{ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH}.
{Section} 1. {Native divisions}.
83. Common teachers of the language in distinguishing words, only
use two pairs of terms, viz. 實, 虛 zeh, h’ü, and 死, 活 ’sz, {w}eh.
The former signifies words that have a meaning (full) and such as
have not (empty). All substantives are 實字眼 {s}eh zz‘ ’nga{n}.
Auxiliary words or particles receive the name of 虛字眼 h’ü zz‘
’nga{n}. Verbs and adjectives are placed by some writers in the
first of these classes, and by others in the second. Remusat, says
that verbs are 實字 zeh zz‘; a native author 畢華珍 Pih {w}ó tsun
treats, all words except substantives, as in the second class.
84. The other pair of terms views words as nouns, which are spoken
of as 死字眼 ’si zz‘ ’nga{n}, or verbs which are 活字眼 {w}eh zz‘
’nga{n}. The usual sense of 活 is {living}, but by an extension of
meaning, it is applied to anything not fixed to its place, or liable
to change in its appearance or form. Hence, verbs as dependent on
circumstances of time, will, etc. are termed {moving} or
{transferable} words, while substantive are said to be {fixed} or
{dead}.
85. The native writer just referred to, in a recent work, 衍緖草堂筆記
’íe{n} ’zü ’t’sau dong pih kí‘, on the parts of speech and
construction of sentences, has extended these divisions, by forming
the 虛字 h’ü zz‘, or words not substantives, into four classes:—
1. Adjectives 呆虛字 ngé h’ü zz‘:—
Ex. 高 kau, {high}. 多 tú, {many}. 大 {t}á‘, {great}.
低 tí, {low}. 少 ’sau, {few}. 小 ’siau, {small}.
2. Verbs 活虛字 {w}eh h’ü zz‘:—
Ex. 作 tsok, {to do}. 傳 dzé{n}, {to deliver down}.
3. 口氣語助虛字 ’k’eu k’i‘ ’nü ’dzú h’ü zz‘. Under this head he
gives as examples:—
Interrogative and other finals.
焉 {í}e{n},? 乎 {ú},?
哉 tsé,? 也 ’{y}é,.
Pronouns and the sign of the possessive.
此 ’t’sz, {this}. 所 ’sú, {which}.
其 gí, {he}. 之 tsz, {of}.
Adverbs & auxiliary verbs.
甚 zun‘, {very}. 可, ’k’ó, {can}.
最 tsûe‘, „ 爲 {w}é, {be}.
4. 空活虛字 k’óng {w}eh h’ü zz‘.
Obs. The word {w}eh is apparently employed, because conjunctions
like verbs connect what goes before with what follows. Similarly, in
English grammar the verb is the {copula}, while a large class of
conjunctions consists of such as are termed {copulative}. The word 空
is prefixed to distinguish these particles from verbs. The examples
he gives are—
Conjunctions.
雖 sûe, {although}. 如 zû, {like}.
但 {t}an‘, {but}. 若 zák, {as}.
而 rh, {further}. 乃 né, {then}.
Negative and interrogative adverbs.
非 fí {it is not}. 何 {ú}, {what?}
不 peh, {not}. 豈 ’k’í, {how?}
{These examples are from the language of books. The corresponding
words in the dialect will be found in their places}.
86. The frequent interchange of the parts of speech, and the
rhythmical construction of sentences, have almost kept in
concealment among the natives, the classification of which words
naturally admit. Much attention has been given to the successive
forms of the characters; the changes that have occurred in them, and
the principles of their original formation have been carefully
chronicled; but etymological studies have been comparatively
neglected.
The rules of the Wun-cháng, or exercises in fine writing, law indeed
been laid down, but they do not constitute the grammar of the
language. While grammar is a science still unknown to the Chinese,
it is a mark of the intelligence of our author that he has
approached so nearly, as the preceding article shews to a western
classification, and that he has defined with precision, all the
principal parts of speech.
The division into parts of speech, and simple and compound words,
gains in distinctness as we leave the books and restrict our
illustrations to the language of conversation, and much more when
instead of embracing the universal mandarin medium, we aim to
exhibit the dialect of a single district.
For example the words 過 kú‘, 能 nung, 生 sáng, are in the books verbs
or nouns according to their position, their tones remaining
unchanged. In the Shánghái dialect they are all verbs, viz. to pass,
can, to produce, If they stand alone; but the combinations of which
they form part are often substantives. Ex. 過失 kú‘ seh, {a fault};
能力 nung lih, {strength}; 生活 sáng {w}é{h} work. Ming, 明 which in
the books is an adjective or verb, must if used as a verb in the
colloquial have 白 {p}áh appended to it, otherwise it is an
adjective. Thus instead of terminations invented to carry a root
through two or more parts of speech, we have two roots in opposition
for the same purpose. In the following pages accordingly, the terms
noun; adjective, etc. will be predicated of the combined forms each
as a whole, and not of its constituent words except when viewed
independently.
{Section} 2. {Relation of the dialect to the written language, and
to other dialects}.
87. In comparing the dialect with the language of books, it will be
best to go at once to the oldest. The earliest portions of the
Shú-king, {Book of History}, date from a period that must have been
at least 3000 years ago if not previous to that of Moses. The
occurrence of many of the commonest words now found in the
colloquial {media} of China in records so ancient, is a sufficient
illustration of the remarkable persistence of the language. It thus
appears that many of the nouns and pronouns, adjectives and verbs,
that formed the staple of conversation in the days of Yáu and Shun,
are found not merely in the pages of an old world literature, but
are still “familiar household words,” among the whole Chinese race.
The selected examples which follow are all of constant use in the
Shánghái dialect.
88. Examples of single words used in combination or singly.
Names of natural objects, animals, &c.
天 t’íen, {heaven}. 月 niöh, {moon}. 馬 ’mó, {horse}.
地 {t}i‘, {earth}. 星 sing, {stars}. 牛 nieu, {ox}.
人 niun, {man}. 山 sa{n}, {mountain}. 羊 yáng, {sheep}.
水 ’sz, {water}. 海 ’hé, {sea}.
火 ’hú, {fire}. 草 ’t’sau, {grass}.
Divisions of time.
春 t’sun, {spring}. 日 nyih, {day}.
夏 ’{h}au, {summer}. 月 niöh, {month}.
秋 t’sieu, {autumn}. 歲 sûe‘, {solar year}.
冬 tóng, {winter}. 夜 yá‘ {night}.
Meteorological terms.
風 fóng, {wind}. 雷 lé, {thunder}. 雨 ’{ü}, {rain}.
Numbers.
一 ih, {one}. 六 lóh, {six}.
二 ní‘, {two}. 七 t’sih, {seven}.
三 sa{n}, {three}. 八 pah, {eight}.
四 sz‘, {four}. 九 ’kieu, {nine}.
五 ’ng, {five}. 十 zeh, {ten}.
Cardinal points.
東 tóng, {east}. 南 né{n}, {south}.
西 sí, {west}. 北 póh, {north}.
Verbs.
定 {t}ing‘, {to fix}. 能 nung, {can}.
歸 kwé, {return home}. 有 ’{y}eu, {have}.
Adjectives.
大 {t}á‘, {great}. 希 hí, {few}.
遠 ’{y}ön, {distant}. 直 dzuk, {straight}.
Nouns.
罪 zûe, {sin}. 禮 ’lí, {ceremony}.
門 mun; {door}. 詩 sz, {poetry}.
Pronoun.
我 ’ngú, {I}.
89. Examples of nouns composed of two characters, or as they may be
termed, dissyllabic forms.
百姓 pák-sing‘, {the people}. 上帝 záng‘-tí‘, {God}.
天下 t’íe{n}-’{a}u, {the world}. 鳳凰 vóng {w}ong‘ {phœnix}.
正月 tsung‘-niöh, {1st month}. 法度 fah-dú‘, {mode of government}.
聰明 ts’óng-ming, {intelligent}.
90. Examples of words used in combinations in the dialect, but not
singly.
鳥 as in 窵鳥 ’tiau-niau, {birds}.
帝 as in 皇帝 {w}ong-tí‘, {emperor}.
神 as in 神明 zun-ming, {the inferior divinities}.
位 as in 地位 {t}í‘-{w}é‘, {station}.
事 as in 事體 zz‘-’t’í, {matter}.
可 as in 可以 ’k’ó-’í, {may, can}.
日 as in 日頭 nyih-deu, {the sun}.
聞 as in 新聞 sing-vun, {intelligence}.
說 as in 說書 söh-sû, {relate stories}.
91. These examples, which might if it were necessary, be extended to
a much greater length, will be sufficient to exhibit how the most
ancient forms of speech, the primitive words of the Chinese race,
have maintained their position to the present time. In a similar way,
the later classics contemporary with Hebrew literature, and the most
flourishing part of the Greek, might be shewn to possess in a still
greater abundance, the materials from which this and other dialects
have grown into their existing form. But there are also many new
words; the passage of time must witness changes, even in the language
of a people so devoted to antiquity as that of China. It has been
shewn that there has been variation in tones, by referring to the
pronouncing Dictionaries made long since. The natives recognize great
differences In modern and ancient sounds, as seen in the rhymes of
the Book of Odes. Words also have changed; many expressions once
common have become antiquated, and new ones have appeared. A
reference ta colloquial mandarin will illustrate this statement, and
bring before us another large portion of the materials of the dialect.
{Relation to colloquial Mandarin}. 92. The earliest examples of this
form of Chinese, are found in works of the Sung dynasty and in the
historical novels. Mencius so remarkable among the classic authors,
for his picturesque imagery and the animation of his style, sometimes
uses combinations, such as 朋友 {p}áng {y}eu‘, {friend}; 自己 zz‘ ’kí,
{self}; seldom found in ancient books, and which may be considered as
conversational.
93. The following are examples selected from the San kwoh chi 三國志,
and Lieh kwoh chi 烈國志, works now five hundred years old, of new
words not found in the classics, and all in common use in our dialect.
樹 zû‘, {tree}. 會 {w}é‘, {am able to}.
脚 kiáh, {roof}. 吃 k’iuh, {eat}.
船 zé{n} {boat}. 呌 kiau‘, {call a person}.
撇 p’ih, {stroke to the left}. 攏 ’lóng, {bring together}.
埃 á, {take in order}. 惹 ’zá, {provoke}.
敲 k’au, {knock}. 揪 t’sieu, {restrain by holding}.
撑 t’sáng, {pole a boat}. 瞧 dziau, {to look}.
抄 t’sau, {to copy}. 抖 ’teu, {shiver}.
喝 höh, {call to}. 拖 t’ú, {to pull}.
爬 {p}ó, {to scratch}. 勦 tsiau‘, {destroy}.
94. Of the following new pronouns, and interrogative adverbs first
found in the historical novels, there is scarcely any use made in the
Shánghái dialect.
甚麽 M. shen‘ ’mó? {what?} 那裡 M. ’ná ’li? {where?}
什麽 shih ’mó? {what?} 這箇 ché‘ kó‘, {this}.
怎麽 ’tsun ’mó? {how?} 他 t’á, {he}.
Obs. The Shánghái pronouns are all different from those, except the
mutilated form 那裡 ’{a} ’lí? {where?} So for the most part those of
Fúh-kien; which again differ entirely from those of the Canton
dialect as contained in Bridgman’s Chrestomathy. Some pronouns are
widely spread. Thus, ngó 我 I, exists in all these dialects. As a
class however, they are among the words most liable to variation in
colloquial Chinese.
95. The following examples of double words taken from the same works,
will further illustrate the extent to which mandarin phraseology
agrees with that of our dialect. They are all such combinations as
are not found in the classics, and might be increased indefinitely.
人家 niun ká, {a man}.
低頭 tí deu, {lower the head}.
開船 k’é zén, {unmoor a boat}.
時辰 zz zun, {an hour}, i.e. {twelfth of a day}.
招架 tsau ká‘, {shield one’s-self}.
(C) 幫助 pong dzú‘, {to assist}.
容易 {y}úng {í}‘, easy.
船隻 (C) ze{n} tsáh, {boats; or a boat}.
𢬵命 ’p’ing ming‘, {throw away life}.
看見 k’ö{n}‘ kíe{n}‘, {to see}.
踅手 zeh ’seu, {maimed hand}.
利害 lí {é}‘, {dangerous, severe}.
(C) 仔細 ’tsz sí‘, {minutely}.
解說 ’ká seh, {explanation}.
撞倒 dzong‘ ’tau, {push down}.
敬重 kiung‘ dzóng, {revere}.
最好 tsûe‘ ’hau, {very good}.
認得 niun‘ tuh, {know a person}.
唱喏 (C) t’song‘ ’zó, {join one’s hands in respect}.
倒竪 ’tau ’zû, {set up on end}.
The characters marked (C) are those that were invented, to represent
colloquial words written for the first time. The rest are old
classical characters, but they are not found in these combinations.
97. On comparing the old historical novels, with mandarin colloquial
tales of the present dynasty, such as the well-known 紅樓夢 {Dream of
the Red Chamber}, no closer analogy with our dialect appears. The
style indeed is much more diffuse, being a faithful copy of what real
conversation is, and so far it is more like provincial dialects. But
as to words, the auxiliary particles (in which the chief changes
occur), are peculiar to mandarin, and the verbs and nouns are the
same as those of earlier works.
Thus, 的 occurs constantly instead of 之 ch, which is the most common
sign of the possessive in the {Three Kingdoms}. As the third personal
pronoun, 那 ’ná takes the place of 其 gí The word for {said}, 曰 {y}öh,
a term not used in conversation, is replaced by 說道 shwóh táú, either
together or apart.
98. Having thus briefly considered the historical division that the
dialect admits of, into primitive and modern words, something should
be added on local terms, constituting the remainder. On examination
it will be found that the words, single and compound, not in
mandarin, are few. They can scarcely be many more than a hundred. In
a list drawn up for the purpose by a native, of about 100, a third
part consisted of verbs, another third part of particles, the rest
comprised substantives, adjectives, and words imitative of sounds.
Many of these belong also to the dialects of the neighbouring cities.
In the histories of Sú-cheú and Súng-kiáng, the short chapter devoted
to the subject of colloquialisms, enumerates several that belong
equally to Shánghái. They appear to have been copied in great part
from one work into another, and the whole number recorded in each does
not reach fifty. Those contained in the history of Shánghái, will be
found in the following pages under the parts of speech to which they
belong. In Medhurst’s Dictionary of the Fúh-kien dialect, there are
classified lists of about 250 phrases peculiar to that province. Some
of these however are corrupted forms of expressions used in the other
parts of China.
99. The neighbouring dialect of Sú-cheú may be expected to have much
in common with that of Shánghái, The system of pronunciation is in
general the same, the initial consonants forming a hard and soft
series, corresponding to the upper and lower tones in the southern
provinces. The following are examples of phrases, the same as those of
Shánghái.
那哼 ’ná háng? {how?} 弗是 veh zz‘, {it is not}
自家 zz‘ ká, {self}. 多許 tú hau‘, {very many}.
弟个 veh kú‘, {not so}. 慢點 ma{n}‘ ’tíe{n}, {little slower}.
做啥 tsú‘ sá‘? {what do you?} 個頭 kú‘ deu, {there}.
個歇 kú‘ h’ih, {at present}. 個个 kú‘ kú‘, {that}.
哉 tsé (M. 了), sign of completion.
子 ’tsz (M. 了), sign of past participle.
个 kú‘ (M. 的), sign of possessive.
勿 veh (M. 不), simple negative.
全 dsíe{n} (M. 都), {all}.
啥 sá‘ (M. 甚麽)? {what?}
好好能 ’hau ’hau nung, {well, in a good manner}.
想着之 ’siáng záh ’tsz, {having thought of}.
拉屋裡 ’la óh ’lí, {at home}.
是介 zz‘ ké‘ (S. {s}eh ké nung), {thus}.
In some words very commonly occurring, that dialect differs from
Shánghái and agrees with mandarin.
This, M. 道个 ché‘ kú‘. S. 第个 {t}í‘ kú‘.
He, M. 他 t’á. S. 伊 í.
How? M. 怎麽樣 ’tsun ’mó yáng‘?
{Section} 3. {On the Substantive}.
100. The native grammarian already introduced to the reader defines
substantives, or rather substances, thus 天地名物, 象數事理 T’íe{n} dí‘
ming veh‘ ziáng‘ sú‘ zz‘ ’{l}i, “Heaven, earth, names and things,
images, numbers, facts and principles;” 凡有形有質, 有氣有聲 va{n} ’{y}eu
{y}iung ’{y}eu tseh ’{y}eu k’i ’{y}eu sung, “all things that have
form, material substances, breath and sound;” 一切有端可指者 ih t’sih
’{y}eu tön ’k’ó ’{t}sz ’tsé, “all things having any property that can
be pointed out;” 皆謂之實字 kia {w}é‘ tsz {s}eh zz‘, “are called
substantives.”
“The names of substances,” he adds, “may consist of one or several
characters, which must be arranged in classes, brought under the
dominion of the rhythmus, and stored in the memory for use when
required.” Such nouns as express the properties of substances he calls
子字 ’tsz zz‘, “son characters,” while the names of the substances
themselves are termed 毋字 ’mú zz‘, “mother characters.” Attributes he
further subdivides into “universal,” 公共子字 kóng góng‘ ’tsz zz‘, and
“special,” 實在子字 {s}eh zé ’tsz zz‘.
{Combined and uncombined substantives}. 101. One of the most striking
peculiarities of Chinese words, whether nouns, verbs or particles, is
the strictness with which the laws of combination and order are
observed. Each dialect has many words that can be used with or without
an adjunct, and may be regarded as purely monosyllabic; another large
class embraces such as are never used by the natives, except in
apposition with some other word, and constituting for that dialect,
what may be considered dissyllables. Of the former or monosyllabic
kind are the following examples (s. C).
飯 va{n}‘, {cooked rice}. 貓 mau‘, {cat}. 狗 ’keu, {dog}.
雲 yün, {clouds}. 墨 muh, {ink}. 藥 {y}áh, {medicine}.
理 ’lí, {moral law}. 煤 mé, {coal}. 雪 sih, {snow}.
102. In construction, these and similar words may be observed to
remain in an uncombined state. The first word in each, of the
following sentences exemplifies this remark.
米糴好否 ’mi {t}ih ’hau ’vá? {have you brought rice?}
人是一樣个 niun ’zz ih {y}áng‘ kú, {I am a man as you}.
袖要大 dzien‘ yau‘ dú‘, {let the sleeve be large}.
These words may all of them be used in combination, according to some
of the laws described in the succeeding paragraphs. Thus they appear
in dissyllabic forms such as—
米價 ’mí ká‘, {price of rice}. 大人 {t}ú‘ niun, {father}.
103. The other class consists of those words that are never used
without an adjunct. For example 衣 í {dress}, not used alone, is found
among other combinations in the following.
衣裳 í zong, {clothes}. 布衣 pú‘ í, {cotton clothes}.
So also 猪 tsz, 日 zeh, 房 vong, 禮 ’lí, are found in combination only.
猪驢 tsz lú, {a pig}. 過房 ku‘ vong, {adopted child}.
江猪 kong tsz, {the river pig} (a fish).
禮物 ’lí veh, {presents}. 日食 nyih zuh, {eclipse of the sun}.
104. In construction, the adjuncts unless the rhythmus requires it,
cannot be omitted.
着衣裳 tsáh í zong, {put on clothes}.
殺猜驢个 sah tsz lú kú‘, {pork butcher}.
日頭落山 nyih deu lok sa{n}, {sun is setting}.
租房子 tsú vong ’tsz, {let a house}.
送禮物 sóng‘ ’lí veh, {offer presents}.
{Combination}. 105. Substantives are formed of two or more
substantives combined in various ways. If the collocation consists of
species and genus, the former precedes.
柏樹 páh zû‘, {cypress}.
茶壺 dzó {ú}, {teapot}.
松樹 sóng zû‘, {pine}.
鐵蛋 t’ih da{n}‘, {iron bullet}.
酒壺 tsieu {ú}, {wine chalice}.
雞蛋 kí da{n}‘, {hen’s egg}.
牡丹花 mau‘-ta{n}‘ hwó, {moutan pœny}.
孛相船 {p}eh-siáng‘ zén {pleasure boat}.
堦沿石 ká-{í}en záh, {first door-step}.
磨刀石 mú tau záh, {grind-stone}.
紅緯帽子 {h}óng {w}é‘ mau‘-’tsz, {red tasselled hat}.
Obs. In the last five examples, the first two words constitute the
species. The word 石 záh requires 頭 as its appendage, if there is no
specific term prefixed. When compounds are formed, the auxiliary word
is omitted. In the last case 子 tsz, the auxiliary is retained, or
dropped at pleasure.
106. When the compound substantive formed by juxtaposition, consists
of whole and part, or substance and accident or attribute, the former
precedes.
手心 ’seu sing, {palm of the hand}.
手套 ’seu t’au‘, {gloves}.
樹根 zû‘ kun, {root of a tree}.
樹葉 zû‘ ih, {leaves of a tree}.
頭髮 {t}eu fah, {hair}.
首飾 ’seu seh, {head ornaments}.
107. When two or more substantives, cognate in meaning, or in some
logical relation, are in apposition, their order depends on native
usage.
親眷 t’sing kiö{n}‘, {relations}.
信息 sing‘ sih, {letters and news}.
街路 ká lu‘ {the road}.
貨色 hú‘ suh, {goods}.
榮光 {y}óng kwong, {glory}.
