we read how a

cowherd understood the language of animals, because fern-seed

accidentally fell into his shoe on Midsummer Day (F. S. Krauss,

_Sagen und Märchen der Südslaven_, Leipsic, 1883-1884, ii. 424

_sqq._, No. 159). On this subject I may refer to my article, “The

Language of Animals,” _The Archaeological Review_, i. (1888) pp. 164

_sqq._

226 J. V. Grohmann, _op. cit._ p. 97, §§ 673, 675.

_ 227 Zeitschrift für deutsche Mythologie und Sittenkunde_, iv. (1859)

pp. 152 _sq._; A. de Gubernatis, _Mythologie des Plantes_, ii. 146.

228 M. Longworth Dames and E. Seemann, “Folk-lore of the Azores,”

_Folk-lore_, xiv. (1903) pp. 142 _sq._

229 August Witzschel, _Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen_

(Vienna, 1878), p. 275, § 82.

M53 Branches of hazel cut at Midsummer to serve as divining-rods.

230 W. Müller, _Beiträge zur Volkskunde der Deutschen in Mähren_ (Vienna

and Olmutz, 1893), p. 265; K. Bartsch, _Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche

aus Mecklenburg_, ii. p. 285, § 1431, p. 288, § 1439; J. Napier,

_Folk-lore, or Superstitious Beliefs in the West of Scotland_

(Paisley, 1879), p. 125.

231 A. Kuhn, _Märkische Sagen und Märchen_ (Berlin, 1843), p. 330. As to

the divining-rod in general, see A. Kuhn, _Die Herabkunft des Feuers

und des Göttertranks_2 (Gütersloh, 1886), pp. 181 _sqq._; J. Grimm,

_Deutsche Mythologie_,4 ii. 813 _sqq._; S. Baring-Gould, _Curious

Myths of the Middle Ages_ (London, 1884), pp. 55 _sqq._ Kuhn

plausibly suggests that the forked shape of the divining-rod is a

rude representation of the human form. He compares the shape and

magic properties of mandragora.

232 F. Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_ (Munich, 1848-1855),

i. 296 _sq._

233 E. Krause, “Abergläubische Kuren und sonstiger Aberglaube in Berlin

und nächster Umgebung,” _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, xv. (1883) p.

89.

234 J. N. Ritter von Alpenburg, _Mythen und Sagen Tirols_ (Zurich,

1857), p. 393.

235 Karl Freiherr von Leoprechting, _Aus dem Lechrain_ (Munich, 1855),

p. 98. Some people in Swabia say that the hazel branch which is to

serve as a divining-rod should be cut at midnight on Good Friday,

and that it should be laid on the altar and mass said over it. If

that is done, we are told that a Protestant can use it to quite as

good effect as a Catholic. See E. Meier, _Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und

Gebräuche aus Schwaben_ (Stuttgart, 1852), pp. 244 _sq._, No. 268.

Some of the Wends of the Spreewald agree that the divining-rod

should be made of hazel-wood, and they say that it ought to be wrapt

in swaddling-bands, laid on a white plate, and baptized on Easter

Saturday. Many of them, however, think that it should be made of

“yellow willow.” See Wilibald von Schulenburg, _Wendische Volkssagen

und Gebräuche aus dem Spreewald_ (Leipsic, 1880), pp. 204 _sq._ A

remarkable property of the hazel in the opinion of Bavarian peasants

is that it is never struck by lightning; this immunity it has

enjoyed ever since the day when it protected the Mother of God

against a thunderstorm on her flight into Egypt. See _Bavaria,

Landes- und Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern_, i. (Munich, 1860) p.

371.

M54 The divining-rod in Sweden obtained on Midsummer Eve.

236 J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 iii. 289, referring to Dybeck’s

_Runa_, 1844, p. 22, and 1845, p. 80.

237 L. Lloyd, _Peasant Life in Sweden_ (London, 1870), pp. 266 _sq._

M55 The mythical springwort supposed to bloom on Midsummer Eve.

238 Heinrich Pröhle, _Harzsagen_ (Leipsic, 1859), i. 99, No. 23.

M56 Another way of catching the springwort. The white bloom of chicory.

239 J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 ii. 812 _sq._, iii. 289; A. Kuhn,

_Die Herabkunft des Feuers und des Göttertranks_2 (Gütersloh, 1886),

pp. 188-193; Walter K. Kelly, _Curiosities of Indo-European

Tradition and Folk-lore_ (London, 1863), pp. 174-178; J. F. L.

Woeste, _Volksüberlieferungen in der Grafschaft Mark_ (Iserlohn,

1848), p. 44; A. Kuhn und W. Schwartz, _Norddeutsche Sagen, Märchen

und Gebräuche_ (Leipsic, 1848), p. 459, No. 444; Ernst Meier,

_Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben_ (Stuttgart,

1852), pp. 240 _sq._, No. 265; C. Russwurm, “Aberglaube in

Russland,” _Zeitschrift für deutsche Mythologie und Sittenkunde_,

iv. (Göttingen, 1859) p. 153; J. V. Grohmann, _Aberglauben und

Gebräuche aus Böhmen und Mähren_ (Prague and Leipsic, 1864), p. 88,

No. 623; Paul Drechsler, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in

Schlesien_ (Leipsic, 1903-1906), ii. 207 _sq._ In Swabia some people

say that the bird which brings the springwort is not the woodpecker

but the hoopoe (E. Meier, _op. cit._ p. 240). Others associate the

springwort with other birds. See H. Pröhle, _Harzsagen_ (Leipsic,

1859), ii. 116, No. 308; A. Kuhn, _Die Herabkunft des Feuers_,2 p.

190. It is from its power of springing or bursting open all doors

and locks that the springwort derives its name (German

_Springwurzel_).

240 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ x. 40.

241 Ernst Meier, _Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben_

(Stuttgart, 1852), pp. 238 _sq._, No. 264.

M57 The magical virtues ascribed to plants at Midsummer may be thought

to be derived from the sun, then at the height of his power and

glory. Hence it is possible that the Midsummer bonfires stand in

direct relation to the sun.

M58 This consideration tends to bring us back to an intermediate

position between the rival theories of Mannhardt and Westermarck.

242 See above, pp. 45, 46, 49, 54, 55, 59, 60, 62, 64, 65, 66, 67.

M59 Miscellaneous examples of the baleful activity of witches at

Midsummer and of the precautions which it is necessary to take

against them at that time. Witches in Voigtland. The witches’

Sabbath in Prussia on Walpurgis Night and Midsummer Eve. Midsummer

Eve a witching time among the South Slavs.

243 Le Baron de Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Calendrier Belge_ (Brussels,

1861-1862), i. 423 _sq._

244 Anton Birlinger, _Völksthumliches aus Schwaben_, Freiburg im

Breisgau, (1861-1862), i. 278, § 437.

245 Robert Eisel, _Sagenbuch des Voigtlandes_ (Gera, 1871), p. 210, Nr.

551.

246 W. J. A. von Tettau und J. D. H. Temme, _Die Volkssagen

Ostpreussens, Litthauens und Westpreussens_ (Berlin, 1837), pp. 263

_sq._

247 F. S. Krauss, _Volksglaube und religiöser Brauch der Südslaven_

(Münster i. W., 1890), p. 128.

M60 Relation of the fire-festivals to the myth of Balder.

M61 Veneration of the Druids for the mistletoe.

248 Pliny derives the name Druid from the Greek _drus_, “oak.” He did

not know that the Celtic word for oak was the same (_daur_), and

that therefore Druid, in the sense of priest of the oak, might be

genuine Celtic, not borrowed from the Greek. This etymology is

accepted by some modern scholars. See G. Curtius, _Grundzüge der

Griechischen Etymologie_5 (Leipsic, 1879), pp. 238 _sq._; A.

Vaniček, _Griechisch-Lateinisch Etymologisches Wörterbuch_ (Leipsic,

1877), pp. 368 _sqq._; (Sir) John Rhys, _Celtic Heathendom_ (London

and Edinburgh, 1888), pp. 221 _sqq._ However, this derivation is

disputed by other scholars, who prefer to derive the name from a

word meaning knowledge or wisdom, so that Druid would mean “wizard”

or “magician.” See J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 iii. 305; Otto

Schrader, _Reallexikon der Indogermanischen Altertumskunde_

(Strasburg, 1901), pp. 638 _sq._; H. D’Arbois de Jubainville, _Les

Druides et les Dieux Celtiques à forme d’animaux_ (Paris, 1906), pp.

1, 11, 83 _sqq._ The last-mentioned scholar formerly held that the

etymology of Druid was unknown. See his _Cours de Littérature

Celtique_, i. (Paris, 1883) pp. 117-127.

249 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xvi. 249-251. In the first edition of this book

I understood Pliny to say that the Druidical ceremony of cutting the

mistletoe fell in the sixth month, that is, in June; and hence I

argued that it probably formed part of the midsummer festival. But

in accordance with Latin usage the words of Pliny (_sexta luna_,

literally “sixth moon”) can only mean “the sixth day of the month.”

I have to thank my friend Mr. W. Warde Fowler for courteously

pointing out my mistake to me. Compare my note in the _Athenaeum_,

November 21st, 1891, p. 687. I also misunderstood Pliny’s words,

“_et saeculi post tricesimum annum, quia jam virium abunde habeat

nec sit sui dimidia_,” applying them to the tree instead of to the

moon, to which they really refer. After _saeculi_ we must understand

_principium_ from the preceding _principia_. With the thirty years’

cycle of the Druids we may compare the sixty years’ cycle of the

Boeotian festival of the Great Daedala (Pausanias, ix. 3. 5; see

_The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 140 _sq._), which,

like the Druidical rite in question, was essentially a worship, or

perhaps rather a conjuration, of the sacred oak. Whether any deeper

affinity, based on common Aryan descent, may be traced between the

Boeotian and the Druidical ceremony, I do not pretend to determine.

In India a cycle of sixty years, based on the sidereal revolution of

Jupiter, has long been in use. The sidereal revolution of Jupiter is

accomplished in approximately twelve solar years (more exactly 11

years and 315 days), so that five of its revolutions make a period

of approximately sixty years. It seems, further, that in India a

much older cycle of sixty lunar years was recognized. See Christian

Lassen, _Indische Alter-thumskunde_, i.2 (Leipsic, 1867), pp. 988

_sqq._; Prof. F. Kielhorn (Göttingen), “The Sixty-year Cycle of

Jupiter,” _The Indian Antiquary_, xviii. (1889) pp. 193-209; J. F.

Fleet, “A New System of the Sixty-year Cycle of Jupiter,” _ibid._

pp. 221-224. In Tibet the use of a sixty-years’ cycle has been

borrowed from India. See W. Woodville Rockhill, “Tibet,” _Journal of

the Royal Asiatic Society for 1891_ (London, 1891), p. 207 note 1.

M62 Medical and magical virtues ascribed to mistletoe in ancient Italy.

250 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xxiv. 11 _sq._

251 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xxxiii. 94.

M63 Agreement between the Druids and the ancient Italians as to the

valuable properties of mistletoe.

M64 Similar beliefs as to mistletoe among the Ainos of Japan.

252 Rev. John Batchelor, _The Ainu and their Folk-lore_ (London, 1901),

p. 222.

M65 Similar beliefs as to mistletoe among the Torres Straits Islanders

and the Walos of Senegambia. These beliefs perhaps originate in a

notion that the mistletoe has fallen from heaven.

_ 253 Reports of the Cambridge Anthropological Expedition to Torres

Straits_, v. (Cambridge, 1904) pp. 198 _sq._

254 M. le baron Roger (ancien Gouverneur de la Colonie française du

Sénégal), “Notice sur le Gouvernement, les Mœurs, et les

Superstitions des Nègres du pays de Walo,” _Bulletin de la Société

de Géographie_, viii. (Paris, 1827) pp. 357 _sq._

M66 Such a notion would explain the ritual used in cutting mistletoe and

other parasites.

255 Above, p. 77.

256 Compare _The Times_, 2nd April, 1901, p. 9: “The Tunis correspondent

of the _Temps_ reports that in the course of certain operations in

the Belvedere Park in Tunis the workmen discovered a huge circle of

enormous stumps of trees ranged round an immense square stone

showing signs of artistic chisel work. In the neighbourhood were

found a sort of bronze trough containing a gold sickle in perfect

preservation, and a sarcophagus containing a skeleton. About the

forehead of the skeleton was a gold band, having in the centre the

image of the sun, accompanied by hieratic signs, which are

provisionally interpreted as the monogram of Teutates. The discovery

of such remains in North Africa has created a sensation.” As to the

Celtic god Teutates and the human sacrifices offered to him, see

Lucan, _Pharsalia_, i. 444 _sq._:

“_Et quibus immitis placatur sanguine diro_

_ Teutates horrensque feris altaribus Hesus._”

Compare (Sir) John Rhys, _Celtic Heathendom_ (London and Edinburgh,

1888), pp. 44 _sqq._, 232. Branches of the sacred olive at Olympia,

which were to form the victors’ crowns, had to be cut with a golden

sickle by a boy whose parents were both alive. See the Scholiast on

Pindar, _Olymp._ iii. 60, p. 102, ed. Aug. Boeck (Leipsic, 1819). In

Assyrian ritual it was laid down that, before felling a sacred

tamarisk to make magical images out of the wood, the magician should

pray to the sun-god Shamash and touch the tree with a golden axe.