財帛 dzé báh, {money and silk}.
福祿壽 fóh loh zeu‘, {happiness, affluence and age}.
酒色財氣 ’tsieu suh dzé k’í‘ {wine, lust, riches and anger}.
Obs. i. The primary reason of the order in which these words are used,
may have been a real or fanciful sequence of ideas, convenience of
pronunciation, rhythm or caprice; but whatever it was, it is strictly
preserved. Should another order be adopted, the meaning would not be
conveyed. To these and other fixed combinations, found in all parts of
speech, must in great part be attributed, the facility with which a
language of monosyllables and tones such as the Chinese, is employed
as a conversational medium.
Obs. ii. Many words found in compounds of this sort are inseparable.
Thus 眷 kiö{n}‘ has no other use in the dialect, than to form these
combinations. As a verb {to compassionate} its use is limited to the
books.
Obs. iii. Under this head may be included antithetical substantives
(Literæ oppositæ, Premare), of which there are several in common use
without a particle between them. 姊妹 tsí ({elder sister}) mé‘
({younger do.}) sisters; 禽獸 {k}iun ({birds}), seu‘ ({beasts}),
{animals}; 天地 t’íe{n} dí‘, {heaven and earth}; 夫婦 fú vú‘, {husband
and wife}; 山水人物 sa{n} ’sz niun veh, {mountains, water, men and
things:} 銅錢銀子 {t}óng díe{n} niung ’tsz, {copper and silver money}.
Obs. iv. Phrases of this sort are not coined {ad libitum}. They are
old forms, and the modern Chinese do not allow themselves to make new
ones. Each dialect has its own traditional arrangement of words, as
well as its particular mode of enunciating the tones, and its
alphabetical variations. But there is in all the dialects, so large a
majority of phrases as well as words, common to the rest of China,
even in that of Fúh-kien, that the identity of the language is in no
district brought into question by these differences.
108. Some of these combined forms consist of a substantive and an
enclitic. Of the auxiliary words thus used 子 ’tsz, 頭 {t}eu, are the
most common.
鴿子 keh ’tsz, {a pigeon}.
席子 {s}ih ’tsz, {matting}.
刮法子 {k}wah fah ’tsz, {machinery}.
罐頭 kwé{n}‘ deu, {saucepan}.
流頭 lieu den, {pulley}.
甎頭 tsé{n} deu, {bricks}.
話頭 {w}ó‘ deu, {words}.
骨耳頭 kweh- ’rh deu, {an axle}.
These enclitics are never used in the classics; they form a leading
characteristic of colloquial Chinese. ’Tsz and {t}eu give
individuality and definiteness to the term they qualify. Their proper
meaning, {son}, {head}, is in these cases lost; they help also to fill
the rhythm of the sentence, and to distinguish the words to which they
are appended from other terms like them in sound. The enclitic 兒 rh,
so common in the mandarin provinces, and also in the dialect of
Háng-cheú, has its place supplied by 子 ’tsz. Nyih ’tsz 日子 {day} is
distinguished from nyih deu 日頭 {the sun} by the enclitic.
109. To express a place where persons come and go, the words 頭 deu
and 塲 dzáng are appended to substantives.
粒屑 lih sih, or sih alone, expresses {small fragments of}.
局頭 {k}ióh deu, {place of carrying on trade}.
橋頭 {k}iau deu, {landing place of a bridge}.
碼頭 ’mó deu, „ „ {of a ferry}.
賭場 ’tu dzáng, {place of gaming}.
戲場 h’í dzáng, {place of seeing plays}.
牛場 nieu dzáng, {place of tethering cattle}.
柴粒屑 zá lih sih, {small fragments of firewood}.
110. Verbs and adjectives form compound substantives, by taking after
them such auxiliaries as 頭 {t}eu, 法 fah and 處 t’sû‘.
有辦頭 ’{y}eu pa{n}‘ deu, {there is a way of doing it}.
唔坐處 {m} ’zú t’sû‘, {no place to sit down}.
有啥做法 ’{y}eu sá‘ t’sû‘ fah? {is there a way of doing it?}
唔啥好處 {m} sá‘ ’hau t’sû‘, {no benefit in it}.
那能好法 ’ná nung ’hau fah? {how is it good?}
長頭 {dzáng deu}, {overplus}.
剩頭, 餘頭 dzung‘ deu, {û} deu, {remainder}.
牢實頭 lau zeh deu, {a simple, honest person}.
苦惱子 ’k’u ’nau ’tsz, {one very poor and wretched}.
111. Many of the auxiliary substantives treated of in the next
section, whose office it is to stand between numerals and their nouns,
often follow their substantives without a numeral. A compound is thus
formed, in which the sense of the classifying particle is often
preserved, {A piece of} is expressed by k’wé. {A bar of} by {t}iau.
冰塊 ping k’wé‘, {piece of ice}. 鋼條 kong diau, {steel spring}.
船隻 zé{n} tsáh, {boats}. 人頭 niun deu, {a man}.
書本 sû ’pun, {books}. 紙張 ’tsz tsáng, {sheet of paper}.
112. The words 夫 fú, 手 ’seu, 做 tsoh, 匠 ziáng‘, 司務 sz‘ vú‘, 家 ká,
人 niun, are appended to substantives to denote agents, trades and
professions.
脚夫 kiák fú, {a porter}. 兇手 h’iúng ’seu, {murderer}.
本作, 木匠 mok tsoh, or móh ziáng‘, {carpenter}.
水作, 泥水匠 ’sz tsoh, or ní ’sz ziáng‘, {bricklayer}.
鞋匠司務 {h}á ziáng‘ sz‘ vú‘, {shoemaker}.
裁縫司務 dzé vóng sz‘ vú‘, {tailor}.
店家 tié{n} ká, {shop-keeper}. 船家 zé{n} ká, {boatman}.
捉魚人 tsoh {ng} niun. {fisherman}.
拾柴人 {s}ih zá niun, {wood gatherer}.
東家 tóng ({east}) ká, {master} ({who places his guests on the right}).
禮生 ’lí sáng, {director of rites}. 先生 síe{n} sáng, {teacher}.
Obs. In the longer examples, some verbs will be found which enter into
composition, as those in Art. 113.
113. Verbs and adjectives are frequently compounded in the same way as
substantives.
屏風 {p}ing ({to screen}) fóng ({the wind}), {a screen}.
扶手 vú ({to support}) ’seu ({the hand}), {hand-rail}.
吃局 k’iuh ({eat}) gióh ({food}), {food}.
小姐 ’siau tsiá, {young lady}.
古董 ’kú ({old}) ’tóng, {curiosities}.
夥計 ’hú ({combine}) kí‘ ({plans}), {partner in business}.
辮子 {p}íe{n}‘ ({to plait}) ’tsz, {the queue}.
黃狼 {w}ong ({yellow}) long ({wolf}), {weasel}.
抽㔸 t’seu ({to draw out}) t’í‘ ({drawer}), {a drawer}.
生梨 sáng ({raw}) lí ({pears}), {pears}.
花紅 hwó ({flower}) {ó}ng ({red}), {small apples}.
金箔 kíun boh, ({thin}) {gold-leaf}.
相好 siáng ({mutual}) hau ({good}) {intimate friends}.
114. The word 阿, merely euphonic, is joined to the names of persons,
both relative and proper. Thus instead of 哥哥 kó kó, {elder brother},
we have in Shánghái 阿哥 ah (R. á.) kú also 阿爹 or 爹爹 tiá tiá,
{father}. When applied to the names of children and others in humble
life, either word in the proper name may annexed.
115. Some examples of foreign words used in the dialect,
and of colloquial substantives, extracted from the history of
Shánghái are here appended.
鴉片 á p’íe{n}‘, {opium}.
袈裟 ká só, {Buddhist priest’s robe}. Sanscrit Kashaya.
記 (C) 翼 (C) kí‘ lih, {wings}. M. ’ch pang rh.
尾杷 (C) ní‘ pó, {tail}. (尾) R. ’vi) M. i pa.
小囝 (C) ’siau nö{n}, {little boy}.
鱟 (C) heu‘, {the king-crab, rainbow}. M. kang‘, R. 虹 hung.
簷凙 (C) {y}ien doh, {icicles}. M. ping chiu‘ ’tsz.
羊乳 (C) {y}áng ’ná, {goat’s milk}.
筷 (C) k’wa{n}, {chopsticks}. M. k’wai tsz.
烟囪 (C) íe{n} t’sóng, {chimney}. M. yen ’t’ung.
爺娘 {y}á niáng, {father and mother}. M. tie niang.
Obs. Characters followed by (c) are such as are borrowed, to represent
purely colloquial words.
New and colloquial words are usually written on the phonetic
principle, as may be noticed in the first three examples. Natives
differ much in their way of writing purely colloquial words, and being
never made use of in books, it matters little what character is
adopted.
116. The last way of forming compound substantives to be exemplified,
is by the particle 個 kú‘, which coming after a verb and noun expresses
an agent.
吃糧箇 k’iuh liáng kú, ({living on imperial rice}), {soldiers}.
撐船箇 t’sáng zé{n} kú‘, {those who work boats}.
管賬個 ’kwé{n} tsáng‘-kú‘, {account-keeper}.
賣花個 má‘ hwó kú‘, {flower-seller}.
擺渡個 ’pá dú‘ kú‘, {ferryman}.
Obs. The common word 的 tih and in books 者 ’tsé is not used in this
dialect its place being supplied by 個 kú‘ as in these examples.
{Repetition}. 117. Substantives are in some cases repeated.
Forms indicative of diminutiveness are such as occur in the
following examples.
嘵一星星 ’nau ih sing sing, {look! there is a star}.
要一點點 yau‘ ih ’tíe{n} ’tíe{n}, {I want a very little}.
118. A few repeated forms occur, with am adjective preceding in
opposition.
暗洞洞 é{n}‘ dóng dóng, {a dark place}.
亮晃晃 liáng ’kwong ’kwong, {a glimmer of light}.
Obs. Such forms of repetition are rare, except when they express
plurality (v. Art. 129). In the adjective and verb, they are much more
common. See also Part III. Repetition.
119. The formation of compound substantives, by the simple apposition
of two or more roots, is also found in other languages. English and
German contain many examples. Substantives, adjectives, and verbs all
enter into these forms. E.g. hearsay (v. v.), sunset (s. v.), windfall
(s. v.), footstool (s. s.), farewell (v. adv.), lebewohl (do. German),
adieu (prep. s. Fr. Eng.), addio (do. Ital.), safeguard (a. s.),
white-bait (a. s.), Rath-haus (s. s.), council-house (s. s.). Though
many of these words are written without a break, the accent on the
penultimate indicates, for those that are English, that they are
compounds. In languages that have an extensive system of terminations
such as Latin, Greek, and Sanscrit, when composition occurs, the
constituent roots become one word, and the affix of declension, &c. in
the word that precedes is usually omitted. Thus, in {αὐτάδελφος} and
{αὐτόχειρ} the simple root {aut} precedes the word to which it is
joined, in one case with no adjunct, and in the other with the
connecting vowel {o}. In the Latin word {respublica}, {reipublicæ} we
have two roots in apposition, without the process of declension being
interrupted. Cases of simple juxtaposition such as this, are much
rarer in the ancient languages than in the modern, where the root
admits of few variations in its form.
120. In the development of a language consisting of monosyllabic
roots, where nothing can be added or altered, some equivalent for
terminations and compounds must be expected. This want is met in the
Indian languages of America, by combining several independent roots
into one word. If for these agglutinated syllables, separate
characters were reserved, it would be a system resembling the Chinese.
We have in the latter (1), simple apposition of roots, as exemplified
in articles 105, 106, 107. Second, there is a change of certain
substantives into mere particles which are appended, deprived of their
primitive meaning, to large classes of words, as seen in articles 108,
109, 110. Forms of this second kind are usually expressive of simple
ideas only; the others may be simple or compound. The terminations of
tense and case in the classical languages came from the simple
apposition of separate words. Those of the first, second, and third
persons of a verb are derived for example, from the three
corresponding personal pronouns. Obsolete forms preserved in the
oldest writers countenance this theory. Whether the primitive speech
of mankind was of this sort, may be matter of controversy, but there
can be no doubt that the Chinese language has this peculiarity.
121. Variation in tone might be enumerated as a third mode of
supplying the want of inflexions. Examples in the spoken language are
however extremely few. In 種 tsóng‘, {to sow}, and 種子 ’tsóng ’tsz,
{seed}, the tone differs. But even here the enclitic 子 is an
inseparable appendage to the noun. Some other examples here follow:—
一囘 ih {w}é‘, {one time}. 囘來 {w}é lé, {come back}.
磨子 mú‘ ’tsz, {a mill}. 磨麥 mú máh, {grind wheat}.
牽繩 k’íe{n}‘ zung, {towing-rope}. 牽船 k’íe{n} zé{n}, {tow a boat}.
鐵釘 t’ih ting, {iron nail}. 釘牢 ting‘ lau, {nail fast}.
應該 yung ké, {ought}. 應許 yung‘ ’hü, {a promise}.
相幫 siáng pong, {to assist}. 宰相 tsé‘ siáng‘, {chief mandn}.
Obs. The superior comma on the right shows where the words whose tone
varies should receive the quick rising tone, or Shánghái {k’u shing}.
{Gender}. 122. Gender is expressed by auxiliary words set apart for
the purpose. It being thus merely an instance of adjectives and
substantives in apposition, the arrangement requires the words
descriptive of sex (男 né{n}, 女 ’nü), or gender (雌 t’sz, 雄 {y}ióng)
to precede.
雄鷄雌鷄 {y}ióng-kí t‘sz-kí, {a cock and hen}.
一隻雄獅子 ih tsáh {y}ióng sz-tsz, {a male lion}.[1]
男人 né{n} niun, {husband}. 女囝 ’nü nö{n}, {a girl}.
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1. In the books {y}óng, t’sz, are restricted to birds, and 牝
{p}ing‘ and 牡 meu‘ to animals. In the colloquial of this part of
China, the pair of words above are used in all cases.
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123. Among the words used in the Shánghái dialect to express family
relationship are the following:—
爹爹 tiá tiá, {father}. 姊夫 tsí fú, {brother-in-law}.
阿媽 ah ’má, {mother}. 孫女 sun ’nü, {grand daughter}.
阿奶 ah ’ná, {grandmother}. 外甥 ngá‘ sáng, {sister’s son}.
伯伯 páh páh, {eldest uncle}. 女壻 ’nü sih, {son-in-law}.
爺叔 {y}á sóh, {younger do}. 姑媽 kú mó, {husband’s sister}.
娘舅 niáng gieu‘, {mother’s 姑娘 kú niáng, {father’s sister}.
brother}. 阿姨 ah {í}, {wife’s sister}.
丈人 dzáng‘ niun, {father-in-law}. 阿嫂 ah sau, {brother’s wife}.
阿姆 dzáng‘ {m}, {mother-in-law}.
媳婦 sing vú, {daughter-in-law}. 阿姪 ah dzeh, {brother’s son}.
外公 ngá‘ kóng, {mother’s father}.
阿姊 ah tsí, {elder sister}.
妹妹 mé‘ mé‘,{younger do}. 外婆 ngá bú, {mother’s mother}.
{Number}. 124. The form of the substantives in the singular and plural
is the same. The auxiliary adjectives and adverbs used to express
plurality are placed some before and some after their words. {Tsóng‘},
{tú hau‘} {’hau ’kí}, and {tá} precede their noun. {Dzén}, t{’óh},
invariably follow their words.
125. 衆 tsóng‘ precedes its noun and expresses universality.
衆百姓 tsóng‘ pák sing‘, {all the people}.
衆位阿 tsóng‘ {w}é‘ á, {all you persons}.
126. 多許 tú hau‘ and ’hau ’ki 好幾 describe {a great number or
several}. Being double inseparable particles, they form a complete
member of a sentence alone, and therefore can be separated from their
words, and placed afterwards with a copula and a terminating particle.
多許物事 tú hau‘ meh zz‘, {a great many things}.
物事有多許拉 meh zz‘ ’{y}eu tú hau‘ lá, {there are very many things}.
好幾个人 ’hau ’kí kú‘ niun, {a good many men}.
人有好幾个 niun ’{y}eu ’hau ’kí ku‘, {there are several men}.
127. 多 tú, several, like tsóng‘ cannot form a complete member of a
sentence alone, and therefore precedes its word. It is used
extensively with, the specific substantive particles already alluded
to. The word tu, {many}, retains its old sound ta for this use.
買之大斤者 ’má tsz tá kiun ’tsé, {have bought several catties}.
多囘 tá {w}é‘, {several times}.
多個國度 tá k個‘ kóh dú‘, or tá kóh, {several kingdoms}.
多句說話 tá kü‘ seh {w}ó‘, {many sentences}.
128. The words 全, 禿 dzé{n}, t’óh foil following their substantives,
usually from the first word in the concluding member of the
proposition.
米咾肉禿有 ’mí lau niók t’óh {y}eu, {there are both rice and meat}.
人全拉看戲 niun dzé{n} ’lá k’ö{n}‘ hí‘, {they are all looking at the
play}.
Obs. Pronunciation places these auxiliary particles in closer union
with the following word, than with their own noun. Yet the rhythmus
often attracts the two members into one sentence. E.g.
男女禿有 né{n} ’nü t’oh ’{y}eu, {the men and women are all there}.
官府全好 kwé{n} ’fú dzé{n} ’hau, {the mandarins are all good}.
129. The plural is also formed by repetition.
人人來者 niun niun lé ’tsé, {the men are all come}.
國國太平 kók kók t’á‘ bing, {nations all at peace}.
世世代代 sz‘ sz‘ dé‘ dé‘, {age after age}.
{Case}. 130. The genitive or possessive case is expressed by 個 kú‘. It
corresponds to 的 tih, M. 个 gé, é, Fúhkien, 個 kó‘, Canton.
伊个聲氣 í kú‘ sáng k’í‘, {his voice}.
花个蘂頭 hwó kú‘ ’nü deu, {the buds of flowers}.
人个面孔 niun kú‘ míe{n}‘ ’k’óng, {the human voice}.
Obs. When the possessive particle is omitted, a compound substantive
is formed, as hwó ’nü deu, {flower buds}. Here no transposition is
necessary, the predicated part standing last in both cases. English
idiom placing the subject after the possessive particle, also requires
the definite article to begin the sentence, “the buds of flowers.”
When the constituent words are not adapted to form a compound
substantive, as in the first of the examples above, the particle is
always retained.
131. The objective case has no particle to mark it. It is known by
position, coming after the verb. The nominative always precedes the
verb.
我告訴㑚 ’ngú kau‘ sú‘ ná‘, {I tell you}.
送我一本 sóng ’ngú ih ’pun, {give me a book}.
勿要駡人 veh yau‘ mó‘ niun, {do not rail at people}.
告訴伊拉者 kau‘ sú‘ í ’lá ’tsé, {I have told him}.
132. Only the verb 話 {w}ó‘, {to say}, requires a particle to precede
the objective noun. The words 替, 對, 忒, t’í‘, té‘, t’eh, may either of
them be employed.
吾替㑚話 ’ngú t’í‘ ná‘ {w}ó‘, {I tell you}.
忒伊話末者 t’eh í {w}ó‘ meh ’tsé, {tell him}.
對伊話拉者 té‘ í {w}ó‘ ’lá ’tse, {have told him}.
Obs. This verb being intransitive, and standing last, leaves the
substantive ungoverned, and renders a preposition necessary. So in
English {say} requires {to} after it. In Latin, the noun is put in the
dative without a preposition, as {dico vobis}.
133. The sign of the dative in {da mihi}, and {give it to me} is
omitted. The euphonic particle ’lá 拉 is used to fill up the rhythmus.
撥我一箇 peh ’ngú ih kú‘, {give me one}.
撥飯拉我 peh va{n} ’lá ’ngú, {give me rice}.
撥飯我吃 peh va{n}‘ ’ngú k’iuh, {ditto}.
撥之我末者 peh tsz ’ngú meh ’tsé, {give it to me}.
撥拉伊拉者 peh ’lá í ’lá ’tsé, {have given it him}.
Obs. i. In English {to} is omitted or not at pleasure. Such datives as
occur in {Gloria Patri, dedicated to the interests of truth, my love
to you} cannot be expressed.
Obs. ii. In the example peh ’ngú ih kú‘, the dative comes next to the
verb, while in the following sentence, the object precedes it. These
differences of position are occasioned by the rhythmus.
134. {To a place} is expressed by 到 tau‘, usually with a verb of
motion following the substantive.
到蘇州去者 tau‘ Sú-tseu k’i‘ ’tsé, {gone to Sú-cheú}.
幾時到上海 ’kí zz tau‘ Zóng‘ ’hé, {when did you come to Shánghái?}
到此地来做啥 tau‘ ’t’sz dí‘ lé tsú‘ sá? {what do you come to do?}
135. {Motion from} or {by} (ablative) is expressed by 自 zz‘, 從 zóng,
由 {y}eu or 打, ’táng. The last of these is most frequently employed.
打啥户堂來 ’táng sá‘ {ú} dong lé? {whence do you come?}
打故邊走 ’táng kú‘ píe{n} ’tseu, {go that way}.
從第搭到屋裡 dzóng dí‘ dah tau‘ óh ’lí, {from hence home}.
136. The sense of {for}, {instead of} is given by several particles,
替, 代, 代替, 忒, 爲, t’í, dé, dé t’í, t’uh and {w}é‘, are all in use.