See C. Fossey, _La Magie Assyrienne_ (Paris, 1902), pp. 132 _sq._

Some of the ancients thought that the root of the marsh-mallow,

which was used in medicine, should be dug up with gold and then

preserved from contact with the ground (Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xx. 29).

At the great horse-sacrifice in ancient India it was prescribed by

ritual that the horse should be slain by a golden knife, because

“gold is light” and “by means of the golden light the sacrificer

also goes to the heavenly world.” See _The Satapatha-Brâhmana_,

translated by Julius Eggeling, Part v. (Oxford, 1900) p. 303

(_Sacred Books of the East_, vol. xliv.). It has been a rule of

superstition both in ancient and modern times that certain plants,

to which medical or magical virtues were attributed, should not be

cut with iron. See the fragment of Sophocles’s _Root-cutters_,

quoted by Macrobius, _Saturn_. v. 19. 9 _sq._; Virgil, _Aen._ iv.

513 _sq._; Ovid, _Metamorph._ vii. 227; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xxiv.

68, 103, 176; and above, p. 65 (as to purple loosestrife in Russia).

On the objection to the use of iron in such cases compare F.

Liebrecht, _Des Gervasius von Tilbury Otia Imperialia_ (Hanover,

1856), pp. 102 _sq._; _Taboo and the Perils of the Soul_, pp. 225

_sqq._

257 Étienne Aymonier, “Notes sur les Coutumes et Croyances

Superstitieuses des Cambodgiens,” _Cochinchine Française, Excursions

et Reconnaissance_ No. 16 (Saigon, 1883), p. 136.

258 See above, vol. i. pp. 2 _sqq._

M67 The ancient beliefs and practices concerning mistletoe have their

analogies in modern European folk-lore.

259 Ernst Meier, “Über Pflanzen und Kräuter,” _Zeitschrift für deutsche

Mythologie und Sittenkunde_, i. (Göttingen, 1853), pp. 443 _sq._ The

sun enters the sign of Sagittarius about November 22nd.

260 J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 iii. 533, referring to Dybeck,

_Runa_, 1845, p. 80.

261 Marie Trevelyan, _Folk-lore and Folk-stories of Wales_ (London,

1909), p. 87.

M68 Medicinal virtues ascribed to mistletoe by ancients and moderns.

Mistletoe as a cure for epilepsy.

262 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xvi. 250, “_Omnia sanantem appellantes suo

vocabulo_.” See above, p. 77.

263 J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 ii. 1009: “_Sonst aber wird das

welsche_ olhiach, _bretagn._ ollyiach, _ir._ uileiceach, _gal._

uileice, _d. i. allheiland_, _von_ ol, uile universalis, _als

benennung des mistels angegeben_.” My lamented friend, the late R.

A. Neil of Pembroke College, Cambridge, pointed out to me that in N.

M’Alpine’s _Gaelic Dictionary_ (Seventh Edition, Edinburgh and

London, 1877, p. 432) the Gaelic word for mistletoe is given as _an

t’ uil_, which, Mr. Neil told me, means “all-healer.”

264 A. de Gubernatis, _La Mythologie des Plantes_ (Paris, 1878-1882),

ii. 73.

265 Rev. Hilderic Friend, _Flowers and Flower Lore_, Third Edition

(London, 1886), p. 378. Compare A. Kuhn, _Die Herabkunft des Feuers

und des Göttertranks_2 (Gütersloh, 1886), p. 206, referring to

Keysler, _Antiq. Sept._ p. 308.

266 A. de Nore, _Coutumes, Mythes et Traditions des Provinces de France_

(Paris and Lyons, 1846), pp. 102 _sq._ The local name for mistletoe

here is _besq_, which may be derived from the Latin _viscum_.

267 A. Kuhn, _Die Herabkunft des Feuers und des Göttertranks_2

(Gütersloh, 1886), p. 205; Walter K. Kelly, _Curiosities of

Indo-European Tradition and Folk-lore_ (London, 1863), p. 186.

268 “Einige Notizen aus einem alten Kräuterbuche,” _Zeitschrift für

deutsche Mythologie und Sittenkunde_, iv. (Göttingen, 1859) pp. 41

_sq._

269 Francis Pérot, “Prières, Invocations, Formules Sacrées, Incantations

en Bourbonnais,” _Revue des Traditions Populaires_, xviii. (1903) p.

299.

_ 270 County Folk-lore_, v. _Lincolnshire_, collected by Mrs. Gutch and

Mabel Peacock (London, 1908), p. 120.

271 Prof. P. J. Veth, “De Leer der Signatuur, iii. De Mistel en de

Riembloem,” _Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie_, vii. (1894)

p. 111. He names Ray in England (about 1700), Boerhaave in Holland

(about 1720), and Van Swieten, a pupil of Boerhaave’s (about 1745).

_ 272 County Folk-lore_, vol. v. _Lincolnshire_, collected by Mrs. Gutch

and Mabel Peacock (London, 1908), p. 120.

273 Rev. Mr. Shaw, Minister of Elgin, quoted by Thomas Pennant in his

“Tour in Scotland, 1769,” printed in J. Pinkerton’s _Voyages and

Travels_, iii. (London, 1809) p. 136; J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities

of Great Britain_ (London, 1882-1883), iii. 151.

274 Walter K. Kelly, _Curiosities of Indo-European Tradition and

Folk-lore_ (London, 1863), p. 186.

M69 The medicinal virtues ascribed to mistletoe seem to be mythical,

being fanciful inferences from the parasitic nature of the plant.

275 On this point Prof. P. J. Veth (“De Leer der Signatuur,”

_Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie_, vii. (1894) p. 112)

quotes Cauvet, _Eléments d’Histoire naturelle medicale_, ii. 290:

“_La famille des Loranthacées ne nous offre aucun intéret._”

M70 The belief that mistletoe extinguishes fire seems based on a fancy

that it falls on the tree in a flash of lightning.

276 A. Kuhn, _Die Herabkunft des Feuers und des Göttertranks_2

(Gütersloh, 1886), p. 205, referring to Dybeck, _Runa_, 1845, p. 80.

277 A. Kuhn, _op. cit._ p. 204, referring to Rochholz, _Schweizersagen

aus d. Aargau_, ii. 202.

278 J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 i. 153.

279 J. V. Grohmann, _Aberglauben und Gebräuche aus Böhmen und Mähren_

(Prague and Leipsic, 1864), p. 37, § 218. In Upper Bavaria the

mistletoe is burned for this purpose along with the so-called

palm-branches which were consecrated on Palm Sunday. See _Bavaria,

Landes- und Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern_, i. (Munich, 1860),

p. 371.

M71 Other wonderful properties ascribed to mistletoe; in particular it

is thought to be a protection against witchcraft.

280 A. Kuhn, _Die Herabkunft des Feuers und des Göttertranks_,2 p. 206,

referring to Albertus Magnus, p. 155; Prof. P. J. Veth, “De Leer der

Signatuur,” _Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie_, vii. (1904)

p. 111.