忒我去買 t’uh ’ngú k’í‘ ’má, {go and buy for me}.
爲之我咾 {w}é‘ tsz ’ngú lau— {on my account}—.
替儂做生活 t’í‘ nóng tsú‘ sáng {w}eh, {do work instead of you}.
137. {In} and {at} (locative case) are expressed by 勒拉 leh ’lá and 拉
’lá before, and 裏 ’lí or 裏向 ’lí h’iáng‘, after the substantives, (M.
在 tsai‘ prefixed, 裏, 内, 中, ’lí, núi‘, chóng suffixes).
勿拉屋裏 veh ’lá óh ’lí, {not at home}.
勿拉上海 veh ’lá Zóng‘ ’hé, {not at Shánghái}.
勒拉勿勒拉 leh ’lá veh leh ’lá, {at home or not?}
勿勒裏 veh leh ’lí, {not at home}.
嘴裏工夫 tsz‘ lí kúng fú, {mere words}.
心裏向 sing ’lí h’iáng, {in the mind}.
138. {With}, {of} (instrumental case) are expressed by the verb, ta{n}
(also na{n} west of Shánghái), or nó, {to bring}, preceding the noun
and a verb following it. (M. 將 tsiáng, 把 pa; in books, 以 ’í and by
the suffix 個 kú‘, which usually takes a verb between it and the noun.
担刀來割 ta{n} tau lé kweh (köh), {cut it with a knife}.
錫做个 sih tsú‘ kú‘, {made of tin}.
139. In expressing {by} (instrumental case), the auxiliary verb peh 撥
precedes the instrumental noun, and the principal verb with or without
its regimen follows (M. 彼 pei):—
撥拉爺娘責備 peh lá {y}á niáng tsah bé‘, {he was reproved by his
parents}.
140. {Along with} is expressed by t’eh 忒, 替 t’í and 同 {t}óng. The
governed noun is followed by ih dau 一淘 together. This appendage is
sometimes omitted, when 同 is used.
忒伊一淘去 t’eh í ih dau k’í‘, {go with him}.
同我你跑 {t}óng ’ngú ’ní pau‘, {go with us}.
替我一淘去 t’í‘ ’ngú ih dau k’í‘, {go with me}.
我忒儂做朋友 ’ngú t’eh nóng tsú‘ {p}áng ’yeu, {I will be your friend}.
141. As a sign of the vocative, the suffix 呵 á is sometimes used.
老兄阿 lau h’iung á, {brother} (addressed to strangers as friendly
salutation).
142. {Case particles in other languages}. Prepositions standing
before the noun, and terminations making up one word with the root,
are used together in the classical languages to express case; and
very frequently the suffixes alone. In the modern European languages,
suffixes are much less used, prepositions performing the office of
case particles. In the Tartar languages, the particles called in
other languages prepositions, come after their words, and are
therefore called postpositions. In Manchu, the oblique cases, four in
number, are formed by suffixes selected from this class of particles.
When written they are joined to the noun or not at pleasure, and may
all be used independently as particles. Thus it appears that the
Chinese in using separate case particles, some before and some after,
the nouns to which they belong, do not depart from the practice
common to other races.
143. Premare’s method of illustrating one by one, the words most
important in a grammatical view, by numerous examples, is here
followed in regard to some commonly used nouns.
口 ’k’eu, {mouth, an opening}. It is only used in combination.
口音 ’k’eu yun, {speech}.
口才 ’k’eu dzé, {fluency}.
口是心非 ’k’eu ’zz sing fí, {plausible but not sincere}.
三叉路口 sa{n} t’só lú‘ ’k’eu, {where three roads meet}.
口頭言語 ’k’eu deu {í}e{n} ’nü, {colloquial particles}.
一口土白 ih ’k’eu ’t’ú báh, {all he says is in the dialect}.
門口 mun ’k’eu, {opening.}
海口 ’hé ’k’eu, {sea-port}.
乍浦口嘴 Dzó‘ p’ú‘ ’k’eu tsz‘, {Háng-cheú bay}.
口說無憑 ’k’eu söh {m} {bing}, {words without foundation}.
有口無心 ’{y}eu k’eu {m} sing, {speaking without thinking, mere words}.
一口咬定 ih ’k’eu ngau ding‘, {spoke decisively}.
144. 氣 k’í‘.
1. {Breath, vapour}.
透氣 t’eu k’í‘, {to breathe}. 地氣 {t}í‘ k’í‘, {climate}.
濕氣 sák k’í‘, {moisture}. 斷氣 dö{n}‘ k’í‘, {to die}.
2. {Anger}.
惹氣儂 ’zá k’í‘ nóng‘, {provoke you}.
勿要動氣 veh yau‘ dóng‘ k’í‘ {do not be angry}.
氣殺我 k’í‘ sah ’ngú, {provoke me greatly}.
3. {Manner, expression, meaning}.
陽氣來咾 {y}áng k’í‘ lé lau, {beautifully ornamented}.
神氣宛然 zun k’í‘ {w}é{n} zé{n}, {likeness to perfect}.
勿要客氣 veh yau‘ k’ák k’í‘, {do not stand on ceremony}.
大有福氣 {t}ú‘ ’{y}eu fóh k’í‘, {has great happiness}.
145. 心 sing, {heart, mind}.
心拉書上 sing ’lá sû long‘, {attend to your book}.
心裏明白個 sing ’lí ming bák kú‘, {has an intelligent mind}.
摳心挖胆 k’eu sing wah ’ta{n}, {mind set on schemes}.
當心,留心,小心 tong sing, lieu sing, ’siau sing, {pay attention}.
盡心竭力 dzing‘ sing gih lih, {do your utmost}.
兩條心思 ’liáng diau sing sz, {double-minded}.
白費心思 {p}ak fí‘ sing sz, {planning in vain}.
一心一念 ih sing ih nia{n}‘, {all intent upon}.
直心直肚腸 dzuh sing dzuh tú dzáng, {honest, sincere}.
心心主念 sing sing ’tsû nia{n}, {resolutely intent on}.
赤胆忠心 t’suk ’ta{n} tsóng sing, {faithful}.
146. 手 ’seu, {hand, an artisan}.
上手下手 zong‘ ’seu ’{a}u ’seu, {superior and inferior workmen}.
動手勿得 ’{t}óng ’seu veh tuh, {may not put hand to it}.
手忙脚亂, ’seu mong kiáh lö{n}, {confused and wrong}.
親手 t’sing ’seu, {with his own hand}.
一手難遮天下目 ih ’seu na{n} tsó t’íe{n} ’{a}u móh, {one hand cannot
cover the eyes of all the world}.
白手求財 {p}ák ’seu gieu dzé, {want money without earning it}.
幫手 pong ’seu, {assistant}.
傳手 dzé{n} ’seu, {from hand to hand}.
147. 分 vun‘, {duty, divisions}.
十分裏一分 {s}eh vun‘ ’lí ih vun‘, {one tenth}.
名分, 本分 ming vun‘, ’pun vun‘, {duties}.
職分 tsuh vun‘, {an office}.
一生安分 ih sáng ö{n} vun‘, {do my duty a whole lifetime}.
分所當然 vun‘ ’sú tong zé{n}, {as in duty bound}.
148. 頭 {t}eu, {head}.
唔頭唔腦 {m} deu {m} ’nau, {without order}.
頭二百里 {t}eu ní‘ páh ’lí, {about 200 Chinese miles}.
幾許人頭 ’kí hau‘ niun deu? {how many men?}
起頭 ’k’í deu, {at the beginning}.
頭頭是道 {t}eu deu ’zz dau‘, {it is all reasonable}.
149. 眼 nga{n} {eye, a point, a small hole}.
一眼勿差 ih nga{n} veh t’só, {quite right}.
眼睛勿好 nga{n} tsing veh ’hau, {his eyes are bad}.
只得—眼 tseh tuh ih ’nga{n}, {only a very little}.
眼底無人 ’nga{n} tí {m} niun, {thinks none so good as he}.
150. 目 moh, {eye}.
頭目 {t}eu móh, {chief}.
賬目 t’sáng‘ móh, {accounts}.
眼目 ’nga{n} moh, {eyes}.
數目 sú‘ moh, {numbers}.
大關節目 {t}á‘ kwa{n} tsih móh, {important doctrine}.
151. 底 ’tí, {bottom}.
月底 niöh ’tí, {end of the month}.
年底 níe{n} ’tí, {end of the year}.
私底下 sz ’tí ’{a}u, {secretly}.
底裡 ’tí ’li, {at the bottom}.
底下挽通 ’tí ’{a}u ’wa{n} t’óng, {to inform secretly}.
底面不和 ’tí míe{n}‘ peh {ú}, {heart and looks not agreeing}.
直到底 dzuk tau‘ ’tí, {to the end}.
脚底下 kiák ’tí ’{a}u, {under the feet}.
152. The following substantives combine with the cardinal points to
form nouns of place. They are arranged in the order of their
frequency. 沿, 半爿, 面, 邊, 首, 頭, 方, ha{n}‘, pé{n}‘ ba{n}, míe{n}‘,
píe{n}, ’seu, {t}eu, fong. One or two examples will suffice to explain
this usage.
東半爿, 東面 tóng pé{n}‘ ba{n}, tóng míe{n}‘, {on the eastern side}.
The combinations with 裏 ’lí, {within}, include two other words
which here appended, 向, 勢, 面, 邊, 頭, h’iáng‘, sz‘, míe{n}‘,
píe{n}, {t}eu.
Thus, 裏向, 裏面, ’lí h’iáng‘, ’lí míe{n}‘, inside.
Obs. Other words, such as the demonstrative pronouns, and some of the
prepositions form similar combinations, as will be afterwards seen.
{Section} 4. {On numeral particles and auxiliary substantives}.
153. Under his head, are included the classifying particles, called by
some writers numerals, with weights and measures, and any parts not
being themselves full appellative nouns, into which substantives admit
of being divided.
Obs. i The distinctive numeral particles applied to different
substantives, belonging as they do themselves to that class of words,
could not be placed with propriety among or after the adjectives; yet
their Syntax is sufficiently unlike that of the substantive to require
them to be placed apart.
Obs. ii. A comprehensive classification of substantives has been
presented to philologists, by Dr. Legge in his “Letters on the
rendering of the name God in Chinese,” Hongkong, 1850. Several useful
terms are there introduced, partly from Nordheimer, but a place for
the nouns now under discussion is not provided for except under class
(4). The classes into which common or nouns not proper are there
divided, are—
1. “Appellative or generic nouns, or names of species of individual
existence, e.g. man, mountain, tree, house, garment.” Here shape and
substance are both included, and the indefinite article can be
prefixed in all cases.
2. “Material nouns, e.g. corn, gold, water.” Here matter only is
embraced, while the limitation of form must be supplied by other
words, as “a bushel of corn,” “a handful of gold,” “a cup of water,”
“a sceptre of iron.” Nordheimer, Hebrew Grammar, vol. II. 796, invents
no name for the former words in these cases, merely saying that the
second limits the first in meaning. He considers them all concrete
nouns.
3. “Collective nouns, or nouns which though singular in form, yet
express a multitude.”
4. “Abstract nouns or names of qualities or modes of existence,
abstracted from the object with which they are in combination.”
Numeral particles and nouns of measure and shape must be placed here,
although they are thereby associated with a multitude of mental and
moral terms, with which they have little in common. Abstract nouns
might form two classes distinguished as material and moral.
5. “Relative nouns, e.g. father, king.” Since the second class
material nouns furnishes the matter of which the words ‘bushel,’
‘handful’, ‘cup,’ etc. supply the form, perhaps these auxiliary words
should be called formal nouns, and form a sixth class.
154. The classes (1), (2), (5) and part of (4), are embraced in the
preceding section; The remainder form the subject of the present. With
regard to their use, combined with the numeral, they cover the ground
of the article {a}, {an} in the class, and of the auxiliary words in
the second.
Thus, a mountain, 一座山 ih zú‘ sa{n}.
Call a man, 告一个人來 kau‘ ih kú‘ niun lé.
Two measures of rice, 二斗米 ní‘ ’teu ’mí.
A cup of cold water, 一碗冷水 ih ’wé{n} ’láng ’sz.
Obs. In Hebrew no word like {of} is necessary, e.g. shébet (constr.)
barzel, {a sceptre of iron}. Lat. {virga ferrea}.
155. The number and the auxiliary word are both necessary to the
idiom, but the latter is sometimes used alone after the substantive,
as noticed in Art. 111. Yet in this case, the same construction is
admissible. Thus we have,
兩間房間 ’liáng ka{n} vong ka{n}, {two rooms}.
兩條鋼條 ’liáng diau kong diau, {two steel springs}.
三隻船隻 sa{n} tsáh zé{n} tsáh, {three boats}.
156. The distinctive numeral particles, or those employed with the
appellative or generic nouns, here follow.
箇 kú‘ (keu‘), of men, fish, cash, dials, collars, and all relative
terms.
顆 ’k’ú, of pearls.
根 kun (root), of candles, hairs, trees, masts, bamboos.
管 kwé{n} (pipe), of flutes, pencils.
口 ’k’eu (mouth), of coffins, men (as consumers).
科 k’ú, of plants, trees, roots, 三科樹 sa{n} k’ú zû‘, 3 {trees}.
塊 k’wé‘, of stones, bricks, dollars.
件 {k}íe{n}‘, of garments, affairs, news, things.
頭 {t}eu, of men, of cattle (when reckoned by heads).
頂 ’ting, of sedan chairs, hats, umbrellas, curtains.
朶 ’tú, of single flowers.
燈 tung, of candles, lights, 一燈火 ih tung ’hú, {a light}.
堵 ’tú, of walls, 一堵牆 ih ’tú dziáng, {a wall}.
條 {t}iau, of snakes, dragons, bridges, ropes, roads.
把 ’pó (hold in hand); of chairs, knives, fans, wine bowls.
本 ’pun (root), of books, account books, plays.
匹 p’ih, of horses (隻 is more common.)
面 míe{n}, of mirrors, brass and skin gongs.
幅 fóh, of pictures, maps.
對 fóng, of letters, 一封信 ih fóng sing‘, {a letter}.
文 vun, of cash, (個 is more common).
隻 tsáh, of birds, quadrupeds, tables, temples, hands, feet,
watches, shoes, clocks, eyes, ears, vessels.
盞 ’tsa{n}, of lamps.
樁 tsong, of matters.
種 ’tsóng, of matters.
枝 tsz, of pencils, branches, stalks.
座 zú‘, of houses, mountains, pagodas.
乘 zung, of carriages.
圓 yö{n}, of dollars.
樣 {y}áng‘, of affairs, matters.
項 {h}áng‘, of things, matters. Also 星 sing, of things.
Obs. i. The office of these substantive particles is simply
indicative. The reason of their application to particular words is
custom only, but etymological connection is sometimes traceable as in
封 {to close up}, 頭 is applied to men only as a suffix.
Obs. ii. All generic and relative nouns are here included. They are
distinguished in English from material nouns by taking the plural, and
admitting {a}, {an}, before them.
Obs. iii. These words differ frequently, in their application to
particular nouns, from the usage of other parts of the country. A
native of Fúh-kien would laugh to hear 隻 tsáh, instead of 枝 tsz,
applied to hands and feet. In mandarin 尾 vi‘, is the distinctive
particle for fish instead of 箇 kú‘, which is employed in this dialect.
Obs. iv. Most of these particles are employed in mandarin. They are
used sparingly in the historical novels, because the semi-colloquial,
semi-literary style of those works only occasionally expands into full
conversational idiom. When it does so, they are always found.
157. The next class of the auxiliary substantives are such as are
significant, or retain their meaning when translated into English,
giving to their substantives, which are either material nouns or are
construed as such, limitations of form and quantity.
Obs. Weights and measures, names of vessels, divisions of books, etc.,
though belonging to the significant auxiliary particles, will be
placed separately (see Art. 158–160).
間 ka{n}, {a room of} a house, ih ka{n} vong deu, {a room}.
口 ’k’eu, {mouthful of} breath, words, rice.
句 kü‘, {a sentence of} speech, ih kü seh {w}ó‘.
竿 kû{n}, {rod of} bamboo for fishing, ih kû{n} diau‘ kû{n}.
科 k’ú, pluck up {a heap of} grass, {p}ah ih k’ú ’t’sau.
塊 k’wé‘, {a piece of} land, meat, silver.
捆 ’k’wun (to roll), {a faggot of} wood.
局 {k}ióh, play {a game at} chess, tsoh ih gióh gí.
眼 ’nga{n} (eye) {holes in} nets, of nails, cash, {a little of any
thing}.
担 ta{n}‘(to carry), {a load} of anything, ih ta{n}‘ meh zz‘.
點 ’tíe{n} {drop of} ink, {little of} anything.
湯 t’ong, how many {kinds of} food, ’kí t’ong va{n}‘.
墩 tun, {heap of} earth, rubbish.
檯 {t}é, {a stage of} plays, {table of} wine, food.
頭 {t}eu, bring {an end of} rope, ta{n} ih deu zung.
條 {t}iau, {long piece of} iron, wood, {string of} cash.
段 {t}ön, {piece cut off}, of wood, string, etc.
板 ’pa{n}, {half sheet of} paper.
包 pau (to wrap) {a parcel}, {bundle of} cotton, sugar.
把 ’pó, {handful of} rice, ih ’pó ’mí.
派 p’á‘, {division of} things, {kind of} men, customs.
篇 p’íe{n}‘, {a piece of} elegant composition, ih p’íe{n} vun tsáng.
片 p’íe{n}, {piece of} gold, ih p’íe{n} kiun ’tsz.
疋 p’ih, {piece of} cloth.
鋪 p’ú (to spread), {covering of} carpets, coverlids.
門 mun (touch-hole), {piece of} artillery.
紐 ’nieu, sa{n} ’nieu zung, three {skeins} of string.
方 fong (square), {a piece of} cloth, land, ih fong {t}í bí.
封 fóng, {a packet of} silver, ih fóng niung ’tsz.
手 ’seu, ih ’seu ni, {handful of} earth.
張 tsáng (to extend), {sheet of} paper.
節 tsih, {knot of} bamboo, {joint of} finger.
串 t’sé{n}, {string of} flowers, cash, beads.
餐 t’sö{n}, {meal of} rice.
軸 dzóh (rollers), map {on rollers}, ih gióh {w}ó‘, {a picture}.
席 dzih (mat), {party at} dinner.
扇 sé{n}‘, open {one leaf of} the door, ih sé{n}‘ mun, k’é k’é.
重 zóng, {layers of} books, dress.
層 zung, {story of} pagodas, {steps of} ladders.
陣 dzun‘, {gust of} wind, {shower of} rain.
葉 ih, {leaf of} grass, flowers, ih ih ’t’sau, {a blade of grass}.
圓 {y}ön, {small cake of} meat, medicine.
粒 lih, {seed of} corn.
Obs. i. Words expressing {kind of}, {sort of} such as 種樣星 tsóng
{y}ang‘ sing, have been placed with those particles that are simply
indicative, because they are applied to nouns complete in their form
and organization, e.g. 伊種人 í ’tsóng niun, {that sort of man}; 第星
事體 {t}í‘ sing zz‘ ’t’i, {this sort of thing}. Having a significance
of their own, they should also be mentioned here.
Obs. ii. Material nouns often in English become generic, assuming the
plural termination, and when singular the indefinite article,
e.g. earth, stone, etc. In Chinese, if we wish to speak of {a} stone,
the affix 頭 must be used, and 塊 prefixed. Some words need only the
auxiliary prefix, e.g. 一塊煤 ih k’wé‘ mé, {a piece of coal}.
Obs. iii. Some auxiliaries as 塊 are found both in the significant and
simply indicative class; a circumstance which suggests that all the
particles in the former table had a meaning of their own originally,
though now in some instances not to be traced.
Obs. iv. A few verbs are found among these words, viz. 把, 捆, 担, 包,
張, 鋪; they are here to be construed as substantives. In English,
verbs construed as nouns are very numerous, e.g. {hold, handle, touch,
walk, roll}.
Obs. v. The examples given in the table, are sufficient to shew that
for this class of nouns English usage is similar, except that the
particle {of} must be inserted. It is different with the words of the
former table, for which there is no equivalent idiom in English. These
two kinds of auxiliaries should therefore be keep distinct.
158. The definite subdivisions of material nouns will now be noticed.
It is not only the numeral particles and the other auxiliaries, as
registered in the two preceding articles, that intervene between
numbers and their substantives. Many nouns are divisible into several
parts, which have appropriate names and may be used as the words of
the preceding table. The most useful names of divisions are here
given, and first those of books and characters.
Divisions of books.
句 kü‘, {sentence}.
節 tsih, {verse}.
大 {t}á‘, {column}.
行 {h}ong, {column}.
張 tsáng, {leaf}.
頁 {y}ih, {a leaf}.
章 tsáng, {section}.
首 ’seu, {ode}.
篇 p’ie{n}, {chapter}.
本 ’pun, {volume}.
都 {p}ú‘, {a whole work}.
Strokes of characters.
點 ’{t}íe{n} ㇔
劃 {w}áh ㇐
𥪡 ’zû ㇑
剔 t’iuh ㇂
撇 p’ih ㇒
捺 nah ㇏
挑 t’iau ㇀
拂 fah ㇓
圏 k’iö{n}, small circle. 〇
Obs. These words do not take any numeral particle. Thus in giving
directions to a scholar to write the character 受 ’zeu, a teacher
would say 一撇, 三黯, 帽下又字 ih p’ih, sa{n} tíe{n}, mau‘, ’{a}u ’tí
{y}eu‘, zz‘. The eight strokes given above are all contained in the
character 永. Information on this subject is given in Dr. Bridgman’s
Chinese Chrestomathy and other works.