281 J. N. Ritter von Alpenburg, _Mythen und Sagen Tirols_ (Zurich,

1857), p. 398.

282 A. Wuttke, _Der deutsche Volksaberglaube_2 (Berlin, 1869), p. 97, §

128; Prof. P. J. Veth, “De Leer der Signatuur,” _Internationales

Archiv für Ethnographie_, vii. (1894) p. 111.

283 A. Wuttke, _op. cit._ p. 267, § 419.

284 W. Henderson, _Notes on the Folk-lore of the Northern Counties of

England and the Borders_ (London, 1879), p. 114.

285 Marie Trevelyan, _Folk-lore and Folk-stories of Wales_ (London,

1909), p. 88.

286 L. Lloyd, _Peasant Life in Sweden_ (London, 1870), p. 269.

M72 A favourite time for gathering mistletoe is Midsummer Eve.

287 Above, pp. 77, 78.

288 Above, pp. 82, 84.

289 Above, pp. 83, 86.

290 J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 iii. 353, referring to Dybeck,

_Runa_, 1844, p. 22.

291 Marie Trevelyan, _Folk-lore and Folk-stories of Wales_ (London,

1909), p. 88.

M73 The two main incidents of Balder’s myth, namely the pulling of the

mistletoe and the lighting of the bonfire, are reproduced in the

great Midsummer celebration of Scandinavia.

292 See above, p. 86.

293 G. Wahlenberg, _Flora Suecica_ (Upsala, 1824-1826), ii. No. 1143

_Viscum album_, pp. 649 _sq._: “_Hab. in sylvarum densiorum et

humidiorum arboribus frondosis, ut Pyris, Quercu, Fago etc. per

Sueciam temperatiorem passim_.”

294 Above, vol. i. pp. 171 _sq._

295 L. Lloyd, _Peasant Life in Sweden_ (London, 1870), p. 259.

296 J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 iii. 78, who adds, “_Mahnen die

Johannisfeuer an Baldrs Leichenbrand?_” This pregnant hint perhaps

contains in germ the solution of the whole myth.

M74 Hence the myth of Balder was probably the explanation given of a

similar rite.

297 Above, vol. i. p. 148.

298 Above, vol. i. p. 186.

299 Above, p. 26.

M75 If a human representative of a tree-spirit was burned in the

bonfires, what kind of tree did he represent? The oak the principal

sacred tree of the Aryans.

300 As to the worship of the oak in Europe, see _The Magic Art and the

Evolution of Kings_, ii. 349 _sqq._ Compare P. Wagler, _Die Eiche in

alter und neuer Zeit_, in two parts (Wurzen, N.D., and Berlin,

1891).

301 Strabo, xii. 5.1, p. 567. The name is a compound of _dryu_, “oak,”

and _nemed_, “temple” (H. F. Tozer, _Selections from Strabo_,

Oxford, 1893, p. 284). We know from Jerome (_Commentar. in Epist. ad

Galat._ book ii. praef.) that the Galatians retained their native

Celtic speech as late as the fourth century of our era.

_ 302 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 365.

303 J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 i. 55 _sq._, 58 _sq._, ii. 542,

iii. 187 _sq._; P. Wagler, _Die Eiche in alter und neuer Zeit_

(Berlin, 1891), pp. 40 _sqq._; _The Magic Art and the Evolution of

Kings_, ii. 363 _sqq._, 371.

304 L. Preller, _Römische Mythologie_3 (Berlin, 1881-1883), i. 108.

305 Livy, i. 10. Compare C. Bötticher, _Der Baumkultus der Hellenen_

(Berlin, 1856), pp. 133 _sq._

306 C. Bötticher, _op. cit._ pp. 111 _sqq._; L. Preller, _Griechische

Mythologie_,4 ed. C. Robert, i. (Berlin, 1894) pp. 122 _sqq._; P.

Wagler, _Die Eiche in alter und neuer Zeit_ (Berlin, 1891), pp. 2

_sqq._ It is noteworthy that at Olympia the only wood that might be

used in sacrificing to Zeus was the white poplar (Pausanias, v. 14.

2). But it is probable that herein Zeus, who was an intruder at

Olympia, merely accepted an old local custom which, long before his

arrival, had been observed in the worship of Pelops (Pausanias, v.

13. 3).

307 Without hazarding an opinion on the vexed question of the cradle of

the Aryans, I may observe that in various parts of Europe the oak

seems to have been formerly more common than it is now. See the

evidence collected in _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_,

ii. 349 _sqq._

M76 Hence the tree represented by the human victim who was burnt at the

fire-festivals was probably the oak.

308 However, some exceptions to the rule are recorded. See above, vol.

i. pp. 169, 278 (oak and fir), 220 (plane and birch), 281, 283, 286

(limewood), 282 (poplar and fir), 286 (cornel-tree), 291 (birch or

other hard wood), 278, 280 (nine kinds of wood). According to

Montanus, the need-fire, Easter, and Midsummer fires were kindled by

the friction of oak and limewood. See Montanus, _Die deutschen

Volksfeste, Volksbräuche und deutscher Volksglaube_ (Iserlohn,

N.D.), p. 159. But elsewhere (pp. 33 _sq._, 127) the same writer

says that the need-fire and Midsummer fires were produced by the

friction of oak and fir-wood.

309 Above, vol. i. p. 177.

310 M. Prätorius, _Deliciae Prussicae_, herausgegeben von Dr. William

Pierson (Berlin, 1871), pp. 19 _sq._ W. R. S. Ralston says (on what

authority I do not know) that if the fire maintained in honour of

the Lithuanian god Perkunas went out, it was rekindled by sparks

struck from a stone which the image of the god held in his hand

(_Songs of the Russian People_, London, 1872, p. 88).

311 See above, vol. i. pp. 148, 271, 272, 274, 275, 276, 281, 289, 294.

312 Above, vol. i. pp. 148, 155.

_ 313 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 186.

_ 314 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 366. However, sacred

fires of other wood than oak are not unknown among Aryan peoples.

Thus at Olympia white poplar was the wood burnt in sacrifices to

Zeus (above, p. 90 _n._1); at Delphi the perpetual fire was fed with

pinewood (Plutarch, _De EI apud Delphos_, 2), and it was over the

glowing embers of pinewood that the Soranian Wolves walked at

Soracte (above, p. 14).

315 Montanus, _Diedeutschen Volksfeste, Volksbräuche und deutscher

Volksglaube_ (Iserlohn, N.D.), pp. 127, 159. The log is called in

German _Sckarholz_. The custom appears to have prevailed

particularly in Westphalia, about Sieg and Lahn. Compare Montanus,

_op. cit._ p. 12, as to the similar custom at Christmas. The use of

the _Scharholz_ is reported to be found also in Niederlausitz and

among the neighbouring Saxons. See Paul Wagler, _Die Eiche in alter

und neuer Zeit_ (Berlin, 1891), pp. 86 _sq._

316 Above, vol. i. pp. 248, 250, 251, 257, 258, 260, 263. Elsewhere the

Yule log has been made of fir, beech, holly, yew, crab-tree, or

olive. See above, vol. i. pp. 249, 257, 263.

_ 317 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 140 _sq._

318 A curious use of an oak-wood fire to detect a criminal is reported

from Germany. If a man has been found murdered and his murderer is

unknown, you are recommended to proceed as follows. You kindle a

fire of dry oak-wood, you pour some of the blood from the wounds on

the fire, and you change the poor man’s shoes, putting the right

shoe on the left foot, and _vice versa_. As soon as that is done,

the murderer is struck blind and mad, so that he fancies he is

riding up to the throat in water; labouring under this delusion he

returns to the corpse, when you can apprehend him and deliver him up

to the arm of justice with the greatest ease. See Montanus, _op.

cit._ pp. 159 _sq._

M77 If the human victims burnt at the fire-festival represented the oak,

the reason for pulling the mistletoe may have been a belief that the

life of the oak was in the mistletoe, and that the tree could not

perish either by fire or water so long as the mistletoe remained

intact among its boughs.

M78 Ancient Italian belief that mistletoe could not be destroyed by fire

or water.

319 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xiii. 119: “_Alexander Cornelius arborem leonem

appellavit ex qua facta esset Argo, similem robori viscum ferenti,

quae neque aqua neque igni possit corrumpi, sicuti nec viscum, nulli

alii cognitam, quod equidem sciam._” Here the tree out of which the

ship Argo was made is said to have been destructible neither by fire

nor water; and as the tree is compared to a mistletoe-bearing oak,

and the mistletoe itself is said to be indestructible by fire and

water, it seems to follow that the same indestructibility may have

been believed to attach to the oak which bore the mistletoe, so long

at least as the mistletoe remained rooted on the boughs.

M79 Conception of a being whose life is outside himself.

M80 Belief that a man’s soul may be deposited for safety in a secure

place outside his body, and that so long as it remains there intact

he himself is invulnerable and immortal.

_ 320 Taboo and the Perils of the Soul_, pp. 26 _sqq._

M81 This belief is illustrated by folk-tales told by many peoples.

321 A number of the following examples were collected by Mr. E. Clodd in

his paper, “The Philosophy of Punchkin,” _Folk-lore Journal_, ii.

(1884) pp. 288-303; and again in his _Myths and Dreams_ (London,

1885), pp. 188-198. The subject of the external soul, both in

folk-tales and in custom, has been well handled by G. A. Wilken in

his two papers, “De betrekking tusschen menschen- dieren- en

plantenleven naar het volksgeloof,” _De Indische Gids_, November

1884, pp. 595-612, and “De Simsonsage,” _De Gids_, 1888, No. 5. In

“De Simsonsage” Wilken has reproduced, to a great extent in the same

words, most of the evidence cited by him in “De betrekking,” yet

without referring to that paper. When I wrote this book in 1889-1890

I was unacquainted with “De betrekking,” but used with advantage “De

Simsonsage,” a copy of it having been kindly sent me by the author.

I am the more anxious to express my obligations to “De Simsonsage,”

because I have had little occasion to refer to it, most of the

original authorities cited by the author being either in my own

library or easily accessible to me in Cambridge. It would be a

convenience to anthropologists if Wilken’s valuable papers,

dispersed as they are in various Dutch periodicals which are seldom

to be met with in England, were collected and published together.

After the appearance of my first anthropological essay in 1885,

Professor Wilken entered into correspondence with me, and

thenceforward sent me copies of his papers as they appeared; but of

his papers published before that date I have not a complete set.

(Note to the Second Edition.) The wish expressed in the foregoing

note has now been happily fulfilled. Wilken’s many scattered papers

have been collected and published in a form which leaves nothing to

be desired (_De verspreide Geschriften van Prof. Dr. G. A. Wilken_,

verzameld door Mr. F. D. E. van Ossenbruggen, in four volumes, The

Hague, 1912). The two papers “De betrekking” and “De Simsonsage” are

reprinted in the third volume, pp. 289-309 and pp. 551-579. The

subject of the external soul in relation to Balder has been fully

illustrated and discussed by Professor F. Kauffmann in his _Balder,

Mythus und Sage_ (Strasburg, 1902), pp. 136 _sqq._ Amongst the first

to collect examples of the external soul in folk-tales was the

learned Dr. Reinhold Köhler (in _Orient und Occident_, ii.,

Göttingen, 1864, pp. 100-103; reprinted with additional references

in the writer’s _Kleinere Schriften_, i., Weimar, 1898, pp.

158-161). Many versions of the tale were also cited by W. R. S.

Ralston (_Russian Folk-tales_, London, 1873, pp. 109 _sqq._). (Note

to the Third Edition.)

M82 Stories of an external soul common among Aryan peoples. The external

soul in Hindoo stories. Punchkin and the parrot. The ogre whose soul

was in a bird.

322 Mary Frere, _Old Deccan Days_, Third Edition (London, 1881), pp.

12-16.

323 Maive Stokes, _Indian Fairy Tales_ (London, 1880), pp. 58-60. For

similar Hindoo stories, see _id._, pp. 187 _sq._; Lai Behari Day,

_Folk-tales of Bengal_ (London, 1883), pp. 121 _sq._; F. A. Steel

and R. C. Temple, _Wide-awake Stories_ (Bombay and London, 1884),

pp. 58-60.

M83 The princess whose soul was in a golden necklace. The prince whose

soul was in a fish.

324 Mary Frere, _Old Deccan Days_, pp. 239 _sqq._

325 Lal Behari Day, _Folk-tales of Bengal_, pp. 1 _sqq._ For similar

stories of necklaces, see Mary Frere, _Old Deccan Days_, pp. 233

_sq._; F. A. Steel and R. C. Temple, _Wide-awake Stories_, pp. 83

_sqq._

M84 Cashmeer stories of ogres whose lives were in cocks, a pigeon, a

starling, a spinning-wheel, and a pillar. Cashmeer and Bengalee

stories of ogres whose lives were in bees.

326 J. H. Knowles, _Folk-tales of Kashmir_, Second Edition (London,

1893), pp. 49 _sq._

327 J. H. Knowles, _op. cit._ p. 134.

328 J. H. Knowles, _op. cit._ pp. 382 _sqq._

329 Lal Behari Day, _Folk-tales of Bengal_, pp. 85 _sq._; compare _id._,

pp. 253 _sqq._; _Indian Antiquary_, i. (1872) p. 117. For an Indian

story in which a giant’s life is in five black bees, see W. A.

Clouston, _Popular Tales and Fictions_ (Edinburgh and London, 1887),

i. 350.