159. The most common names of vessels of capacity are the following.
碗 wé{n}, {bowl}. 盤 pé{n}, {tray}.
盞 tsa{n}, {ib}. 桶 ’tóng, {bucket}.
盆 {p}un, {a plate}. 匣 {h}ah, {casket}.
缸 kong, {large jar}. 箱 siáng, {chest}.
㼦 {p}áng‘, {pitcher}. 籃 la{n}, {basket}.
瓶 {p}ing, {bottle, jar}. 簍 ’lieu, {small hamper}.
Obs. These words are used as the auxiliary particles of that which is
contained in them. But if they are construed as independent
substantives they all take 隻 as their distinctive particle. Thus we
find, 一隻碗, 一碗茶, ih tsáh wé{n}, {a cup}; ih wé{n} dzó‘, {a cup of
tea}.
160. Of definite measures, the following are in common use.
Land and Long Measure.
畝 meu, 240 {square} pú‘}.
站 dza{n}‘, 90 {’lí}.
里 ’lí, 360 {p}ú‘.
步 {p}ú‘, {five feet}.
丈 záng‘, {ten feet}.
尺 t’sáh, {foot} (14 Eng. in. taylor’s ft., 10⅞in. carpenter’s ft.)
寸 t’sun‘, {tenth of a foot}.
分 fun, {tenth of a t’sun‘}.
Dry Measure.
石 {s}áh, 10 {teu}.
斗 ’teu, 10 {sung}.
升 sung, {a pint}.
合 keh, {tenth of a pint}.
抄 t’sau, 100{th of keh}.
Weights.
担 ta{n}‘, {pecul}.
斤 kiun, {catty}.
兩 ’liáng, {tael}.
錢 dzíe{n}, {mace}.
角 koh, 10 {cents}.
分 fun, 1 {cent}.
毫 {h}áu, {tenth of fun}.
釐 lí, {tenth of hau}.
Measures of time.
代 dé‘, {generation}.
世 sz‘, {ib}.
年 níe{n}, {year}.
歲 sûe‘, {ib}.
日 nyih, {day}.
點 ’tíe{n}, {hour} (with 鐘).
刻 k’uh, ¼ {hour}.
分 fun, {minute}.
杪 miau, {second}.
歇 h’ih, {instant}.
Obs. 時 zz, hour, and 月 niöh, month, are here omitted, because they
usually take 箇 before them. This must be to distinguish them from
words similar in sound, or from their own other senses.
161. Collective auxiliary nouns varying through all the forms of
plurality, from {a pair} to {a multitude}, here follow:—
句 kü‘, {sentence of} words.
聯 líe{n}, {pair of} corresponding sentences of poetry.
雙 song, {pair} of shoes.
對 té‘, {opposite pair of} candles, geese, ih dé‘ kí, {pair of fowls}.
股 ’kú, 2 or 3 {in trade}; sa{n} ’ku k’é, {divide between three}.
排 {p}á, {a pile or raft of} timber, {row of} trees.
隊 {t}é‘, {a rank of} soldiers, ih dé ping.
帖 t’ih, {parcel of ten} pencils, ih t’ih pih.
刀 tau, 100 {sheets of} paper, ih tau ’tsz.
炷 tsû, {bundle of} incense, ih tsû h’iáng.
套 t’au‘, {coverful of} books, ih t’au‘, sû.
串 t’sé{n} {chain of} 1,000 cash.
羣 {k}iün, {flock of} birds, beasts, ih giün ’tiau.
副 fú‘, {suit of} clothes, ih fú‘ í zong.
行 {h}ong, {rows of} birds flying, trees.
162. From the list here given, it appears that there are at least 130
of these imperfect substantives, almost all in common use. They admit
of a fourfold division.
I. Of the first kind, whose office is simply indicative of appellative
nouns, or distinctive to some extent of classes, there are upwards of
30. A few examples are appended.
一口棺材 ih ’k’eu kwé{n} zé, {a coffin}.
造一條橋 ’zau ih diau giau, {build a bridge}.
殺一隻雞 sah ih tsáh kí, {kill a fowl}.
一枝大筆 ih tsz dú‘ pih, {a large pencil}.
Obs. i. At first sight, these words look like a capricious superfluity
of articles, arising merely from a fondness for multiplying words.
They appear appropriate in a language, where there is so much
arbitrary classification, and so little exhibition of the power of
generalizing by means of deep and comprehensive principles. Here are
thirty words made use of, where one would be sufficient. It should
however be remembered, that when used as adverbs there is great
clearness given to the conception they express, and that they diminish
the confusion that arises from similarities of sound.
Obs. ii. When an adjective is used, it comes between the particle and
the noun, as in the last example. This is also true of the other
particles that are the subject of this chapter.
II. Of the significant particles, or those that are applied to
material nouns, and define quantity and form, apart from number, there
are about 40. E.g.
一張紙頭 ih tsáng ’tsz deu, {a sheet of paper}.
二十担泥 ní‘ seh ta{n}‘ ní, {twenty loads of earth}.
九層塔 ’kieu zung t’áh, {pagoda of nine stories}.
Obs. i. When they become parts of compound appellative nouns, one of
the distinctive particles precedes.
一个面孔 ih ku‘ míe{n}‘ ’k’óng, {one face}.
一隻節頭 ih tsáh tsih deu, {one finger}.
Obs. ii. 點, 眼, tíe{n}, nga{n}, are applied to any material noun in
the sense of {a little of}. Ih 一 precedes them.
III. The subdivisions or definite parts of material nouns, form the
most numerous class of the auxiliary substantives. Upwards of 50 are
here collected. They take no particle after the number preceding, and
must therefore be classed as imperfect substantives. Thus the
construction in the following examples is similar.
(III.) 一斤花 ih kiun hwó, {pound of cotton}.
(II.) 一包花 ih pau hwó, {bundle of cotton}.
(II.) 一粒米 ih lih ’mí, {a grain of rice}.
(III.) 一斗米 ih ’teu ’mí, {a peck of rice}.
IV. Collectives compose the remaining, and smallest class of
qualifying particles applied to substantives. The use of words in the
four classes of particles may be seen in the following examples.
一隻羊 ih tsáh {y}áng, {a sheep}.
一塊羊肉 ih k’wé {y}áng nióh, {a piece of mutton}.
一斤羊肉 ih kiun {y}áng nióh, {catty of mutton}.
一羣羊 ih giün {y}áng, {flock of sheep}.
163. Another small class of auxiliary substantives, consists of those
that are used with verbs, expressing like our word {times}, the number
of times the action has been performed. They are 次, 烫, 囘, 轉, 記;
their use will be understood by examples.
來過兩次 lé kú‘ ’liáng t’sz‘, {I have come twice}.
去之一烫 k’í‘ tsz ih t’ong, {having gone once}.
要讀兩囘 yau‘ dóh ’liáng {w}é‘, {you must read it twice}.
走兩轉就定 ’tseu ’liáng ’tsé{n} dzieu‘ ding‘, {after going round twice
he stops}.
打三十記 ’táng sa{n} seh kí‘, {received 30 blows}.
{Section} 5. {On the Adjective}. 呆 虛 字.
164. The native writer before alluded to says, the office of
adjectives is “to describe the attributes and appearance of things.”
“In apposition with nouns, they express their qualities,” (與實字相加,
以形容實字如何樣.) “Some adjectives consist of two words which are
inseparable. Thus, repetition of the initial, the rhyme, and the whole
character, frequently occurs.” (有兩字折不開者, 如雙聲, 疊韻, 疊字等類.)
“There are not more than a few tens of characters that are adjectives.”
{Antithesis}. 165. In substantives, the principle of combination came
prominently to view, and it will be found to belong though not so
extensively, to the other parts of speech. That of antithesis belongs
especially to adjectives. Most of the single-worded adjectives in
daily use will illustrate this.
輕重 k’iung, ’dzóng, {light}, {heavy}.
大小 {t}ú‘, ’siau, {great}, {little}.
多少 tú ’sau, {many}, {few}.
長短 dzáng, ’tö{n}, {long}, {short}.
厚薄 ’{h}eu, {p}óh, {thick}, {thin}.
闊狹 k’weh, {h}ah, {broad}, {narrow}.
高低 kau, tí, {high}, {low}.
深淺 sun, ’t’síe{n}, {deep}, {shallow}.
冷暖 ’{l}áng, ’nö{n}, {cold}, {warm}.
清濁 t’sing, dzóh, {clear}, {muddy}.
快慢 k’wá‘, ma{n}‘, {quick}, {slow}.
好孬 (C) ’hau, k’ieu, {good}, {bad} (k’ieu = 歹 ’té).
淡濃 {t}a{n}‘, nióng, {pale}, {deep}.
早晚 ’tsau, a{n}‘, {early}, {late}.
硬軟 ngáng‘, ’niön, {hard}, {soft}.
曲直 k’ióh, dzuh, {crooked}, {straight}.
正斜 tsung‘, {s}iá, {right}, {bent}.
壯瘦 tsong‘, seu‘, {fat}, {lean}.
生熟 sáng, zóh, {ripe}, {unripe}.
鬆緊 só{n}g, kiun, {loose}, {tight}.
粗細 t’sú, sí‘, {coarse}, {fine}.
新舊 sing, ’{k}ieu, {new}, {old}.
稀綳 (C) h’í, ’máng, {few}, {crowded} (máng = 密 mih).
貴强 (C) kü‘, giáng, {dear}, {cheap} (giáng = 賤 dzíe{n}).
眞假 tsun, ’ká, {true}, {false}.
亮暗 liáng‘, e{n}‘, {light}, {dark}.
Obs. i. Those words only that are marked (C) are not used in literary
compositions. There is no class of words more extensively spread
through all Chinese, spoken and written, than the majority of these
adjectives.
Obs. ii. Antithetical substantives of one character each, are rare in
the colloquial. See 107. Obs. iii.
Obs. iii. In Premare’s list of antithetical characters, more than
fifty of 117 are adjectives. Many also of those that belong to other
parts of speech, have the antithesis less strongly marked.
Obs. iv. Many abstract substantives are formed by the union of these
antithetical adjectives, in the order in which they stand above; e.g.
{how long}? ’kí hau‘ dzáng ’dö{n}? {to say nothing about speed}, veh
’kong k’wá ma{n}‘ v. Syntax. Part III. §2.
166. Sometimes in the antithesis, one member is a single, and the
other a double form.
佳 {k}iá, {capable}. 唔用 {m} {y}úng‘, {useless}.
亂 lö{n}‘, {disturbed}. 太平 t’a‘ bing, {peaceful}.
167. Other words having no obvious antithesis form it by assuming the
sign of the negative.
勿像我能 veh ziáng‘ ’ngú nung, {not like me}.
勿肯做 veh ’k’ung tsú‘, {not willing to do it}.
勿便當 veh bíe{n}‘ tong‘, {not convenient}.
Obs. The negative here just corresponds to our English prefix {un},
e.g. {unlike}, {unwilling}.
{Combination}. 168. Many adjectives are formed by the apposition in a
fixed order, of two adjectives, and in these compounds many book words
occur.
淸爽 t’sing ’song, {clear}. 忠厚 tsóng ’{e}u, {faithful}.
懶惰 la{n} dú‘, {lazy}. 謙虛 k’íe{n} h’ü, {humble}.
乾淨 kû{n} zing‘, {clean}. 煩難 va{n} na{n}, {difficult}.
聰明 t’sóng ming, {clever}. 須少 sü ’sau, {few}.
毛草 mau ’t’sau, {rough}. 許多 ’hü tú, {many}.
冷靜 ’láng ’zing, {solitary}. 新鮮 sing síe{n}, {new}.
粗疎 t’sú sú, {coarse}. 呆笨 ngé bun‘, {stupid}
窮苦 {k}ióng ’kú, {poor}. 兇狠 h’iúng ’hun, {fierce}.
Obs. The antithesis that occurs in examples of this sort is
sufficiently indicated by the sense.
169. In addition to compounds such as those already given, formed by
two adjectives, substantives and verbs make part of many.
小器 ’siau ({small}) k’í‘, ({vessel}), {parsimonious}.
雪白 sih báh, {snow-white}.
厚道 ’{h}eu ({thick}) dau‘ ({doctrine}), {liberal}.
大量 {t}û‘ (great) liáng‘, ({capacity}), generous.
刻薄 k’uh ({to cut}) bóh ({thin}), {exacting}.
認眞 niung‘ tsun, {diligent}.
拗强 au‘ ({to bend}) giáng, {unyielding}.
完全 {w}é{n} ({finish}) zíe{n}, {complete} (R. dzíe{n}.)
氣悶 k’í‘({anger}) mun‘ ({sad}), {secretly sad}.
高興 kau ({wish}) h’iung‘ ({ready for}), {willing}.
難過 na{n} ({hard}) ku‘ ({to pass}), {painful, sad}.
胆大 ’ta{n} ({liver}) dú‘ ({great}), {bold}.
出客 t’seh ({outside}) k’áh, ({visitor}), {handsome}.
好笑 ’hau ({good}) siau‘ ({laugh}), {ridiculous}.
Obs. There are also triple forms, in which other parts of speech
enter, e.g. 壁立直, pih lih dzuh, {straight as a wall}; 的溜圓 tih lieu‘
{y}ö{n}, {very round}. In these examples, the adjective which stands
last is qualified by the preceding words.
170. Some adjectives of two words are exclusively local in their use,
and present no etymology in their characters, being written
phonetically. They are always inseparable.
𨅓跎 sá dú, {tired}. 豪燥 {a}u sau‘, {active, sharp}.
齷齪 ok t’soh, {dirty}. 㾑𤺥 keh dah, {blind to reason}.
囫圇 {w}eh lun, {entire}. 𨰵𨐃 h’iá tsá, {skillful}.
葛列 köh lih, {clean}. 玲瓏 ling lóng, {intelligent}. M.
171. Combinations of three are also numerous, in which the first word
contains the principal meaning. The second is repeated, and as will be
seen in the examples, sometimes conveys only sound. The phonetic
formation of the characters will usually serve to indicate this.
瞎搭搭 P. hah tah tah, {irregular}.
硬𨅘𨅘 P. ngáng‘ báng báng, {hard and stiff}.
軟滋滋 ’niö{n} tsz tsz, {soft}.
滑澾澾 P. {w}ah t’ah t’ah, {slippery}.
閙嚷嚷 ’nau záng záng, {noisy, humming}.
毛萋萋 mau ts’í ts’í, {rough}.
暖筒筒 P. ’nö{n} dóng dóng, {warm}.
直條條 dzuh diau diau, {straight}.
矮矬矬 ’{á} t’sú t’sú, {dwarfish}.
短悠悠 ’tö{n} {y}eu {y}eu, „
白雪雪 {p}ak sih sih, {snow-white}.
黑搨搨 P. huk t’ah t’ah, {black}.
Obs. i. In examples not marked P. the repeated word has an independent
sense, in agreement with that of the leading word, and is so used in
the books.
Obs. ii. These phonetic appendages, destitute of any significance of
their own, are interesting to the comparative etymologist as
corresponding to adjectival terminations in other languages.
172. Combined forms of four words, often consisting of adjectives and
either substantives or verbs, and still more frequently of double
adjectives repeated are, such as follow.
正大光明 tsung‘ dá‘ kwong ming, {upright and wise}.
寬弘大量 k’wé{n} {ó}ng dú‘ lián{g}‘, {generous}.
井井有條 ’tsing ’tsing ’{y}eu diau, {very regular}.
希奇古怪 h’i gi ’kú kwá‘, {extraordinary}.
長長遠遠 dzáng dzáng ’{y}ön ’{y}ön {long in time}.
高高低低 kau kau tí tí, {irregular in height}.
忙忙碌碌 mong mong lóh lóh, {busy}.
胆胆大大 ’ta{n} ’ta{n} dú‘ dú‘, {boldy}.
Obs. The monosyllabic adjectives are not repeated. These double forms
when repeated, are also correctly translated as adverbs in almost all
cases. It will be seen in subsequent sections, that repetition is used
most extensively among verbs and adverbs.
173. The place of the adjective is before its noun if they go into
combination, but with the substantive verb as copula or an equivalent,
it may become a supplementary member of the sentence.
好人 ’hau niun, {good man}.
人是好個 niun ’zz ’hau kú‘, {the man is good}.
白糖 {p}áh dong, {white sugar}.
清水 t’sing ’sz, {clear water}.
快馬 k’wá‘ ’mó, {swift horse}.
冷飯 ’láng va{n}‘, {cold rice}.
舊書 {k}ieu‘ sû, {old books}.
馬倒勿快 ’mó ’tau veh k’wa‘, {yet the horse goes slowly}.
水淸是清個 ’sz t’sing ’zz t’sing ku‘, {the water is clear}.
174. Substantives become adjectives to other substantives, if placed
before them in combination.
洋刀 yáng tau, {foreign knife}. 石路 zah lú‘, {stone road}.
牛奶 nieu ’ná, {buffalo milk}. 海船 ’hé zé{n}, {sea junk}.
Obs. Compounds of this kind have come under notice before, Art. 106.
Thus it appears that cases occur which prevent the accurate defining
of the parts of speech. For the words standing first in these
examples, while they may well be claimed as adjectives, according to
the grammar of the classical languages, are unquestionably
substantives when alone. As roots they are substantives. It is by
position that they are changed into adjectives. For corresponding
examples in English, see Art. 119.
175. Verbs with the particle 個 or 拉個, become adjectives to the
following noun.
種拉个稻 tsóng‘ ’lá kú‘ ’dau, {the sown rice}.
死个人多 ’sí kú‘ niun tú, {those that die are many}.
愛拉个囝 é‘ ’lá kú‘ ’siau nö{n}, {a dear child}.
活个物事 {w}eh kú‘ meh zz‘ {living thing}.
Obs. i. In examples like the second of these, the sense is also
complete without the noun as ’sí kú‘ tú. We have in English {a
darkened} room, {a beloved} child. Participles are here construed as
adjectives, a usage similar to the Chinese.
Obs. ii. Some verbs enter into combination as adjectives, without the
intervention of any particle. 死人 ’sí niun, {dead man}; 孝子 h’iau‘
’tsz, {filial son}; 孝女 h’iau‘ ’nü, {filial daughter}.
176. A few adjectives are also employed as transitive verbs. The
second and fourth of the following sentences are examples. In the 1st
and 3rd, the same words are adjectives.
喜歡得極 ’h’í hwé{n} tuh giuh, {exceedingly glad}.
牛喜歡水 nieu ’h’í hwé{n} ’sz, {buffaloes are fond of water}.
快快活活 k’a‘ k’a‘ {w}eh {w}eh, {very glad}.
伊總快活儂 í tsóng k’a‘ {w}eh nóng‘, {he will certainly be pleased
with you}.
{Comparison of adjectives}. 177. The comparative is expressed in
several ways, as by—
{a}. 再 tsé‘, {again}, which precedes the adjective it qualifies.
勿能再少 veh nung tsé‘ ’sau, {I cannot say less}.
再大無沒 tsé‘ dú‘ {m} méh, {there are none larger}.
再强有否 tsé‘ giáng ’{y}eu ’vá? {have you any cheaper?}
{b}. 點 ’tíe{n}, {a little}, follows the word that it qualifies.
第本書好點 {t}í‘ ’pun sû ’hau ’tíe{n}, {this book is better}.
快點走 k’wá‘ ’tíe{n} ’tseu, {walk a little faster}.
多點末者 tú ’tíe{n} meh ’tsé, say {a little more}.
{c}. 一眼 ih ’nga{n}, {a little}, is similar in use to the last.
倒好一眼 ’tau ’hau ih ’nga{n}, {this is however something better}.
高大一眼 kau dú‘ ih ’nga{n}, {let it be better and more}.
{d}. 還 {w}a{n} {still}, {further}; this word combined with 要 yau‘,
{to want}, makes the adjective that follows comparative.
還要好 {w}a{n} yau‘ ’hau, {I want better yet}.
工力還要細 kúng fú {w}a{n} yau‘ sí‘, {I want the work finer}.
{e}. 比 ’pí, {compare}; this word makes the adjective that follows
comparative. When 比 is in the negative form, the adjective may be
omitted.
上海勿比蘇州 Zong‘ ’hé veh ’pí Sú tseu, {Shanghai cannot be compared
to Sú-cheú}.
比我還好 ’pí ’ngú {w}a{n} ’hau, {he is better than I}.
比我好 ’pí ’ngú ’hau, {do}.
勿算比我好 veh sû{n} ’pí ’ngú ’hau, {he is not to be thought better
than I}.
{f}. 更 kung‘, better. Sometimes 加 ká, {to add}, follows it.
勿去更好 veh k’í‘ kung‘ hau, {not to go would be better}.
更加勿對 kung‘ ká veh té‘, {still more wrong}.
更加無用 kung‘ ká {m} {y}úng‘, {much more useless}.
{g}. 越 {y}öh repeated. The use of this particle repeated is to place
the two members of a sentence in strong antithesis; sometimes 發 fah,
{to express} follows it.
越多越好 {y}öh tú {y}öh ’hau, {the more the better}.
越發窮越發要生病 {y}öh fah gióng {y}öh fah yau‘ sáng bing‘, {the
poorer men are, the more liable they are to sickness}.