_ 330 Indian Antiquary_, i. (1872), p. 171.

M85 The external soul in a Siamese or Cambodian story. Indian stories of

a tree and a barley plant that were life-tokens.

331 A. Bastian, _Die Voelker des oestlichen Asien_, iv. (Jena, 1868) pp.

304 _sq._

332 Lal Behari Day, _Folk-tales of Bengal_, p. 189.

333 F. A. Steel and R. C. Temple, _Wide-awake Stories_ (Bombay and

London, 1884), pp. 52, 64. In the Indian _Jataka_ there is a tale

(book ii. No. 208) which relates how Buddha in the form of a monkey

deceived a crocodile by pretending that monkeys kept their hearts in

figs growing on a tree. See _The Jataka or Stories of the Buddha’s

former Births_ translated from the Pali by various hands, vol. ii.

translated by W. H. D. Rouse (Cambridge, 1895), pp. 111 _sq._

334 G. W. Leitner, _The Languages and Races of Dardistan_, Third Edition

(Lahore, 1878), p. 9.

M86 The external soul in Greek stories. Meleager and the firebrand.

Nisus and his purple or golden hair. Pterelaus and his golden hair.

Modern Greek parallels. The external soul in doves.

335 Apollodorus, _Bibliotheca_, i. 8; Diodorus Siculus, iv. 34;

Pausanias, x. 31. 4; Aeschylus, _Choeph._ 604 _sqq._; Antoninus

Liberalis, _Transform._ ii.; Dio Chrysostom, _Or._ lxvii. vol. ii.

p. 231, ed. L. Dindorf (Leipsic, 1857); Hyginus, _Fab._ 171, 174;

Ovid, _Metam._ viii. 445 _sqq._ In his play on this theme Euripides

made the life of Meleager to depend on an olive-leaf which his

mother had given birth to along with the babe. See J. Malalas,

_Chronographia_, vi. pp. 165 _sq._ ed. L. Dindorf (Bonn, 1831); J.

Tzetzes, _Scholia on Lycophron_, 492 _sq._ (vol. ii. pp. 646 _sq._,

ed. Chr. G. Müller, Leipsic, 1811); G. Knaack, “Zur Meleagersage,”

_Rheinisches Museum_, N. F. xlix. (1894) pp. 310-313.

336 Apollodorus, _Bibliotheca_, iii. 15. 8; Aeschylus, _Choeph._ 612

_sqq._; Pausanias, i. 19. 4; _Ciris_, 116 _sqq._; Ovid, _Metam._

viii. 8 _sqq._ According to J. Tzetzes (_Schol. on Lycophron_, 650)

not the life but the strength of Nisus was in his golden hair; when

it was pulled out, he became weak and was slain by Minos. According

to Hyginus (_Fab._ 198) Nisus was destined to reign only so long as

he kept the purple lock on his head.

337 Apollodorus, _Bibliotheca_, ii. 4. 5 and 7.

338 J. G. von Hahn, _Griechische und albanesische Märchen_ (Leipsic,

1864), i. 217; a similar story, _ibid._ ii. 282.

339 B. Schmidt, _Griechische Märchen, Sagen und Volkslieder_ (Leipsic,

1877), pp. 91 _sq._ The same writer found in the island of Zacynthus

a belief that the whole strength of the ancient Greeks resided in

three hairs on their breasts, and that it vanished whenever these

hairs were cut; but if the hairs were allowed to grow again, their

strength returned (B. Schmidt, _Das Volksleben der Neugriechen_,

Leipsic, 1871, p. 206). The Biblical story of Samson and Delilah

(Judges xvi.) implies a belief of the same sort, as G. A. Wilken

abundantly shewed in his paper, “De Simsonsage,” _De Gids_, 1888,

No. 5 (reprinted in his _Verspreide Geschriften_, The Hague, 1912,

vol. iii. pp. 551-579).

340 J. G. von Hahn, _op. cit._ ii. 215 _sq._

_ 341 Ibid._ ii. 275 _sq._ Similar stories, _ibid._ ii. 204, 294 _sq._ In

an Albanian story a monster’s strength is in three pigeons, which

are in a hare, which is in the silver tusk of a wild boar. When the

boar is killed, the monster feels ill; when the hare is cut open, he

can hardly stand on his feet; when the three pigeons are killed, he

expires. See Aug. Dozon, _Contes albanais_ (Paris, 1881), pp. 132

_sq._

342 J. G. von Hahn, _op. cit._ ii. 260 _sqq._

_ 343 Ibid._ i. 187.

_ 344 Ibid._ ii. 23 _sq._

345 Émile Legrand, _Contes populaires grecs_ (Paris, 1881), pp. 191

_sqq._

M87 The external soul in Italian stories. Silvia’s son. The dragon twin.

The soul in a gem.

346 Plutarch, _Parallela_, 26. In both the Greek and Italian stories the

subject of quarrel between nephew and uncles is the skin of a boar,

which the nephew presented to his lady-love and which his uncles

took from her.

347 G. Basile, _Pentamerone_, übertragen von Felix Liebrecht (Breslau,

1846), ii. 60 _sq._

348 R. H. Busk, _Folk-lore of Rome_ (London, 1874), pp. 164 _sqq._

M88 Italian story of a wicked fairy whose death was in an egg. A

sorcerer Body-without-Soul whose death was in an egg.

349 T. F. Crane, _Italian Popular Tales_ (London, 1885), pp. 31-34. The

hero had acquired the power of turning himself into an eagle, a

lion, and an ant from three creatures of these sorts whose quarrel

about their shares in a dead ass he had composed. This incident

occurs in other tales of the same type. See below, note 2 and pp.

120 with note 2, 132, 133 with note 1.

350 J. B. Andrews, _Contes Ligures_ (Paris, 1892), No. 46, pp. 213

_sqq._ In a parallel Sicilian story the hero Beppino slays a

sorcerer in the same manner after he had received from an eagle, a

lion, and an ant the same gift of transformation in return for the

same service. See G. Pitrè, _Fiabe, Novelle e Racconti popolari

Siciliani_, ii. (Palermo, 1875) p. 215; and for another Sicilian

parallel, Laura Gonzenbach, _Sicilianische Märchen_ (Leipsic, 1870),

No. 6, pp. 34-38.

M89 The external soul in Slavonic stories. Russian story of Koshchei the

Deathless, whose death was in an egg.

351 Anton Dietrich, _Russian Popular Tales_ (London, 1857), pp. 21-24.

M90 Other versions of the story of Koshchei the Deathless. Death in the

blue rose-tree.

352 Jeremiah Curtin, _Myths and Folk-tales of the Russians, Western

Slavs, and Magyars_ (London, 1891), pp. 119-122. Compare W. R. S.

Ralston, _Russian Folk-tales_ (London, 1873), pp. 100-105.