越發明白末越發要喜歡 {y}öh fah ming báh meh, {y}öh fah yau‘ ’h’í hwé{n},
{the more you understand it, the better you will be pleased with
it}.
{h}. 又 í‘, {again}, is a very common form. 比 ’pí, often commences the
sentence.
第个人又好 {t}í‘ kú‘ niun {í}‘ ’hau, {this man is better}.
落雨又多 loh ’{ü} {í}‘ tú, {it rains still more}.
{i}. 又加 {í}‘ ká, {still more} is often preceded by 比 ’pí.
比我又加明白 ’pí ’ngú {í}‘ ká ming báh, {he is still more
intelligent than I}.
{k}. 加, 添, 放大 ká or tíe{n} {add} or fong‘ dú‘, {increase}.
加伊個膽量 ká í kú‘ ’ta{n} liáng‘, {grew more courageous}.
今朝風加大 kiun tsau fóng ká dú‘, {the wind is higher to-day}.
鞋子要放大 {h}á ’tsz yau‘ fong‘ dú‘, {make the shoes larger}.
銅錢要添點 {t}óng díe{n} yau‘ t’íe{n} ’tíe{n}, {you must give more
money}.
{l}. The comparison is intensified by adding 得多 tuh tú after the
adjective.
昨日好得多者 zoh nyih ’hau tuh tú ’tsé, {yesterday he was much better.}
第根竹頭比伊根長学得多 {t}í‘ kun tsóh-deu ’pí í kun dzang tuh tú, {this
bamboo is much larger than that}.
第二隻鷄重得多 {t}í‘ ní‘ tsáh kí dzóng‘ tuh tú, {the second fowl is
much heavier}.
{m}. Beside the formation of the comparative by particles, it is
expressed by the positive standing first, when the difference of the
compared objects is mentioned.
高六寸 kau lók t’sun‘, {taller by six inches}.
Obs. i. The verb 比 is however in examples of this last kind,
understood as going before, and is often expressed, as in 第隻船此伊隻闊
二尺 {t}i‘ tsáh zé{n} ’pí í tsáh k’weh ní‘ ts’ah, {this boat is two
feet wider than that}. 我娘個病比前日子好得多者 ’ngú niáng kú‘ bing‘ ’pí
zie{n} nyih ’tsz ’hau tuh tú ’tsé, {my mother is much better than the
day before yesterday}.
Obs. ii. Three kinds of auxiliary words appear in the examples given.
1. Substantive particles which follow the adjective they qualify, and
imply a slight variation only. This variation may be increase or
diminution, according to the sense of the adjective compared.
2. Verbs. Of these, the verb 比 {compare} is in constant use. It is
found with other particles, or without any particle, and retains its
syntax as a verb, unaffected by its use as an auxiliary in the
comparison of adjectives. The other verbs employed express addition.
Their opposites are used in a similar manner; e.g. 減少 ’ka{n} ’sau,
減脫 ’ka{n} t’eh, {subtract}.
3. Conjunctions and adverbs form the remainder of the particles
employed in comparison. They imply a {difference} without specifying
whether it be greater or less, so that they correspond more nearly to
the English suffix {er} than to the particle {more}. The repeated form
越, 越 just answers to the particle {the}, in “the sooner the better.”
Such English forms as this are usually regarded as elliptical, and in
explaining them, words supposed to be omitted are supplied. In the
corresponding Chinese phrases, there is no ground for the hypothesis
of an ellipsis.
178. The subjoined auxiliary particles supply the place of a
superlative. The first three are placed before the adjective they
qualify. The rest follow their word.
{a}. 頂 ’ting, {highest, top}.
天狼心頂亮 t’íen long sing ’ting liáng‘, {Sirius is a very bright star}.
頂强者 ’ting giáng ’tsé, {at the lowest price}.
伊个人頂明白 í kú‘ niun ’ting ming báh, {that man is very intelligent}.
頂大頂多, ’ting dú‘, ’ting tú, {very great, very many}.
{b}. 最 tsûe‘, {exceedingly, the most}.
老虎最利害 ’lau ’hú ’tsûe‘ lí‘ {é}‘, {the tiger is very fierce}.
窵鳥當中鳳凰最好看 ’tiau ’niau tong tsóng, vóng {w}ong‘ tsûe‘ ’hau
k’ö{n}‘, {among birds, the phoenix is the most beautiful}.
天地當中人最玲瓏 t’íe{n} dí‘ tong tsóng, niun tsûe‘ ling lóng, {of all
things in heaven and earth, man is the most intelligent}.
{c}. 極, {k}iuh, {extremely}; this particle is used before or after
the adjective which it qualifies.
聰明得極 t’sóng ming tuh giuh, {extremely intelligent}.
極深奧 {k}iuh sun au‘, {extremely profound}.
有文理得極 ’{y}eu vun ’lí tuh giuh, {very beautifully written}.
斯文得極 sz vun tuh giuh, {extremely polite and elegant}.
{d}. 野 ’yá, {wild, great}; this word requires one of the auxiliary
verbs 來 or 得 verbs before it.
黃浦裡險得野 {W}ong-p’ú‘ ’lí ’híe{n} tuh ’{y}a, the Hwang-p’u is very
dangerous.
天高來野拉 t’íe{n} kau le ’{y}á ’lá, {heaven is very high}.
{e}. 死 ’sí, {to die}; this word takes the auxiliary verb 來 between
it and its adjective.
米行情貴來死 ’mí {h}ong zing kü‘ lé ’sí, {the price of rice
is very high}.
年勢好來死 níe{n} sz‘ ’hau lé ’sí, {it is a very good year}.
今朝風大來死 kiun tsau fóng dú‘ lé ’sí, {to-day the wind
is very high}.
{f}. 嘸做 {m} tsú‘, {there is nothing that can be done}; this
form of expression also requires 來 lé.
風大來嘸做 fóng dú‘ lé {m} tsú, {the wind is very high}.
日頭旺來嘸做 nyih deu {y}ong‘ lé {m} tsú‘, {the sun is very bright}.
學問深來嘸做 {h}oh vun‘ sun lé {m} tsú‘, {his learning is very
profound}.
{g}. 煞 sah, {very}. lit. {a twinkling}. (Premare has this particle,
though it is certainly rare in mandarin. Many prefer 殺 [1]sah,
{kill}).
强盜靈多煞 {k}iáng dau‘ tú sah, {the robbers are very many}.
勿輕煞 veh k’iung sah, {not very light}.
{h}. 頭一 {t}eu ih, {the first in importance}.
頭一要緊 {t}eu ih yau‘ ’kiun, {the most important}.
敬父母頭一 kiung‘ ’vú ’mú deu ih, {filial piety is most important}.
{i}. 了勿得 ’liau veh tuh, {remarkably}, {exceedingly}.
好來了勿得 ’hau lé ’liau veh tuh, {exceedingly good}.
{j}. 了反勿得 ’liau fan veh tuh, ib.
重來了反勿得 ’dzóng lé ’liau fa{n} veh tuh, {extremely heavy}.
{k}. 話勿得 {w}ó‘ veh tuh, or 話勿來 {w}ó‘ veh lé, {very}, {unspeakable}.
勿了事 veh ’liau zz‘, {endlessly}.
大來話勿得 {t}ú‘ lé {w}ó‘ veh tuh. {unspeakably great}.
話勿來個苦惱 {w}ó‘ veh lé kú‘ k’ú ’nau, {unspeakably wretched}.
{l}. 得利害 tuh lí‘ {é}‘, {severe}, {dangerous}.
重得利害 ’dzóng tuh lí‘ {é}‘, {exceedingly heavy}.
Obs. i. Among the words admitted here are many forms of expression
equivalent to our qualifying adverbs {very}, {extremely}, etc.
In actual usage no distinct line is kept between the adjectival and
adverbial sense; e.g. 最好 tsûe‘ ’hau, may mean {best}, or {very good}.
It seemed therefore preferable to give in one view, the more common
forms for framing an absolute or modified superlative. Most of these
particles are also used to qualify verbs, as will be shown. They are
therefore true adverbs.
Obs. ii. Here may be distinguished four modes of forming the
superlative.
1. By particles appropriated to this use 是, 頂, 極, tsûe‘, ’ting,
{k}iuh. The two former stand before the adjective, the third is found
both before and after its word.
2. The ordinal 頭一 {t}eu ih, in mandarin 第一 {t}í ih, {the first},
also places the adjective it precedes in the superlative.
3. Auxiliary verbal particles 得, 來, tuh, lé, with the appendages 野,
極, 利害, ’{y}á, {k}iuh and lí‘ {é}, to the former, and 野, 死, 唔, 做,
’yá, ’sí, and {m} tsú‘, to the latter, form a third class.
4. The forms 了勿得, ’liau veh tuh or ’liau fa{n} veh tuh, {wonderful},
{very}, 話勿得 {w}ó‘ veh tuh (lé), {unspeakable}, and 勿了事 veh ’liau
zz‘, {endlessly}, when appended to an adjective with 來 intervening,
also convey a superlative sense.
Obs. iii. The verb 完 {w}én, {finish} is also applied to adjectives
with the same force as the preceding intensitive particles. 畫來像完者
{w}ó‘ lé ziáng‘ {w}én ’tsé, {painted extremely like}; 容貌黃完 {y}óng
mau‘ {w}ong {w}én, {countenance very sallow}.
Obs. iv. Extreme excellence is also predicated of an adjective by the
phrases 十分 {s}eh fun, {ten parts} and 十二分 {s}eh ni‘ fun, {twelve
parts}; 物事十分好 meh zz‘ zeh fun ’hau, {the thing is thoroughly good}.
-----------------------------------------------------------------
1. That 殺 sah is the word seems probable because ’si, {die}, a
word like it in meaning is much used in a similar manner.
-----------------------------------------------------------------
179. Ordinal numbers are often expressed by the cardinal numbers, when
on rhythmical grounds, there is no empty place in the sentence for a
particle.
今朝念一 kiun tsau nia{n}‘ ih, {to-day is the 21st of the month}.
咸豐二年 {y}a{n} fóng ní‘ níe{n}, {the 2nd year of Hien-fúng}.
Obs. In regard to the cardinal numbers (for which see page 61), a few
examples only need to be added 五十三 ’ng zeh sa{n}, {fifty three}; 九
十二 ’kieu zeh ní‘, {ninety two}. From a hundred to a hundred and ten,
零 ling is inserted, 一百零四 ih páh ling sz‘, {a hundred and four}.
Instead of saying 一百三十 ih páh sa{n} seh, it is more frequent to omit
十 seh. Thus, ih páh sa{n}, {a hundred and thirty}, and so for other
numbers. The omission of 一 ih, {one}, sometimes occurs 百八 pák pah,
{a hundred and eighty}; {one thousand four hundred} is 千四 t’sie{n}
sz‘; fourteen thousand is 萬四 ma{n}‘ sz‘.
180. Days of the month take 初 t’sú before them as a numeral particle,
but it is omitted when the number consists of two characters. Ordinal
numbers are regularly formed by prefixing 第 {t}í‘ to the cardinal
numbers.
正月初一 tsung‘ niöh t’sú ih, {the 1st day of the 1st month}.
明朝初幾 ming tsau t’sú ’kí, {what day of the month is to-morrow}.
後日初一者 ’{h}eu nyih t’sú ih ’tsé, {the day after to-morrow is the
first}.
考歇第一百名 ’k’au h’ih {t}í‘ ih páh ming, {he has passed the
examination as the one hundredth}.
第三十本 {t}í‘ sa{n} seh ’pun, {the thirtieth volume}.
是儂第幾個兒子 ’zz nóng‘ {t}í‘ ’kí kú‘ ní ’tsz? {which son are you?}
排行第幾 {p}á {h}ong dí‘ ’kí? {which are you in order}.
Obs. First is translated 頭一 {t}eu ih.
181. The numeral of multiplication is expressed by means of 倍 {p}é‘,
{times}; 要加倍 yau‘ ká bé‘, {make it twice as large}; 加長四倍 ká dzáng
sz‘ bé‘, {make it four times as long}.
182. Distributive numbers are formed by the addition of 個 kú‘, or any
other auxiliary substantive particles.
一个一个 ih ku‘ ih ku‘, {one by me or one after another}.
兩个兩个 ’liáng kú‘ ’liáng kú‘, {two and two}.
一行一行 ih {h}ong ih {h}ong, {row by row}.
一條一條 ih diau ih diau, {in successive lengths}.
183. Indefinite numbers are expressed 百 páh, 100; 千 t’síe{n}, 1,000;
萬 ma{n}‘, 10,000, with or without 論 lun.
論千論萬 lun t’síe{n} lun ma{n}‘, {thousands and myriads}.
萬百樣物事 va{n}‘ pah {y}áng‘ meh zz‘, {all things}.
論千來者 lun t’síen lé ’tsé, {many thousands are come}.
文武百官 vun ’vú pák kwé{n}, {all officers civil and military}.
會醫百病 {w}é í páh bing‘, {can cure all diseases}.
百花生日 pák hwó sáng nyih, {the flowers’ birth-day}.
萬國九州 va{n}‘ kóh ’kieu tseu, {all countries}.
184. Numbers enter into many common phrases.
三心兩意 sa{n} sing ’liáng í‘, {vacillating in opinion}.
三轉九囘頭 sa{n} ’tsen ’kieu {w}é deu, {constantly turning back}.
七橫八豎 t’sih {w}áng pah ’zû, {lying in all directions}.
三伸四縮 sa{n} sun sz‘ soh, {timidly advancing and retreating}.
瞎七瞎八 hah t’sih hah pah, {all in confusion}.
Obs. Though not commonly occurring in English and other languages,
examples similar to these are not wanting; e.g. {at sixes and sevens}.
185. Examples of some adjectives, extensive in their use and varied in
their meaning, are here appended.
一 ih, {one, whole, immediately upon}.
獨一無二 {t}óh ih vú rh‘, {there is only one}.
一切說話 ih t’sih seh {w}ó‘, {all he said}.
一統天下 ih ’t’óng t’íe{n} ’{a}u, {the whole empire}.
一言旣出 ih {í}e{n} kí‘ t’seh, {the words have been said}.
一定不易 ih ding‘ peh {y}uh, {certainly unchangeable}.
一念囘頭 ih nia{n}‘ {w}é deu, {sincerely repent}.
一居一動 ih kü ih ’dóng, {all he does}.
一動就打 ih ’dóng dzieu‘ ’táng, {at the least thing, he fights}.
一走就跌 ih ’tseu dzieu‘ {t}ih, {the moment he begins to walk, he
falls}.
186. 全 dzie{n}, {complete, all}.
勿完全 veh {w}é{n} dzíe{n}, {not complete}.
人全拉上 niun zé{n} ’lá long‘, {they are all there}.
全關着 zé{n} kwa{n} zah, —{they are all connected with}—
187. 大 {t}á‘, {great, very}.
國度是大個 kóh dú‘ ’zz dú‘ kú‘, {it is a large kingdom}.
要大呢小 yau‘ dú‘ {n}í ’siau, {will you have it large or small?}
勿大煞個 veh dú‘ sah kú‘, {it is not very large}.
大人小囝 {t}ú‘ niun ’siau nö{n}, {parents and children}.
大勿喜歡 {t}ú‘ veh ’h’í hwé{n}, {much displeased}.
勿大哩好 veh dá‘ ’lí ’hau, {not very good}.
勿大哩吃個 veh dá‘ ’lí k’iuh kú‘, {seldom eat it}.
188. 好 ’hau, {good, well, that I may, it may}.
禿是勿好 t’óh ’zz veh ’hau, {all are bad}.
頂勿好 ’ting veh ’hau, {worst of all}.
恰好 hah ’hau, {fortunately, just at the time}.
勿好意思 veh ’hau í‘ sz‘, {ashamed}.
好拉否 ’hau ’lá ’vá, {are you well?}
醫勿否 í veh ’hau, {he cannot be cured}.
勿能好 veh nung ’hau, {I cannot recover}.
好去囘頭 ’hau k’í‘ {w}é deu, {that I may go and inform him}.
好做個 ’hau tsú‘ kú‘, {it may be done}.
189. 靈 ling, {efficacious, intelligent}.
勿靈個 veh ling kú‘, {powerless, inefficacious}.
唔沒靈處 {m} meh ling t’sú‘, {having no efficacy}.
靈性勿拉心裏 ling sing‘ veh ’lá sing ’lí, {always forgetting}.
魂靈勿拉身上 {w}ung ling veh ’lá sun long‘, {ib}.
190. 快 k’wá‘, {fast}, (adv.) {near, soon, lively}.
快快搖 k’wá‘ k’wá‘ {y}au, {row quickly}.
夜快者 {y}á‘ k’wá‘ ’tsé, {it will soon be night}.
死快者 ’sí k’wá‘ ’tsé, {he is dying}.
快活, 快樂 k’wá‘ weh, or k’wá‘ loh, {glad}.
爽爽快快 ’song ’song k’wá‘ k’wá‘, {well in health}.
{Section} 6. {On the Pronoun}.
191. The pronouns are regarded by the Chinese as part of the auxiliary
particles that with nouns and verbs make up sentences, and they have
not proceeded to separate them from the rest of that numerous family
by a peculiar denomination.
They are chiefly single words, but frequently admit of the dissyllabic
form. Other pronouns, or particles having no meaning of their own
(e.g. 是, 個), are prefixed or affixed to give them this form. The
details will be found below.
Among the many simple and compound forms used as pronouns, the
following may be distinguished as properly and originally such for
this dialect.
1. Personal, 我, 儂, 其, 伊, 㑚, 你, ’ngú, nóng‘, gí, í, ná‘, ’ní,
{I, thou, he, you}.
2. Reflexive, 自 zz‘, in combination.
3. Demonstrative, 第, 伊, 個, {t}í‘, í, kú‘, {this, that}; also 彼此
pé ’t’sz, occasionally used.
4. Interrogative, 啥, 幾 sá‘, ’kí, {what? how many?} inseparable, and
何 {h}ú, {what?} 那 ’ná (pron. ’á), {which?} inseparable.
5. Relative. There is no separable relative pronoun, its place being
supplied by 個 kú‘, 所 ’sú is inseparable, and very limited in its
use.
6. Possessives. None. Their place is supplied by 個 kú‘, following the
personal pronoun.
7. Distributives. 各, 每, 逐, koh, ’mé, dzóh, {each}, {every}.
8. Reciprocal. None. The borrowed form 大家 is the substitute.
9. Indefinite. 某, 啥, 幾, 多, ’meu, sá‘, ’kí, tá, {some, several}.
10. Correlatives or adjective pronouns. 禿, 全, 別, t’oh, dzé{n}, bih,
{all, other}, separable and 凡 va{n}, inseparable.
{Personal pronouns}. 192. The first personal pronoun in the singular
is ’ngú, 我 {I}; the second, 儂 nóng‘ or 那 ná‘, thou; the third, 伊 í
or 其 {k}í, {he}.
我去者 ’ngú k’í‘ ’tsé, {I am now going}.
呌儂就來 kau‘ nóng‘ dzieu‘ lé, {I told you to come at once}.
撥拉伊者 peh ’lá í ’tsé, {I have given it him}.
其撥拉我 {k}í peh ’lá ’ngú, {he gave me}.
In the plural 你 ’ní or 我你 ’ngú ’ní, express {we}; 那 ná or 儂那 nóng‘
ná‘, {you}; and 伊 í, {they}.
我你兩个 ’ngú ’ní ’liáng kú‘, {we two}.
那多許人 ná‘ tú hau‘ niun, {all you men}.
When the pronoun consists of one word only, the vacant place is often
filled up by 是 ’zz.
是我 ’zz ’ngú, {I}.
是伊是其 ’zz í ’zz gí, {he}.
是那衆人 ’zz ná‘ tsóng‘ niun, {all you men}.
Obs. i. The personal pronoun is often omitted, as 拾蓋看起來 {s}eh
ké k’ö{n}‘ ’k’í lé, {thus you see}; 勿來末總勿好 veh lé meh tsóng veh
hau, {if you do not come it will be unfortunate}.
Obs. ii. The impersonal pronoun in English {it}, is not expressed, as
落雨者 loh ’{ú} ’tsé, {it is raining}.
Obs. iii. In mandarin 我, 你, 他, ’ngó, ’ní, t’á, {I, thou, he}, all
form their plural by taking 們 mun, as a suffix.
Obs. iv. Sometimes 我 ’ngú, may stand for the third person {he}, This
occurs, when two persons in relation to each other are the subject of
conversation. The nominative is then considered as {I}, and the third
person, {he}. Thus, 兄弟曉得呵哥勿喜歡我, h’iúng dí‘ ’hiau tuh á kú
veh ’h’í hwé{n} ’ngú, {the younger brother knows that the elder is
displeased with him}. This is not the case when no confusion of
persons is likely to happen; e.g. 眼睛𥆝之伊個男人 ’nga{n} tsing sú tsz
í kú‘ né{n} niun, {she looked on her husband}.
193. The idea of self is expressed by 自家 zz‘ ká, for all persons,
generally preceded by the appropriate pronoun.
伊自家話 í zz‘ ká {w}o‘, {he himself said}.
儂自家要去個 nóng‘ zz‘ ká yau‘ k’í‘ kú‘, {you must go yourself}.
Obs. i. In mandarin 自己 tsz‘ ’ki; Fúh-kien, 家己 ká ’kí.
Obs. ii. The pronoun 自 zz‘, {self}, though not used out of
combination, occurs in several fixed phrases. 自殺自 zz‘ sah zz‘, {to
kill one’s-self}; 自害自 zz‘ {h}é‘ zz‘, {to injure one’s-self}, These
concise forms are more agreeable and impressive to the native ear,
than the equivalent long forms 自家殺脫自家 zz‘ ká sah t’eh zz‘ ká;
自家害脫自家 zz‘ ká {h}é‘ t’eh zz‘ ká.
{Demonstratives}, 194. The demonstrative pronouns are 第個 {t}í‘ kú‘,
{this}, and 個個 kú‘ kú‘ or 伊個 í kú‘, {that}.
第个事體 {t}í‘ ku‘ zz‘ ’t’í, {this matter}.
故个物事 kú‘ kú‘ meh zz‘ {that thing}.
伊个小囝 í kú‘ ’siau nö{n}, {that boy}.
伊歇辰光 í h’ih zun kwong, at that time.
Obs. i. When these words combine with any of the auxiliary
substantives to form demonstrative adverbs, the particle 個 kú‘ is
omitted.
第頭好包 {t}í‘ deu ’hau pau‘, {here it is good walking}.
故搭去住 kú‘ tah k’í‘ dzû‘, {go and live there}.
伊塊人少 í k’wé‘ niun ’sau, {the people there are few}.
Obs. ii. Some of the mandarin demonstratives 那此彼 ’ná, t’sz, pé,
{that}, {this}, {that}, though not belonging to our dialect in their
monosyllabic form are found in some combinations. 那裏 ’{á} ’lí,
{where?} 此地 ’t’sz dí‘, {here}; 彼此 pé ’t’sz, {that and this}. Facts
of this sort illustrate the necessity for distinguishing between words
of one or more syllables, and between roots in apposition, as
separable and inseparable.
{Interrogatives}. 195. The interrogative forms are 啥 sá‘, {what?} 那裏
’{á} ’lí, {where? and which?} and 幾 ’kí, {what? which?} also ’kí hó‘
(hau‘), {how many}.
啥人拷門 sá‘ niun k‘au mun, {who knocks at the door?}
啥物事 sá‘ meh zz‘, {what is the matter}.
儂要啥事體 nóng‘ yau‘ sá‘ zz‘ ’t’í, {what do you want?}
啥所去 sa‘ sü k’í‘, {where are you going?}
爲啥實盖能 {w}e‘ sá‘ {s}eh ké‘ nung, {why do you do so?}
到那裏去 tau‘ ’{á} ’lí k’í‘, {where are you going}.
那裏堂 ’{á} ’lí dong, {where?}
那裏个戶堂 ’{á} ’lí kú‘ {ú} dong, {which place?}
那裏个人 ’{á} ’lí kú‘ niun, {which man?}
那裏條路 ’{á} ’lí diau lú‘, {which road?}
幾時 ’kí zz, {what time?}
幾時辰 sa‘ zz zun, {what time?}
幾點鐘 ’ki ’tíe{n} tsóng, {what it is o’clock?}
幾許銅錢 ’kí hó‘ (hau‘) dóng díe{n}, {how many cash?}
轎夫幾家頭 {k}iau‘ fú ’kí ká deu, {how many chair-bearers?}
Obs. i. In the compound forms here exhibited, 裏 may be taken to
indicate {place}; 許 hó‘ is a meaningless particle used to complete the
rhythmus.
Obs. ii. The interrogative of the books 何 {h}ú, {what?} is found in
combinations, such as 沒奈何 meh né‘ {h}ú, {there is nothing I can do}.
But it is not used alone.
{Relative pronouns}. 196. The regular relative pronoun 所 ’só, is only
used in combination with 以 ’í in the sense {therefore}, and with
’dzé, 所在 as a noun substantive, {house}.
新所在 sin sû ’dzé, {a new house}.
所以要預備 ’só ’í yau‘ {ü}‘ bé‘, {therefore you must prepare}.
The place of the relative particle 所, used in books and in some
dialects, is supplied by the particles 拉 個 ’lá kú‘, or 個 alone,
coming after the verb.
買拉个米就擔來撥拉窮人 ’má ’la ku‘ mí dzieu‘ ta{n} lé peh ’lá gióng niun,
{bring the rice you have bought at once, and give it to the
poor}. M. ’só ’mái tih ’mí.
網咾機檻咾坑坎咾禿是捉禽獸個 ’mong lau kí ’k’a{n} lau k’áng ’k’é{n} lau,
t’óh ’zz tsoh giun seu‘ kú‘, {nets, traps and covered pits, are
all for catching animals}. M. chúh k’in sheu‘ tih.
儂造拉個房子 nóng ’zau ’lá kú‘ vong ’tsz, {the house which you have
built}. M. ’ní ’só kæ‘ tih fáng ’tsz.
皇帝賞個俸祿 {w}ong tí‘ ’song kú‘ fóng lóh, {the emoluments which are
conferred by the emperor}.
{Possessive pronouns}. 197. The possessive pronouns are expressed by
the personal pronouns, with the auxiliary particle 個 kú‘.
我個兒子 ’ngú kú‘ ní ’tsz, {my son}.
儂个宗祖 nóng‘ kú‘ ’tsú tsóng, {your ancestors}.
第塊地皮是㑚个 {t}í k’wé dí‘ bí ’zz ná‘ kú‘, {this piece of land is
yours}.
Obs. i. In mandarin, 的 tih. The southern Fúh-kien dialect, besides
having two distinct plural forms for the personal pronouns 恁 ’lin,
{you}, 咱 ’lán, {we} has also separate possessive forms for all the
three persons 恁 ’lin, {your}; 阮 ’gwan, {mine}, 咱 ’lán, {ours}; 因
in, {their, his}. The intervening particle 個 is thus rendered
unnecessary for that dialect. It is however often inserted. When these
forms ’gwán, ’lin, in, are compared with the personal pronouns 我 你
伊 ’gwá, ’li or ’leu, í, the termination N looks extremely like an
appendage to the root in each case.
Obs. ii. After the personal pronouns, when a preposition of motion
precedes, a substantive of place is required; e.g. 到我喊頭來 tau‘
’ngú ha{n}‘ deu lé, {come to me}. This is generally true in all
instances, where place is left to be understood in English. 㑚塲好個狗
ná‘ dzáng hau‘ kú‘ ’keu, {one of your dogs}. It will be seen that the
pronouns in these examples are possessive, though in the former, the
corresponding English word is a personal pronoun.
{Distributive pronouns}. 198. The words corresponding to our
distributive pronouns, each, every, etc. are the following 每逐各 ’mé,
dzóh, k’oh.
每 ’mé, {each}.
每人撥一塊 ’mé niun peh ih k’wé‘, {give one piece to each}.
每家兩个人 ’mé ká ’liáng kú‘ niun, {in each family there are two}.
逐 dzóh, {each in succession}.
逐一个殺一干 dzóh ih kú‘ sah ih kû{n}, {let each person kill one}.
逐日出門一囘 dzóh nyih t’seh mun ih {w}é‘, {go out once day}.
逐樣菜拔脫一科 dzóh {y}áng t’sé‘ bah t’eh ih k’ú, {of each kind of
vegetable, pull up one plant}.
逐科花採一朶 dzóh k’ú hwó ’t’sé ih ’tú, {of each plant pluck one
flower}.
各 koh, {each, every}.
各樣書買一部 koh {y}áng‘ sû ’má ih bú‘, {buy a book of every sort}.
各樣顔色要 koh {y}áng‘ ’ngán suh yau‘, {I want every kind of colour}.
各人良心勿差 koh niun liáng sing veh t’só, {men’s consciences tell
them what is right}.
各管各 koh ’kwé{n} koh, {each attends to his own affairs}.
各處風俗不同 koh t’sû‘ fóng zóh peh dóng, {different places have
different customs}.
Obs. i. Like the Greek {pas}, {all} or {each}, 各 koh is also an
adjective {all}; e.g. 各處 koh t’sû‘, {all places}.
Obs. ii. 每 mé, means {always}, in such phrases as 每要望望儂 ’mé
yau‘ mong‘ mong‘ nóng‘, {I wish constantly to come and see you}; 每每
’mé ’mé, {always}.
{Reciprocal pronouns}. 199. Phrases such as {one another} are
expressed by 大家 {t}á‘ ká and 家家 ká ká, {mutually}; or by 相 siáng,
{together}, in combination.
總要家家相帮 ’tsóng yau‘ ká ká siáng pong, {you ought to help one
another}.
我忒儂相遇 ’ngú t’eh nóng‘ siáng nü‘, {you and I meet}.
大家吃茶 {t}á‘ ká k’iuh dzó, {take tea together}.
{Indefinite pronouns}. 200. The word {some} in {some one},
{something}, is expressed either by 某 ’meu, or by the verb 有 ’{y}eu,
{have}. {Anything} is expressed by sá‘, usually with 有 ’{y}eu
preceding; in the negative, 唔 {m} takes the place of ’{y}eu.
某處某人 ’meu t’sû ’meu niun, {a certain man of certain place}.
某書某人做個 ’meu sû ’meu niun tsú‘ kú‘, {such a book written by such
a person}.
有人來話 ’{y}eu niun lé {w}ó‘, {some one came and said}.
有是有個 ’{y}eu ’zz ’{y}eu kú‘, {there is some}.
唔啥事體 {m} sá‘ zz‘ ’t’í, {it is nothing}.
有啥信息否 ’{y}eu sá‘ sing‘ sih ’vá, {is there any news}.
201. {Several} is expressed by ’kí kú‘, 好幾個 hau‘ ’kí kú‘, 大 tá, and
the borrowed form 多許 tú hau‘; 幾許 ’kí hó‘[1] is also used.
來之幾個人 lé tsz ’kí kú‘ niun, {several men have some}.
好幾囘數 hau‘ ’kí {w}é‘ sú‘, {several times}.
大日勿來 tá nyih veh lé, {it is long since you come}.
唔啥幾許 {m} sá ’kí hô‘, {not many}.
Obs. The Greek {tis} is either interrogative {who?} (Lat. {quis?}) or
indifinite {some one}, (Lat. {aliquis}.) In the same way, 幾 ’kí is
sometimes {how many?} and at other times {several}. In the latter
sense however, 好 is usually prefixed. So also sá‘ means either
{what?} or {any thing}.
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1. Compare use of 幾許 in the following verses 花枝出建章 “Flowers
grow in the Kien-chang palace” 風管發昭陽 “The sound of pipes
issues from the palace of Chau-yang,” 借問承恩者 “I beg to ask in
regard to those who receive favour” 雙蛾幾許長 “How long are
their eyebrows?” These words are put in the mouth of a secondary
wife of the emperor Han wú-ti when jealous of imperial favour
extended to some inferior court women. The last line means “are
their eyebrows so much longer than mine?”.
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{Correlatives or adjective pronouns}. 202. The pronouns used as signs
of the plural, as already illustrated in the section on substantives
are 禿 全 t’óh, dzé{n}, {all} or {both}, and 總 ’tsóng, {all}. {None}
and {neither} are also expressed by t’óh, and dzé{n} with a negative.
兩個人禿去者 ’liáng kú‘ niun t’óh k’í‘ ’tsé, {the two men are both gone}.
全勿是 dzé{n} veh ’zz, {it is neither of them}.
全是笨個 dzé{n} ’zz bun‘ kú‘, {they are all stupid}.
對否禿對個 té‘ ’vá, t’óh té‘ kú‘, {are they right? they are all right}.
{Any one you please, whoever, whatever}, are expressed by several
borrowed phrases.
a. 大凡 {t}á‘ va{n}, {generally speaking, whoever}.
大凡人做好個就有好報 {t}á‘ va{n} niun tsú‘ ’hau kú‘, dzieu‘ ’{y}eu ’hau
pau‘, {whoever does well, will be at once rewarded}.
Obs. 凡 va{n} and sá‘ are the only true pronouns among these forms.
b. 勿拘 veh kü, {does not matter what}.
勿拘多少 veh kü tú ’sau, {however many}.
勿拘早晚 veh kü ’tsau a{n}‘, {however early or late}.
行事勿拘那能總勿局 {h}áng zz‘ veh kü ’ná nung ’tsóng veh gióh, {whatever
he does it is never right}.
c. 隨便 dzûe bíe{n}, {as you please, whatever}.
隨便啥辰光 dzûe bíe{n}‘ sá‘ zun kwong, {at whatever time}.
隨便啥人肯个 dzûe bíe{n}‘ sá‘ niun ’k’ung kú‘, {any one would be willing
to do it}.
d. 勿論 veh lun‘, {whatever}.
勿論啥日脚 veh lun‘ sá‘ nyih kiáh, {on whatever day}.
勿論幾時儂要就有 veh lun‘ ’kí zz, nóng‘ yau‘ dzieu‘ ’{y}eu, {at whatever
time, when you want it, you have it at once}.
e. sá‘ {whatever}.
想啥話啥, ’siáng sá‘ {w}ó‘ sá‘, {whatever he thinks, he says}.
Obs. i. Buttman, Greek Grammar, section 78, says “Correlatives are
words in connection with each other, of which one contains a certain
question, and the corresponding one expresses the simplest relation
which answers that question.” Thus, the question 啥人 sá‘ niun, {who?}
may be answered by 第個人 {t}í‘ kú‘ niun, {this man}; 隨便啥人, dzûe
bíe{n}‘ sa‘ niun, {any one whatever}; 唔啥人 {m} sá‘ niun, {no one}; 多
許人 tú hau‘ niun, {many men}. So also, 那裏隻船 ’{á} lí tsáh zé{n},
{which boat?} may be answered by 第隻 {t}í‘ tsáh, {this one}; 勿論那裏隻
veh lun‘ ’{á} lí tsáh, {any one whatever}; 禿勿是 t’óh veh ’zz, {it is
neither}; 不過第搭幾隻船裏 peh kú‘ {t}í‘ dah ’kí tsáh zé{n} ’lí, {it must
be one of those that are here}; 是別隻船 ’zz bih tsáh zé{n}, {it it
another}; 忒前頭一樣個船 t’eh zíen deu ih {y}áng‘ kú‘ zé{n}, {the same
boat as before}. Several of these questions are answered by particles
already presented under other denominations. The remainder not finding
a place readily under any one class, are collected under the name of
correlatives.
Obs. ii. The corresponding forms in Latin. {Omnis, neuter, nullus,
alter, alius}, are classed with adjectives; Zempt calls them
{pronominalia}. Buttman says, that the line between the corresponding
words in Greek, as adjectives and as pronouns, cannot be clearly
drawn. Marshman says, the Sanscrit grammarians call all these words
pronouns. If they can stand without a substantive, they should be
called pronouns, otherwise they are adjectives.
Obs. iii. 總 ’tsóng, {all}, is found only in the compounded forms, 共總
{k}óng‘ ’tsóng, 攏總 ’lóng ’tsóng {in all}; 攏總个百性 ’lóng ’tsóng kú‘
pák sing‘, {all the people}. The substantive must accompany 衆
’tsóng‘, as in 衆弟兄 tsóng‘ ’ti h’iúng, {all the brothers}, and
therefore, it must be considered an adjective. 衆 is not found
compounded.
Obs. iv. {All} is also expressed by repetition of the substantive,
處處有個 t’sû‘ t’sû‘ ’{y}eu ku‘, {every-where they are to be had}.
v. Art, 129. Another mode is by phrases, such as 一共 ih góng‘, 一切 ih
t’sih, {the whole}.
Obs. v. Another translation of {all} is by 大凡 {t}a‘ va{n}. Va{n} is
used in the sense of {all} in books, but in the dialect of Shánghái is
only met with in this form.
203. {Other different}, are expressed by {p}ih 別 or by 勿同 veh dóng,
or by 兩樣 ’liáng {y}áng‘, {not the same}, or by the particle 又
proceeding the substantive verb or by 另 ling‘. {The same} is ih
{y}áng‘ 一樣, or 相同 siáng dóng.
要呌別人 yau‘ kau‘ bih niun, {call another man}.
總是別樣 ’tsóng ’zz bih {y}áng‘, {is certainly different}.
到別塲化去 tau‘ bih dzáng hau‘ k’í, {go elsewhere}.
別個國度 bih kú‘ kóh dú, {another nation}.
道理勿同個 ’{t}au ’lí veh dóng kú‘, {different in principle}.
話頭兩樣個 {w}ó‘ deu ’liáng {y}áng‘ kú, {what he says is different}.
勿一樣個 veh ih {y}áng‘ kú‘, {not the same}.
又是一個 {í}‘ ’zz ih kú‘, {that is another}.
另呌一個 ling‘ kiau‘ ih kú‘, {call another}.
一樣個否 ih {y}áng‘ kú‘ ’vá, {is it the same?}
相同個 siáng dóng kú‘, {the same}.
{Words used as pronouns}. 204. The use of some other words in
combinations, where they occur instead of the pronouns will now be
illustrated.
{a}. 本 ’pun; {belonging to this place}, as demonstrative pronoun.
本地人 ’pun dí‘ niun, {people of this place}.
本地話 ’pun dí‘ {w}ó‘, {dialect of this place}.
本廟是和尙管個 ’pun miau‘ ’zz {ú} zong‘ kwé{n} kú‘, {this temple to which
I belong, is superintended by Buddhist priests}.
本國個規矩 ’pun kóh kú‘ kwé ’kü, {custom of this country}.
{b}. 今 kiun, {now, the present}. As demonstrative pronoun, {this} in
reference to time.
今朝今日 kiun tsau, kiun nyih, {to-day}.
今月今年 kiun niöh, kiun níe{n}, {this month, this year}.
{c}. 親 t’sing, {one’s own}, as reflexive pronoun {self}; 親身
t’sing sun, {himself}; 親口 t’sing ’k’eu, {his own mouth}.
{d}. 多少 tú ’sau, {how many?} as an interrogative pronoun.
多少年総 tú ’sau níe{n} ’kí, {how many years old}.
205. The adjectives that follow, are used to avoid the personal
pronouns. Those that describe the speaker are depreciatory in their
meaning, while if others are addressed, the adjectives employed are
respectful.
尊 tsun, {honoured}, 貴 kwé‘, {ib}. 高 kau, {high}, combine with
姓 sing, {family name}, 國 kóh, {kingdom, etc}.
尊姓 tsun sing‘, 貴姓 kwé‘ sing‘, 高姓 kau sing‘, {your name?}
尊庚 tsun káng, 貴庚 kwé‘ káng, 高壽 kau zeu‘, {your age?}
尊處 tsun t’sû‘, 貴處 kwé‘ t’su‘, {where do you live?}
尊府 tsun ’fu, 貴府 kwé‘ ’fu, {where is your residence?}
Obs. i. 府 ’fú, also forms part of the combination 府上 ’fú long‘,
{residence}; e.g. 府上那裏 ’fú long‘ ’{a} ’lí, {where do you reside?}
Obs. ii. 貴國 kwé‘ kóh ask {of what honoured country are you?} 貴地
kwé‘ dí‘, {what is your place of residence?} 高徒 kau dú is translated
{your scholar}; 尊駕 tsun ká‘ and 相公 siáng‘ kóng, are used in place
of {you}, among those who are not in an inferior social position.
206. 令 ling, {honoured, good}, applied to persons, enters into many
combinations, where it represents the possessive {your}.
令尊 ling tsun, {your father}.
令堂 ling dong, {your mother}.
令兄 ling h’iung, {yr. eld. bro}.
令姪 ling dzeh, {your nephew}.
令弟 ling dí‘ {yr. younger bro}.
令郎 ling long, {your son}.
令夫人 ling fú zun, {your wife}.
令高徒 ling kau dú, {your scholars}.
207. 老 ’lau and 大 {t}á‘ are found in similar combinations.
老(大）爺 ’lau ({t}ú‘) {y}á, {sir}.
大人 {t}á‘ zun, {ib}.
老(大）兄 ’lau ({t}á‘) h’iúng, {elder brother}.
老(大）哥 ’lau ({t}á‘) kú, {ib}.
Obs. i.老 ’lau is also prefixed to 先生 síe{n} sáng and 夫子 fú ’tsz,
addressed to teachers, and to 相公 síang‘ kong, addressed by servants
to masters. The form of address to priests, is 老師太 ’lau sz t’á‘, and
to instructors 老師 ’lau sz.
Obs. ii. Some other terms are employed in a similar way, instead of
the pronouns of the second person; 台 t’é, {honoured} with 甫 ’fú or 篆
dzé{n}‘, {what it your honoured name?} In the plural are found 衆位
tsóng‘ {w}é‘ or 列位 lih {w}é‘, {all you gentlemen!}
208. Self depreciatory phrases employed instead of pronouns of the
first person are equally numerous. 寒 {h}ö{n}, {cold}; 敝 {p}í,
{spoilt, inferior}; 賤 dzíe{n}, {poor, cheap}, form such groups, as—
寒門(家) {h}ö{n} mun (ka), {my house}.
寒荆 {h}ö{n} kiung, {my wife}, (kiung is {thorn}.)
敝處(地)(鄕) {p}í t’sû‘ (dí‘) (h’iáng), {my abode}.
敝(賤)姓 {p}í (dzíe{n}) sing‘, {my family name}.
賤名 dzíe{n} ming, {my proper name}.
賤内 dzíe{n} né‘ {my wife}.
Obs. One’s wife is also denominated 拙荆 tseh kiung, {stupid thorn}.
209. The antithesis of 令 ling, is usually 舍 só‘, {a cottage}. Among
the groups into which it enters, are—
舍弟 só‘ dí‘, {my brother}. 舍姪 só‘ dzeh, {my nephew}.