353 W. R. S. Ralston, _op. cit._ p. 109.

354 W. R. S. Ralston, _Russian Folk-tales_, pp. 113 _sq._

_ 355 Id._, p. 114.

M91 The external soul in Bohemian and Servian stories. True Steel, whose

strength was in a bird.

_ 356 Id._, p. 110.

357 Madam Csedomille Mijatovies, _Serbian Folk-lore_, edited by the Rev.

W. Denton (London, 1874), pp. 167-172; F. S. Krauss, _Sagen und

Märchen der Südslaven_ (Leipsic, 1883-1884), i. 164-169.

M92 Servian story of the dragon of the water-mill whose strength was in

a pigeon. The fight with the dragon.

358 A. H. Wratislaw, _Sixty Folk-tales from exclusively Slavonic

Sources_ (London, 1889), pp. 224-231.

M93 The external soul in a Lithuanian story. The Soulless King whose

soul was in a duck’s egg. The Soulless King. The water of life. The

soul in the duck’s egg.

359 A. Leskien und K. Brugmann, _Litauische Volkslieder und Märchen_

(Strasburg, 1882), pp. 423-430; compare _id._, pp. 569-571.

M94 The external soul in Teutonic stories. Transylvanian story of a

witch whose life was in a light. German story of Soulless the

cannibal, whose soul was in a box. The helpful animals.

360 Josef Haltrich, _Deutsche Volksmärchen aus dem Sachsenlande in

Siebenbürgen_4 (Vienna, 1885), No. 34 (No. 33 of the first edition),

pp. 149 _sq._

361 J. W. Wolf, _Deutsche Märchen und Sagen_ (Leipsic, 1845), No. 20,

pp. 87-93.

M95 German story of flowers that were life-tokens.

362 L. Strackerjan, _Aberglaube und Sagen aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg_

(Oldenburg, 1867), ii. 306-308, § 622. In this story the flowers are

rather life-tokens than external souls. The life-token has been

carefully studied by Mr. E. S. Hartland in the second volume of his

learned work _The Legend of Perseus_ (London, 1895).

M96 The warlock in the wood, whose heart was in a bird.

363 K. Müllenhoff, _Sagen, Märchen und Lieder der Herzogthümer Schleswig

Holstein und Lauenburg_ (Kiel, 1845), pp. 404 _sqq._

M97 The external soul in Norse stories. The giant whose heart was in a

duck’s egg.

364 P. Chr. Asbjörnsen og J. Moe, _Norske Folke-Eventyr_ (Christiania,

N.D.), No. 36, pp. 174-180; G. W. Dasent, _Popular Tales from the

Norse_ (Edinburgh, 1859), pp. 55 _sqq._

365 P. Chr. Asbjörnsen, _Norske Folke-Eventyr_, Ny Samling (Christiania,

1871), No. 70, pp. 35-40; G. W. Dasent, _Tales from the Fjeld_

(London, 1874), pp. 223-230 (“Boots and the Beasts”). As in other

tales of this type, it is said that the hero found three animals (a

lion, a falcon, and an ant) quarrelling over a dead horse, and

received from them the power of transforming himself into animals of

these species as a reward for dividing the carcase fairly among

them.

M98 The external soul in Danish stories. The warlock whose heart was in

a duck’s egg. The helpful animals.

366 Svend Grundtvig, _Dänische Volksmärchen_, übersetzt von A.

Strodtmann, Zweite Sammlung (Leipsic, 1879), pp. 194-218.

M99 Danish story of the magician whose heart was in a fish. The

magician’s heart.

367 Svend Grundtvig, _Dänische Volksmärchen_, übersetzt von Willibald

Leo (Leipsic, 1878), pp. 29-45.

M100 The external soul in Icelandic stories. The king’s son in the cave

of the giantesses whose life was in an egg. The swans’ song. The

life-egg. An Icelandic parallel to Meleager.

368 J. C. Poestion, _Isländische Märchen_ (Vienna, 1884), No. vii. pp.

49-55. The same story is told with minor variations by Konrad Maurer

in his _Isländische Volkssagen der Gegenwart_ (Leipsic, 1860), pp.

277-280. In his version a giant and giantess, brother and sister,

have their life in one stone, which they throw backwards and

forwards to each other; when the stone is caught and broken by the

heroine, the giant and giantess at once expire. The tale was told to

Maurer when he was crossing an arm of the sea in a small boat; and

the waves ran so high and broke into the boat so that he could not

write the story down at the time but had to trust to his memory in

recording it afterwards.

369 W. Mannhardt, _Germanische Mythen_ (Berlin, 1858), p. 592; John

Jamieson, _Etymological Dictionary of the Scottish Language_, New

Edition, revised by J. Longmuir and D. Donaldson (Paisley,

1879-1882), iv. 869, _s.v._ “Yule.”

M101 The external soul in Celtic stories. The giant whose soul was in a

duck’s egg.

370 J. F. Campbell, _Popular Tales of the West Highlands_, New Edition

(Paisley and London, 1890), i. 7-11.

371 J. F. Campbell, _Popular Tales of the West Highlands_, New Edition,

i. 80 _sqq._

M102 The herdsman of Cruachan and the helpful animals. The simple giant

and the wily woman.

372 Compare _Taboo and the Perils of Soul_, p. 12.

373 Rev. D. MacInnes, _Folk and Hero Tales_ (London, 1890), pp. 103-121.

M103 Argyleshire story of the Bare-Stripping Hangman whose soul was in a

duck’s egg.

374 Rev. J. Macdougall, _Folk and Hero Tales_ (London, 1891), pp. 76

_sqq._ (_Waifs and Strays of Celtic Tradition_, No. iii.).

M104 Highland story of Headless Hugh.

375 Rev. James Macdonald, _Religion and Myth_ (London, 1893), pp. 187

_sq._ The writer tells us that in his youth a certain old Betty

Miles used to terrify him with this tale. For the tradition of

Headless Hugh, who seems to have been the only son of Hector, first

chief of Lochbuy, in the fourteenth century, see J. G. Campbell,

_Witchcraft and Second Sight in the Highlands and Islands of

Scotland_ (Glasgow, 1902), pp. III _sqq._ India also has its stories

of headless horsemen. See W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folk-lore

of Northern India_ (London, 1896), i. 256 _sqq._

M105 The Mackays the descendants of the seal.

376 Rev. James Macdonald, _Religion and Myth_, pp. 191 _sq._, from

information furnished by the Rev. A. Mackay. In North Uist there is

a sept known as “the MacCodrums of the seals.” and a precisely

similar legend is told to explain their descent from seals. See J.

G. Campbell, _Superstitions of the Highlands and Islands of

Scotland_ (Glasgow, 1900), p. 284.

M106 The external soul in Irish and Breton stories. The giant and the

egg. The helpful animals. Body-without-Soul. The helpful animals.