舍下 só‘ ’{a}u, {my house}. 舍親 só‘ t’sing, {my relations}.
210. Many groups take 小 ’siau, {small}, 家 ká, {family}, both being
regarded as sufficiently depreciatory to represent the pronoun {my}.
小兒 ’siau rh, {my boy} or {my son}. 小犬 ’siau k’iön, {small dog}.
小徒 ’siau dú, {your mother}. 小孫 ’siau sun, {grandchild}.
小弟 ’siau dí‘, {I}. 小女 ’siau ’nü, {my daughter}.
家兄 ká h’iúng, {my brother}. 家母 ká ’mú, {my mother}.
家父 ká ’vú, {my father}. 家叔 ká sóh, {my uncle}.
Obs. i. These words form a principal part of the complimentary style
of speech, or 客氣個說話 k’áh k’í‘ kú‘ seh wó‘. In the every day
colloquial of the lower class, i.e. the majority of the people,
they are little used. {Thou} and {I}, {thine} and {mine} are prefixed.
Obs. ii. While these words are given as substitutes for the pronouns,
it should be remembered that the tendencies of the language are
against the introduction of the pronouns, whether there be a
substitute or not. Thus instead of asking, “Is your eye better?” The
Chinese say 眼睛好點否 ’nga{n} tsing ’hau ’tíe{n} ’vá, {eye better, eh?}
So, for “what is your name?” 姓啥 sing‘ sá‘, {name, what?} While the
pronoun is thus entirely omitted, room is left for the speaker to
introduce whatever terms of adulation or humility he may think fit.
Those of the former kind are for convenience taken to mean {you} and
{your}, while their opposites are {I} and {mine}.
Obs. iii. Many other phrases of the same kind are used in letters, but
as they do not occur in conversation they are here omitted. Many of
them are collected in Gutzlaff’s “Notices of Chinese Grammar.”
{Section}. 7. {On the verb}, 活虛字.
211. Pih Hwa-tsun says, “One use of verbs is to connect the parts
of proposition” 活虛字之用, 一以聯綴上下, “Thus if it be said, books
instruct mankind,” 如云文傳世 (lit. writings delivered down to
mankind); “the word books is the subject, mankind the predicate,
and instruct the copula.” 文爲主字, 世爲賓字, 而以傳字, 聯綴上下也. “Another
use is to express actions.” 一以寫出人事. “Thus if it be said, write a
book, or correct an essay,” 如云作文評文之類. “write and correct are
both actions;” 作字,評字,皆人事也. “for both these uses, verbs are
indispensable.” “Verbs are very numerous; of those in constant use,
there are about two thousand.” “There are also verbs of two inseparable
characters; e.g. 婆娑 {p}ú sú, {move confusedly}, and 盤桓 {p}é{n}
{w}é{n}, {to linger}.”
Where our author speaks of 2,000 verbs, he means from among the single
characters commonly used in writing. Many of these are, in colloquial
dialects, expressed only in a dissyllabic form; thus, 慕 mú‘, {to
desire}, is only used in common conversation in such compounded forms,
as 愛慕 é‘ mú‘, {to love}. The number of inseparable compounds is thus
rendered greater in the colloquial than in the written style. With
regard to monosyllabic verbs, there are many in the books which are
not in the colloquial, and vice versâ. For examples of verbs found in
written colloquial mandarin, v. page 63.
Verbs will be treated (1.) according to their modes of grouping; (2.)
according to their most general nature, as transitive, intransitive,
or substantive (voice); (3.) according to the particular modes in
which their sense may be conveyed (moods); (4.) according to time
(tenses).
(1.) {Grouping of verbs}.
{Simple and compound verbs}. 212. Examples of verbs of one word have
been already given. A few more will be sufficient here.
放 fong‘, {let go}. 鑽 tsû{n}, {to bore}.
切 t’sih, {cut in pieces}. 修 sieu, {to prune}.
刋 t’síe{n}, {cut away}. 鑤 {p}au‘, {to plane}.
剸 tsa{n}, {chop small}. 搭 tah, {pitch tents}.
砟 tsoh, {to reap}. 拆 t’sáh, {pull down}.
挖 wah, {scoop out}. 撞 dzong‘, {meet}.
213. Many combinations of two words consist of verbs similar in
meaning, but with no reason except custom for the order in which they
are employed.
埋葬 má tsong‘, {to bury}. 哀憐 é líe{n}, {to pity}.
遮瞞 tsó mé{n}, {conceal}. 禱告 ’tau kau‘, {to pray}.
咒罵 tseu‘ mó‘, {revile}. 保庇 ’pau pí‘, {protect}.
調換 tiau {w}é{n}, {exchange}. 指點 ’tsz tíe{n}, {point to}.
加添 ká t’íe{n}, {add}. 煩勞 va{n} lau, {importune}.
話壞 {w}ó‘ {w}á‘, {calumniate}. 稱讚 t’sung tsa{n}‘, {to praise}.
Obs. i. The tautology existing in examples of this sort is no
objection whatever to their use. Thus, 埋 má and 葬 tsong‘, may be used
separately or together, as the speaker pleases. There is an advantage
to the foreigner in using the compounded forms, because a
mispronunciation of the tone of a single word is nearly compensated by
the repetition of the idea. So also for natives speaking different
dialects.
Obs. ii. The principle of antithesis may be noticed in some of these
dissyllabic combinations; e.g. 往來 ’wong lé, {go and come}; 買賣
’má má‘, {buy and sell}.
214. In many instances the first verb governs the second,
as a verb does a substantive.
惹笑 ’zá siau‘, {cause to laugh}.
怕打 p’ó ’táng, {fear being beaten}.
怕死 p’ó ’sí, {fear dying}.
開講 k’é ’kong, {begin speaking}.
Obs. In these examples, were the language one that admitted
grammatical forms, the second verb in each case would become either a
substantive, or an infinitive, (i.e. they would be always
substantives, infinitives as destitute of time, person and number,
being not true verbs). In reality 笑, 打 siau‘, ’táng, etc. are
according to the principles of classical grammar, neither verbs nor
substantives, not being able to take the necessary changes of form.
They are bare roots, and their grammatical sense is determined by
position. Verb however, is the most convenient denomination for them,
because when taken alone, they are necessarily translated as verbs.
215. In some of these dissyllabic forms, the first verb qualifies the
second; as in other languages, participles and adverbs qualify verbs.
歸去 kü k’í‘, {return home} (lit. {return go}).
跑來 {p}au lé, {come running}, (lit. {run come}).
殺來 sah lé, {come fighting}.
抄寫 t’sau ’siá, {to copy in writing} (lit. {copy write}).
Obs. i. The verb of more general meaning 去 k’í‘, {go}, is limited by
that which precedes, 歸 kü, to the sense of returning home. If the
idiom be compared with the English phrase {go back}, 歸 kü is the
adverb placed before instead of after its verb. In 轉來 ’tsé{n} lé,
{come back}; the verb ’tsé{n} is also best translated in English, as
an adverb {back}.
Obs. ii. Substantives sometimes by ellipsis stand for verbs, as
qualifying the following verb. 馬來呢轎子來 ’mó ({horse}) lé ní, giau‘
’tsz ({sedan}) lé, {did you ride or come in a chair?}
216. The order of the words in many of these phrases, may also
properly be referred to priority and sequence in time. That is, two
actions are successively expressed.
打敗 t’áng bá‘, {fight and be defeated}.
敲開 k’au ({to beat}) k’é ({to open}), {to knock open}.
咬破 ’ngau p’u‘, {break by biting}.
請坐 ’t’sing ’zú, {please sit down}.
寫完 ’siá {w}é{n} {finish writing}.
做停 tsú‘ ding, {finish making}.
吊死 tiau‘ ’sí, {die by strangling}.
Obs. The English verb {open}, which is an adjective, verb, or adverb,
like the Chinese, has evidently nothing to indicate to which part of
speech it belongs, but position. It is on the principle of position,
that in such phrases as {an open door}, {knock open a door}, and {to
open a door}, the word is referred to its proper place in the parts of
speech. There is this difference; (1) that in k’au k’é 敲開, the latter
word is still a verb, while in the corresponding English example, it
becomes a true adverb; (2) the Chinese word cannot be used as an
adjective. The qualifying notion contained in the adjective, is
expressed as a separate proposition; e.g. {for an open door}, 門開拉
mun k’é ’lá, {the door is open}.
217. In verbs of two syllables, many auxiliary words occur, which have
nearly or quite lost their primary meaning as independent verbs. In
the following examples, it will be observed, that these enclitics or
proclitics, as they may be termed, often add nothing to the meaning of
the principal verb. They are 得 tuh, 脫 t’eh, 打 ’táng, 見 kíe{n}‘, 着
záh, 住 dzû‘.
{a}. 得 tuh, {get, may}.
聽得 t’ing tuh, {hear}. 曉得 ’hiau tuh, {know}.
記得 kí‘ tuh, {remember}. 認得 niung‘ tuh, {be acquainted}.
Obs. This term, though here it has no meaning, will be seen to be a
very important word among the mood particles, as giving a permissive
sense to the principal verb. Such is its most common signification is
such phrases as 做得 tsú‘ tuh, {it may be done}.
{b}. 脫 t’eh, {let go, escape, remove out of the way}.
去脫 k’í‘ t’eh, {remove}. 除脫 dzû t’eh, {to remove}.
滅脫 mih t’eh, {destroy}. 放脫 fong‘ t’eh, {let go}.
漏脫 leu t’eh, {to leak}. 走脫 ’tseu t’eh, {escape}.
踢脫 t’ih (or t’iuh) t’eh, {kick away}. 卸脫 {s}iá t’eh, {flow away}.
斷脫 dö{n}‘ t’eh, {sweep away}. 奪脫 {t}öh t’eh, {rob of}.
Obs. This word may be regarded as forming a derivative verb. Its
primary meaning is seen in 脱衣裳 t’öh í zong, {take off one’s
clothes}, where the book sound t’öh is employed.
{c}. 打 ’táng, {to beat, apply one’s-self to}.
打掃 ’táng ’sau, {to sweep}. 打聽 ’táng t’ing, {to inquire}.
打發 ’táng fah, {to send}. 打扇 ’táng sé{n}‘, {to fan}.
打算 ’táng sö{n}‘, {consider}. 打結 ’táng kih, {tie a knot}.
Obs. The primary meaning of 打 ’táng, is seen in such phrases as 打樁
’táng tsong, {drive piles}; 打火 ’táng ’hú, {strike a light}.
{d}. 見 kíe{n}‘, indicates a single act of perception.
看見 k’ö{n}‘ kíe{n}‘, {see}.
聽見 t’ing kíe{n}‘, {to hear}.
望見 mong‘ kíe{n}‘, {see}.
{e}. 着 dzáh. This word expresses that the object implied in the verb
is effected.
碰着 {p}áng‘ záh, {to meet}.
遇着 nü záh, {ib}.
捉着 tsoh záh, {catch}, or {succeed in catching}.
擒着 {k}iun záh, {ib}.
摸着 móh záh, {rub}, or {can be rubbed}.
奪着 döh záh, {succeed in robbing}.
得着 tuh záh, {succeed in getting}.
買着 ’má záh, {succeed in buying}.
Obs. i. In these examples, this meaning of the auxiliary is preserved,
and must be regarded as additional to the sense of the principal verb,
except in the first two instances.
Obs. ii. In 想着 ’siáng záh, {think of}, the word 着 záh limits 想 think
to the sense of {think of some particular thing}. In 覺着 koh záh,
{become aware of}, the verb 覺 koh, cannot in our dialect be used
separately. It is however found in 勿知勿覺 veh tsz veh koh, {not be
aware of}.
{f}. 殺 sah, {to kill}.
勿話殺 veh {w}ó‘ sah, {he did not say decisively}.
{g}. 住 dzû‘, {resist, take firm hold}. This word always preserves its
meaning, but it occurs so frequently in union with verbs of resistance
and interruption, that it deserves a place with the preceding
enclitics.
阻住 ’tsú dzû‘, {resist}.
鎖住 ’sú dzû‘, {prevent motion by locking up}.
縛住 vóh dzû‘ {ib. by tying up}.
咬住 ’ngau dzû‘, {hold with the teeth}.
揑住 niah dzû‘, {hold in the hand}.
揪住 t’sieu dzû‘, {hold with the hand}.
{h}. 到 tau‘, {arrived}.
用到 {y}úng‘ tau‘, {employ to the utmost}.
做到 tsú‘ tau‘, {do to perfection}.
走到 ’tseu tau‘, {complete a journey on foot}.
昨日跑到 dzoh nyih {p}au‘ tau‘, {he arrived yesterday}.
218. In many cases a substantive follows the verb, when it is
unnecessary in English.
走路 ’tseu lú‘, {to walk}. 織布 tsuh pú‘, {to weave}.
射箭 zok tsie{n}‘, {to shoot}. 紡紗 ’fong só, {to spin}.
搖船 {y}au zé{n}, {to scull}. 活命 {w}eh ming‘, {to live}.
Obs. i. So also 話說話 {w}ó‘ seh {w}ó‘, {to speak}. The words seh
{w}ó‘, {words}, are as to sense superfluous. Yet many of these
examples may be closely translated; e.g. 領路 ’ling lú‘, {lead the
way}; 燒飯 sau va{n}‘, {to boil rice, to cook}.
Obs. ii. When the substantive comes under the government of another
verb its usual companion is frequently appended; e.g. 尋飯吃 dzing
va{n}‘ k’iuh, {seek for food}, where 吃 is superfluous.
Obs. iii. When the sense does not require a substantive, the reason of
its introduction must be sought in the rhythmical construction of
sentences, peculiar and essential to the Chinese language.
219. Compound verbs are formed by the apposition of a transitive verb
and adjective.
加長 ká, ({add}) dzáng ({long}), {to lengthen}.
親近 t’sing ({to make near}) ’giun, ({near}), {become near, to approach
closely}.
掘深 {k}iöh, ({dig}) sun ({deep}), {to deepen}.
減輕 ’ka{n} ({subtract}) k’iung ({light}), {subtract from}.
填高 {t}íe{n} ({place layers}) kau ({high}), {raise by layers}.
話大 {w}ó‘ ({speak}) dú‘ ({great}), {speak highly of}.
佈滿 ’pú ({to cover}) ’mé{n} ({full}), {fill up}.
教差 kau‘ ({instruct}) t’só ({wrong}), {teach wrong}.
改正 ’ké ({change}) tsung‘ ({correct}), {to correct}.
捉牢 tsoh ({catch}) lau ({firm}), {catch and retain}.
Obs. i. The word 好 ’hau, {good}, is found appended to many verbs,
giving to them the sense of completeness, 做好 tsú‘ ’hau, {complete the
making of}.
Obs. ii. These examples shew how in Chinese, compensation is made for
that class of words called derivatives in languages possessing a
system of terminations. Instead of a formation like {prolongare}, {to
lengthen}, from {longus} or {long} in Latin, or {lengthen} from
{length} in English, we have a separate word prefixed to the adjective
{dzáng}, {long}. Many English phrases are compounded in the same
manner; e.g. {rub smooth, rub dry}, which are equivalent in sense and
grammatical construction to the Chinese forms, 磨光 mú kwong, 揩乾
k’á kû{n}.
Obs. iii. 差 t’só, {wrong}, is found after many other verbs; e.g. 懂
’tóng, {understand}; 聽 t’ing, {to hear}; 待 {t}é‘ {treat any one}. In
every case, it is predicated of the action, that it is wrong.
220. In some dissyllabic verbs used transitively, one of the
constituent words is a substantive.
囘頭 {w}é ({turn}) deu ({head}), {to answer, to tell}.
弄神 lóng‘ ({trick}) zun ({spirits}), {to deceive}.
到手 tau‘ ({reach to}) ’seu ({hand}), {have in possession}.
算計 sö{n}‘ ({calculate}) kí‘ ({a plan}), {to plan}.
Obs. These may be seen to be transitive, in such sentences as 勿好弄
神朋友 veh ’hau lóng‘ zun báng ’{y}eu, {you should not deceive
friends}; 就來囘頭我 dzieu lé {w}é deu ’ngú, {come at once and tell me}.
221. Some colloquial verbs, with examples of the manner in which they
combine with other words, are here inserted.
踛上去 lóh ’zong k’í, {go up} (M. 升 shíng, 足 p‘a).
跑出來 {p}au‘ t’seh lé, {walk out} (M. 走 ’tseu).
搿住拉 geh dzû‘ ’lá, {held by the arm} (M. 挾 hieh).
碰着 {p}áng‘ záh, {meet} (M. 遇 ü‘ and p‘eng choh).
挬輔 {p}eh ’tsé{n}, {turn around} (M. 囘 hwei).
担到此地 ta{n} tau‘ ’t’sz dí‘, {bring here} (M. 拿 ná 端 twan).
甩脱 hwah t’eh, {throw away} (M. 扔下 jeng‘ hia‘).
孛相 {p}eh siáng‘, {to ramble} (M. 遊桄 yeu kwang‘).
坍銃 t’a{n} t’sóng, {to be ashamed}.
撥拉我 peh ’lá ’ngú, {give it me} (M. 給 ki‘, ’kei).
做唆 tsu‘ sú‘, {to deceive}.
Obs. At Súng-kiáng ’pun, is used for peh, in the sense of {give}. 跑
has two pronunciations, ’{p}au {run}, and pau‘ {walk}.
222. Some adverbs enter into combination with verbs.
預備 {ü}‘ ({before}) bé‘ ({prepare}), {to prepare}.
相打 siáng ({mutually}) ’táng ({beat}), {to fight}.
相罵 siáng （{mutually}) mó‘ ({rail}) {rail at one another}.
Groups of three. 223. Propositions and words equivalent to them
combine with 來 lé, {come}, and 去 k’i‘, {go}, to express the direction
of the action of verbs.
敲進去 k’au tsing‘ k’í, {knock in}.
担上來 ta{n} ’zong lé, {bring forward}.
走下來 ’tseu ’{a}u lé, {walk down}.
殺前去 sah zíe{n} k’í‘, {fight on before}.
踛起來 lók ’k’í lé, {stand up}.
坐下來 ’zú ’{a}u lé, {sit down}.
做進去 ’zú tsing‘ k’í, {sit farther up}.
飛出來 fí t’seh lé, {fly out}.
走過來 ’tseu kú‘ lé, {come through}.
拉過去 ’lá kú‘ k’í‘, {drag past}.
掇起來 töh ’k’í lé, {lift up}.
縮轉來 sók ’tsé{n} lé, {turn back}.
丟下來 {k}wa{n}‘ ’{a}u lé, {throw down}.
走開來 ’tseu k’é lé, {walk away}.
Obs. i. Thus we have an idiom similar to the English, except that the
verbs of motion are added. The common prepositions annexed to verbs
(and therefore sometimes called adverbs), follow the verbs in both
instances. Of the Chinese five are verbs, which are all used as
prepositions, 出 t’seh, {to go out, outward}; 進 tsing‘, {to go in,
inward}; 起 ’k’í, {to raise up, upward}; 過 kú‘, {to pass, through,
across}; 轉 ’tsé{n}, {to return, back}; 開 k’é, {to open, away}. Of the
prepositions 上 ’zong, {forward}, 下 ’{a}u {backward, downward}, 前
zíe{n}, {before}, the two former are also frequently employed as verbs
in the dialect as well as in books; e.g. 上蘇州 ’zong Sú-tseu, {go to
Sú-cheú}; 下船 ’{a}u zé{n}, {to enter a boat}.
Obs. ii. In the classical languages, the prepositions were put before
the verbs instead of after them, as in the derived words {ascend},
{descend}; and another numerous class of terms belonging to our
western tongues, is thus seen to have its equivalent compound form in
the Chinese language.
224. The {beginning} and {completion} of an action are expressed by
appending, 起來 ’k’í lé, {begin} and 成功 zung kóng, {complete} to the
verb 起 ’k’í is also used alone, and the words 完, 停, {w}é{n}, ding,
{finish}, and 好 ’hau, {well}, stand for {completion}.
寫起來 ’siá ’k’í lé, {begin writing}.
做成工 tsú‘ zung kóng, {to finish making}.
畫成工 {w}ó zung kóng, {finish painting.}
今朝做起 kiun tsau tsú ’k’í, {begin to-day}.
幾時做完 ’kí zz tsú‘ {w}é{n}, {when will you finish?}
勿曾話停 veh zung {w}ó ding, {has not done speaking}.
造好者 ’zau ’hau ’tsé, {finished building}.
Obs. i. In examples with 起, ’k’í, we have an equivalent to that class
of Lat. derivative verbs called Inchoative or Inceptive; e.g. calesco,
{I grow warm}, from {calco}.
Obs. ii. 起 ’k’í is sometimes omitted e.g. 做來勿好 tsú‘ lé veh ’hau,
{do a thing badly}. But then the sense of {beginning} is lost also.
Obs. iii. This form is also assumed by adjectives, as 熱起來 nyih ’k’í
lé, {becomes hot}; 熱來話勿得 nyih lé {w}ó veh tuh, {it is excessively
hot}. In the dialects west of Shánghái 熱得來 nyih tuh lé, is used for
{it is hot}.
Obs. iv. The substantive governed is place between 起 ’k’í and 來 lé;
e.g. 動起手來 ’{t}óng ’k’í ’seu lé, {to move ones hand}. The same thing
occurs with some of the other groups. 挬輔身體來 peh ’tsé{n} sun ’t’í
lé, {turn one’s body round}: 担出洋錢來 ta{n} t’seh {y}áng díe{n} lé,
{bring out dollars}.