The giant whose life was in a box-tree.

377 Jeremiah Curtin, _Myths and Folk-tales of Ireland_ (London, N.D.),

pp. 71 _sqq._

378 P. Sébillot, _Contes populaires de la Haute-Bretagne_ (Paris, 1885),

pp. 63 _sqq._

379 F. M. Luzel, _Contes populaires de Basse-Bretagne_ (Paris, 1887), i.

435-449. Compare _id._, _Veillées Bretonnes_ (Morlaix, 1879), pp.

133 _sq._ For two other French stories of the same type, taken down

in Lorraine, see E. Cosquin, _Contes populaires de Lorraine_ (Paris,

N.D.), Nos. 15 and 50 (vol. i. pp. 166 _sqq._, vol. ii. pp. 128

_sqq._). In both of them there figures a miraculous beast which can

only be slain by breaking a certain egg against its head; but we are

not told that the life of the beast was in the egg. In both of them

also the hero receives from three animals, whose dispute about the

carcase of a dead beast he has settled, the power of changing

himself into animals of the same sort. See the remarks and

comparisons of the learned editor, Monsieur E. Cosquin, _op. cit._

i. 170 _sqq._

380 F. M. Luzel, _Veillées Bretonnes_ pp. 127 _sqq._

M107 The external soul in stories of non-Aryan peoples. The ancient

Egyptian story of the Two Brothers. The heart in the flower of the

Acacia.

M108 Bata in the Valley of the Acacia. How Bata died and was brought to

life again.

381 (Sir) Gaston Maspero, _Contes populaires de l’Égypte ancienne_3

(Paris, N.D.), pp. 1 _sqq._; W. M. Flinders Petrie, _Egyptian

Tales_, Second Series (London, 1895), pp. 36 _sqq._; Alfred

Wiedemann, _Altägyptische Sagen und Märchen_ (Leipsic, 1906), pp.

58-77. Compare W. Mannhardt, “Das älteste Märchen,” _Zeitschrift für

deutsche Mythologie und Sittenkunde_, iv. (1859) pp. 232-259. The

manuscript of the story, which is now in the British Museum,

belonged to an Egyptian prince, who was afterwards King Seti II. and

reigned about the year 1300 B.C. It is beautifully written and in

almost perfect condition.

M109 The external soul in Arabian stories. The jinnee and the sparrow.

The ogress and the bottle.

_ 382 The Thousand and One Nights, commonly called, in England, The

Arabian Nights’ Entertainments_, translated by E. W. Lane (London,

1839-1841), iii. 339-345.

383 G. Spitta-Bey, _Contes arabes modernes_ (Leyden and Paris, 1883),

No. 2, pp. 12 _sqq._ The story in its main outlines is identical

with the Cashmeer story of “The Ogress Queen” (J. H. Knowles,

_Folk-tales of Kashmir_, pp. 42 _sqq._) and the Bengalee story of

“The Boy whom Seven Mothers Suckled” (Lal Behari Day, _Folk-tales of

Bengal_, pp. 117 _sqq._; _Indian Antiquary_, i. 170 _sqq._). In

another Arabian story the life of a witch is bound up with a phial;

when it is broken, she dies (W. A. Clouston, _A Group of Eastern

Romances and Stories_, Privately printed, 1889, p. 30). A similar

incident occurs in a Cashmeer story (J. H. Knowles, _op. cit._ p.

73). In the Arabian story mentioned in the text, the hero, by a

genuine touch of local colour, is made to drink the milk of an

ogress’s breasts and hence is regarded by her as her son. The same

incident occurs in Kabyle and Berber tales. See J. Rivière, _Contes

populaires de la Kabylie du Djurdjura_ (Paris, 1882), p. 239; R.

Basset, _Nouveaux Contes Berbères_ (Paris, 1897), p. 128, with the

editor’s note, pp. 339 _sqq._ In a Mongolian story a king refuses to

kill a lad because he has unwittingly partaken of a cake kneaded

with the milk of the lad’s mother (B. Jülg, _Mongolische

Märchen-Sammlung, die neun Märchen des Siddhi-Kür_, Innsbruck, 1868,

p. 183). Compare W. Robertson Smith, _Kinship and Marriage in Early

Arabia_, New Edition (London, 1903), p. 176; and for the same mode

of creating kinship among other races, see A. d’Abbadie, _Douze ans

dans la Haute Ethiopie_ (Paris, 1868), pp. 272 _sq._; Tausch,

“Notices of the Circassians,” _Journal of the Royal Asiatic

Society_, i. (1834) p. 104; J. Biddulph, _Tribes of the Hindoo

Koosh_ (London, 1880), pp. 77, 83 (compare G. W. Leitner, _Languages

and Races of Dardistan_, Lahore, 1878, p. 34); Denzil C. J.

Ibbetson, _Settlement Report of the Panipat, Tahsil, and Karnal

Parganah of the Karnal District_ (Allahabad, 1883), p. 101; J.

Moura, _Le Royaume du Cambodge_ (Paris, 1883), i. 427; F. S. Krauss,

_Sitte und Brauch der Südslaven_ (Vienna, 1885), p. 14; J. H. Weeks,

_Among Congo Cannibals_ (London, 1913), p. 132. When the Masai of

East Africa make peace with an enemy, each tribe brings a cow with a

calf and a woman with a baby. The two cows are exchanged, and the

enemy’s child is suckled at the breast of the Masai woman, and the

Masai baby is suckled at the breast of the woman belonging to the

enemy. See A. C. Hollis, _The Masai_ (Oxford, 1905), pp. 321 _sq._

M110 The external soul in Basque, Kabyle, and Magyar stories.

384 W. Webster, _Basque Legends_ (London, 1877), pp. 80 _sqq._; J.

Vinson, _Le folk-lore du pays Basque_ (Paris, 1883), pp. 84 _sqq._

As so often in tales of this type, the hero is said to have received

his wonderful powers of metamorphosis from animals whom he found

quarrelling about their shares in a dead beast.

385 J. Rivière, _Contes populaires de la Kabylie du Djurdjura_ (Paris,

1882), p. 191.

386 W. H. Jones and L. L. Kropf, _The Folk-tales of the Magyar_ (London,

1889), pp. 205 _sq._

387 R. H. Busk, _The Folk-lore of Rome_ (London, 1874), p. 168.

M111 The external soul in a Lapp story. The giant whose life was in a

hen’s egg. The helpful animals.

388 F. Liebrecht, “Lappländische Märchen,” _Germania_, N.R., iii. (1870)

pp. 174 _sq._; F. C. Poestion, _Lappländische Märchen_ (Vienna,

1886), No. 20, pp. 81 _sqq._

M112 The external soul in Samoyed and Kalmuck stories.

389 A. Castren, _Ethnologische Vorlesungen über die altaischen Völker_

(St. Petersburg, 1857), pp. 173 _sqq._