225. Collective and separating verbs are formed by 攏 ’lóng, {collect},
and 開 k’é, {open}.
聚攏來 dzü ’lóng lé, {collect together}.
幷攏來 ’ping ’lóng lé, {add together}.
散開來 sa{n} k’é lé, {scatter}.
拆開來 t’sáh k’é lé, {undo}.
分開來 fun k’é lé, {divide}.
解開來 ’ká k’é lé, {untie}.
226. Reflexive action is expressed by placing 自 zz‘ before and after
the verb.
自嚇自 zz‘ háh zz‘, {frighten one’s-self}.
自騙自 zz‘ p’ie{n}‘ zz‘, {deceive one’s-self}.
Obs. In examples of this sort, the constituent words are pronounced
closely together and might be written with hyphens. They correspond in
their sense, to the Hithpahel conjugation of Hebrew verbs, and the
middle voice of Greek and Sanscrit. In a monosyllabic agglutinating
language, no nearer approach, could well be made to an equivalent of
those forms, than is exhibited in such groups as these.
{Groups. Affirmative and negative}. 227. The groups formed by help of
the affirmative and negative particles are very numerous, so much so,
that they constitute of themselves a feature of the language. The
Chinese colloquial idiom is very much indebted to them, for the force
and precision which it is acknowledged to possess.
In these groups 得 tuh and 勿 veh (不 púh M.), take the centre, and
certain auxiliary words, with some adjectives and verbs stand last.
The sense of the principal verb is thus limited and modified in
various ways. 得 tuh and 勿 veh being opposite in sense, the
modifications they produce in the sense of the verb must be opposed
also. They may be reduced to the following pairs of terms.
1st. It is predicted of the {agent}, that he is {able} or knows how to
effect the action of the verb and the contrary; e.g. 做得來 tsú‘ tuh
lé, {able to do or make}; 做勿来 tsú‘ veh lé, {unable to do or make}.
2nd. It is predicated of the agent, that circumstances allow
him to effect the action and the contrary. Thus, 當得起 tong
tuh ’k’í, {in circumstances to bear}; 讀勿起 {t}óh veh ’k’í,
{cannot afford to learn to read}; 拖勿起 t’ú veh ’k’í, {not strength to
drag}.
3rd. It is predicated of the action, that it can, or does {succeed},
and the opposite; e.g. 尋得着 zing tuh záh, {can find} (尋 zing
{seek}); 打勿着 ’táng veh záh, {it did not}, or {cannot hit}.
4th. It is predicated of the action, that it can, or cannot be
performed in a particular {direction}; e.g. 走勿進 ’tseu veh tsing‘,
{cannot go inside}.
5th. Of verbs of {motion}, {resistance} and {destruction}, it is
predicated, with the help of auxiliary verbs cognate in meaning, that
the act they represent, can or cannot take place. 走得動 ’tseu tuh
’dóng {can walk}; 阻勿住 ’tsú veh dzû‘, {unable to resist}; 解勿脫 ’ká
veh t’eh, {cannot get rid of}.
6th. It is predicated of a verb followed by an adjective, that the act
is or can be performed, to the extent indicated the adjective or the
contrary; e.g. 醫得好 í (cure) tuh ’hau (good) {can be cured}; 填勿滿
{t}íe{n} veh ’mé{n} {cannot be filled by layers}.
228. Of the auxiliary words, used in affirmative and negative groups,
verbs are the most numerous.
{a}. 來 lé, {come}, 出 t’seh, {go out}, express {able to}.
寫勿來 ’siá veh lé, {do not know how to write}.
聽勿來 t’ing veh lé, {have not the power to hear}.
呌勿出 kiau‘ veh t’seh, {know not what to call it}.
講得出 ’kong tuk t’seh, {can discourse on it}.
Obs. A group of four is sometimes made by introducing an adverb.
聽大勿出 t’ing dá‘ veh t’seh, {I do not hear very well}.
{b}. 起 ’k’í, {rise}, expresses {in circumstances to}.
板勿起 ’pa{n} veh ’k’í, {it is not for me to look angry}.
睏勿起 k’wun‘ veh ’k’í, {afraid to sleep}.
染勿起 ’níe{n} veh ’k’í, {will not bear to be dyed}.
印勿起 {y}un‘ veh ’k’í, {will not bear impressions}.
見勿起 kíe{n}‘ veh ’k’í, {do not dare meet him}.
{c}. 着, 出, 見, záh, t’seh, kíe{n}‘, express success in any single
action; verbs of striking and seeking take záh; while verbs of
thinking and perception take t’seh and kíe{n}‘.
呌得着 kiau‘ tuh záh, {succeed in calling him}.
殺勿着 sah veh záh, {not succeed in killing}.
懂勿出 ’tóng veh t’seh, {cannot understand}.
看勿出 k’ö{n}‘ veh t’seh, {I do not} (or {cannot}) {see it}.
看勿見 k’ö{n}‘ veh kíe{n}‘, {ib}.
{d}. 進, 出, 落, 過, 轉, 開, express {direction} as in the examples.
進得進 tsing‘ tuh tsing‘, {able to enter}.
行勿出 {h}áng veh t’seh, {cannot pass out}.
吃勿落 k’iuh veh loh, {cannot swallow} or {eat}.
跑勿過 pau‘ veh kú‘, {cannot pass by}.
縮勿轉 sóh veh ’tsé{n}, {cannot return}.
打得開 ’táng tuh k’é, {can beat open}.
睏勿落 k’wun‘ veh loh, {cannot lie down (either through pain or want
of room)}.
{e}. 脱, 動, 住, t’eh, ’{t}óng, dzû‘, express {destruction}, {motion},
and {resistance}. e.g.
滅勿脱 mih veh t’eh, {cannot destroy}.
做勿動 tsú‘ veh ’dóng, {disabled from work}.
跑勿動 {p}au veh ’dóng, {unable to walk}.
免勿脱 ’mie{n} veh t’eh, {unable to avoid}.
立勿住 lih veh dzû‘, {not able to stand}.
當得住 tong tuh dzû‘, {able to resist}.
{f}. 得 tuh, expresses {permission} and {prohibition}.
動勿得 {t}óng veh tuh, {may not do it}.
去得 k’i‘ tuh, {may go}.
逃走勿得 {t}au ’tseu veh tuh, {may not flee}.
{g}. 停, 完, express the {cessation} of an act.
呌勿停 kiau‘ veh ding, {not cease to call}.
哭勿停 k’óh veh ding, {not cease to weep}.
用勿完 {y}úng‘ veh {w}é{n}, {cannot exhaust by using}.
痛勿停 t’ong‘ veh ding, {not cease to pain}.
{h}. 成功, 盡, 到, express {perfection} of an act.
做勿成功 tsú‘ veh dzung kóng, {cannot complete}.
走得到 ’tseu tuk tau‘, {can walk to}.
想勿到 ’siáng veh tau‘, {cannot reach in thought}.
及勿到 {k}ih veh tau‘, {cannot come up to or equal}.
報答勿盡 pau‘ tah veh dzing‘, {unable to shew sufficient gratitude}.
{i}. 及 {k}ih or {k}í, expresses {there is time for}.
抄勿及 t’sau veh gí, {not time to copy}.
追得及 tsûe tuh gí, {time to overtake}.
來勿及 lé veh gí, {not time for it}.
{j}. 落 loh, expresses {room for}.
擱得落 koh tuh loh, {room to pack}.
安勿落 ö{n} veh loh, {not room to place}.
坐勿落 ’zú veh loh, {not room to sit}.
{k}. 過 kú‘, indicates that the verb it qualifies will give superiority.
打也打伊勿過, 話也話伊勿過, ’táng {’á} ’táng í veh kú‘, {w}ó‘ {’á} {w}ó‘ í
veh kú‘, {cannot conquer him by beating, nor by using the tongue}.
敵得過 {t}ih tuh kú‘, {can oppose him successfully}.
{l}. 理 ’lí, {to control}, ’long, {bring together}, 殺 sah, {kill} and
應 {y}ung‘, {answer}, add their own sense to the verb.
話勿理 {w}o‘ veh ’lí, {not attend to what is said}.
喊得理 ha{n}‘ tuh ’lí, {will come when called}.
合勿攏 {h}eh veh ’lóng, {cannot agree together}.
呌勿應 kiau‘ veh {y}ung‘, {not answer a call}.
Obs. i. In some instances, the sense of the auxiliaries varies from
that assigned to them here; e.g. 看勿起 kön‘ veh ’k’i, {to despise};
買勿動 ’má veh ’dóng, {not succeed in buying}; 相信勿過 siáng sing‘ veh
kú‘, {incredible}; 意勿過 í‘ veh kú‘, {cannot but pity}; 罷勿得 {p}á‘
veh tuh, {indispensable}.
Obs. ii. 有 ’{y}eu, {have} and 嘸 {m}, {not to have}, form with {tuh}
a few groups; e.g. 有得吃 ’{y}eu tuh k’iuh, {have something to eat};
嘸得着 {m} tuh tsáh, {have nothing to wear}.
Obs. iii. Examples are rare in the case of 見, 脱, 動, 應 and 理,
The rest are all extensively used.
229. Prepositions similarly employed in these negative and affirmative
groups are rare. Those that are used may also be construed as verbs.
{a}. 前 zíe{n} {before}.
殺勿前 sah veh zíe{n}, {does not go forward fighting}.
{b}. 上 ’zong, {forward}.
踛勿上 lóh veh ’zong, {cannot be climbed}.
鎖勿上 ’sú veh ’zong, {(key) cannot be turned (cannot lock.)}
門關勿上 mun kwa{n} veh ’zong, {door will not shut}.
{c}. 下 ’{a}u, {down}.
踛勿下 lóh veh ’{a}u, {cannot climb down}.
吃勿下 k’iuh veh ’{a}u, {cannot swallow}.
230. Several adjectives are found in these combinations; e.g. 全, 直,
多, 好, 滿, 完, 全, 通, 明 白, etc.
讀勿全 {t}óh veh dzíe{n}, {cannot be read through}.
伸勿直 sun veh dzuh, {cannot stretch out straight}.
差勿多 t’só veh tú, {differs little}.
話得好 {w}ó‘ tuh ’hau, {well spoken}.
補得滿 ’pú tuh ’mé{n}, {can be filled up}.
走勿通 ’tseu veh t’óng, {no thoroughfare}.
話勿明白 {w}ó‘ veh ming báh, {cannot be made to understand}.
Obs. In the third and fourth examples, and others like them such as
跑得快 pau‘ tuk k’wá‘, the proposition is not one of possibility, {he
can walk fast}, but of fact, {he walks fast}.
{Repetition and Antithesis}. 231. These occur extensively among the
verbs. The meaning of the word repeated remains unaffected.
{а}. Many single intransitive verbs, or verbs used intransitively are
repeated.
坐坐 ’zú zú‘, {sit down}. 看看 k’ö{n}‘ k’ö{n}‘, {look}.
{b}. Transitive verbs are repeated before the word they govern.
寫寫字 ’siá ’sia zz‘, {write}.
種種田 tsóng‘ tsóng‘ díe{n}, {work in the fields}.
候候儂 {h}eu‘ {h}eu‘ nóng‘, {I come to see you}.
{c}. k’ö{n}‘, {see}, occurs after a repeated verb, in a metaphorical
sense.
睃睃看 sú sú k’ö{n}‘, {see what it is}.
聽聽看 t’ing t’ing k’ö{n}‘, {listen to it and see}.
試試看 sz‘ sz‘ k’ö{n}‘, {try it and see}.
做做看 tsú‘ tsú‘ k’ö{n}‘, {make it as a trial}.
Obs. K’ö{n}‘ also follows other groups, as 念起來看 nia{n}‘ ’k’í lé
k’ö{n}‘, {read and let me hear}.
{d}. The components of dissyllabic verbs are often repeated.
談談說說 {t}a{n} da{n} söh söh, {conversing}.
啼啼哭哭 {t}í dí k’óh k’óh, {weeping}.
來來去去 lé lé k’í‘ k’í‘, {coming and going}.
{e}. Some dissyllabic verbs repeat themselves, not their component
parts.
攀談攀談 p’a{n} da{n} p’a{n} da{n}, {talking}.
恭喜恭喜 kúng ’h’í, kúng ’h’í, {I congratulate you}.
{f}. When a dissyllabic from consists of a verb and its subject, a
group of four is formed by repeating the former, and supplying the
place of the latter by a synonymous or contrasted word.
嘸邊嘸岸 {m} píe{n} {m} ngö{n}‘, {not having a shore}.
動手動脚 ’{t}óng ’seu ’dóng kiáh, {move hands and feet}.
有憑有據 ’{y}eu bing {y}eu kü‘, {there is evidence}.
{g}. Sometimes both the verb and its object are varied by synonymous
or contrasted words.
求天拜地 {k}ieu t’íe{n} pá‘ dí‘, {pray to heaven and worship earth}.
幷心竭力 {p}ing‘ sing gih lih (or liuh), {employ one’s whole mind and
strength}.
{h}. Some verbs are repeated with a pair of antithetical verbs in
alteration.
跑来跑去 ’{p}au lé ’{p}au k’í‘, {walking about}.
搖進搖出 {y}au {t}sing‘ {y}au t’seh, {row in and out}.
232. The verb is repeated with the intervention of 個 kú‘, or of 一 ih
to represent {a little} of the act in question.
走一走 ’tseu ih ’tseu, {walk a little}.
等一等 ’tung ih ’tung, {wait a little}.
待個待 {t}é‘ kú‘ dé‘, {wait}.
做個做 ’zú kú‘ ’zú, {sit down}.
Obs. Sometimes auxiliary substantives supply the place of the repeated
verb; e.g. 加一倍 ká ih bé‘, {make it as large again}. Other
auxiliaries are 次, 燙, 囘, t’sz‘, t’ong‘, {w}e‘, applied to any verb
in the sense of {times}. For going round in a circle 轉 ’tsé{n} with
the numeral expresses the number of times. For beating 記 kí‘
expresses the number of blows. See Art. 163.
(2.) {Different kinds of verbs}.
{Substantive verb}. 233. The verb {to be} used as a copula is often
omitted.
我你讀書個 ’ngú ’ní {t}ók sû kú‘, {we are persons of education}.
第個人長 {t}í kú‘ niun dzáng, {this man is tall}.
今朝最冷 kiun tsau tsûe‘ ’láng, {to-day it is very cold}.
234. The words 是[1] ’zz and 做 tsú‘ are employed as substantive verbs,
and 在 ’dzé, 勒拉 leh ’lá, 勒裏 leh ’lí when existence in place is
spoken of. They are put in the negative by prefixing 勿 yeh.
是儂個否 ’zz nóng‘ kú‘ ’vá, {is it yours?}
是個勿是個 ’zz ku‘, veh ’zz ku‘, {it is; it is not}.
我做裁縫 ’ngú tsú‘ dzé vóng, {I am a tailor}.
做兒子要孝 tsú‘ ní ’tsz yau‘ h’iau‘, {he who is a son should be filial}.
勿勒拉此地 veh leh ’la ’t’sz di‘, {he is not here}.
Obs. i. The verb 呌 kiau‘, {to call} is sometimes so used that is may
be translated as a substantive verb; e.g. í {y}áng‘ ’{t}au ’lí veh
kiau‘ ’hau, 伊樣道理勿呌好 {that mode of action is not good}, or {is not
what may be called good}.
Obs. ii. The words 當, 爲, and 作 are used in fixed phrases, from which
they cannot be disengaged. 自家作主 zz‘ ká tsok ’tsû, {be your own
master}; 改惡爲善 ’ké oh {w}é ’zé{n}, {repent and be virtuous}; 强盜作反
{k}iáng dau‘ tsok ’fa{n}, {the robbers are rebelling}; 當兵 tong ping,
{to be a soldier}.
Obs. iii. 做 is also used as a transitive verb {make} or {do}, which
is its primary meaning.
Obs. iv. 有 {to have} when no object follows affirms existence and is
to be translated by the impersonal substantive verb in English; e.g.
魚有否 {ng} ’{y}eu ’vá, {are there any fish?} 豈有此理 ’k’í ’{y}eu ’t’sz
’lí, {how can this be?} ({It snows now}, is 落雪者 lok sih ’tsé.) Its
negative is 嘸 {m} or 嘸沒 {m} meh.
-----------------------------------------------------------------
1. The substantive verb either simply affirms 是 ’zz or it
affirms action 做 tsú‘ or it affirms existence in {place} 在
’zé, 勒拉 leh ’lá, or it affirms {existence} 有 ’{y}eu.
-----------------------------------------------------------------
235. Transitive verbs take the object after them, while the nominative
precedes.
官府刻薄百姓 kwé{n} ’fú k’uh bóh pák sing‘, {the mandarins exact from
the people}.
兵搶物事 ping ’t’siáng meh zz‘, {the soldiers commit robberies}.
236. When there are two objects as in verbs of {giving}, the nearer
comes next to the verb, and the more remote stands last, usually with
拉 ’lá.
送禮物拉儂 sóng‘ ’lí veh ’lá nóng‘, {present you with gifts}.
撥飯拉儂吃 peh va{n}‘ ’lá nóng‘ k’iuh, {give you rice}.
Obs. This is the same as Remusat’s rule, “Dans les verbes à double
rapport’ le complément direct se place après le verbe, et est suivi du
complément indirect” 天子能薦人於天 t’íe{n} ’tsz nung tsíe{n}‘ zun ü
t’íe{n}, {the emperor can propose a person to Heaven}; the order is
not however confined to this one form; e.g. 送拉儂個物事 sóng‘ ’lá nóng‘
kú‘ meh zz‘, {I bring you a present}, is the same as, sóng‘ meh zz‘
’lá nóng‘; 送儂兩個物事 sóng‘ nóng‘ ’liáng kú‘ meh zz‘ {I bring you a
few things}, is just as proper as sóng‘ ’liáng kú‘ meh zz‘ ’lá nóng.
237. The object is made to precede the transitive verb, by the use of
the auxiliary 担 ta{n}, which is also the sign of the instrument.
担蠟燭火吹隱 ta{n} lah tsóh ’hú t’sz ’yun, {blow out the candle}.
担竹爿來打 ta{n} tsók {p}a{n} lé ’táng, {strike with a bamboo}.
担門關子 ta{n} mun kwa{n} tsz, {shut the door}.
238. Intransitive verbs when not followed by a preposition or another
verb, prefer the last place.
此地坐 ’t’sz dí‘ ’zú, {sit here}.
第頭跑 {t}í‘ deu pau‘, {walk here}.
幾時來 ’kí zz lé, {when did you come}.
我船上來 ’ngú zé{n} long‘ lé, {I come from the boat}.
Obs. When a preposition is employed to connect an intransitive verb
with a substantive, the verb may precede or follow; e.g. 到此地來 tau‘
’t’sz dí‘ lé, {come here} is equivalent to lé tau‘ ’t’sz dí‘. So also
坐拉第搭, ’zú ’lá {t}í‘ tah, {sit here}, is the same as ’lá {t}í‘ tah
’zú.
239. The passive is formed by prefixing the auxiliary verb 撥 peh,
{give}, with the substantive that represents the agent, to the
transitive verb.
撥別人打 peh bih niun ’táng, {was beaten by others}.
撥伊做唆我 peh í tsú sú ’ngú, {I was deceived by him}.
Obs. i. This auxiliary particle 撥 peh, {give}, has in all four uses:—
Active, 撥三兩個銅錢拉伊 peh sa{n} ’liang kú‘ {t}óng die{n} ’lá í, {give
him two or three cash}. Passive, 撥拉父母責備 peh ’lá ’vú ’mú tsah bé‘,
{he was rebuked by his parents}. 我個帽子撥拉人偷之去者 ’ngú kú‘ mau‘ ’tsz
peh ’lá niun t’eu tsz k’í‘ ’tsé, {my hat has been stolen by some one}.
Causative, 撥拉伊死 peh ’lá í ’sí, {cause him to die}; 伊撥拉我喫虧者 í
peh ’lá ’ngú k’iuh k’ü (k’wé) ’tsé, {he has caused me to suffer}.
(M. 使 shï‘ 呌 kiau‘, chiau‘.) Permissive, 啥人肯撥拉別人欺負呢 sá‘ niun
’k’ung peh ’lá bih niun c‘hi vú‘ ni? {who is willing to allow others
to insult him?} 勿要撥拉別人哄騙儂 veh yau‘ peh ’lá bih niun hóng‘ p‘ien‘
nóng‘, {do not allow others to deceive you}.
Obs. ii. In mandarin it is not the common word to {give}, that is
chosen for the passive auxiliary, but a word set apart for this
purpose 被 pei‘.
Obs. iii. ’Zeu 受 {to receive}, is often used as a passive, e.g. 勿肯受
別人罵 veh ’k’ung ’zeu bih niun mó‘, {unwilling to be spoken ill of by
others}. K’iuh 吃 is found in combination as in the next examples.
When separated from the groups where it is the sign of the passive, it
recovers its transitive sense {to eat}.
240. Verbs are made causative By prefixing kau‘, {to call}, or peh,
{to give}.
呌我吃虧 kau‘ ’ngú k’iuh k’ü, {causing me to suffer loss}.
勿要呌吾白送脫 veh yau‘ kaú ngú báh sóng‘ t’eh, {do not cause me to give
it away} (or {say it}) {in vain}.
呌水勿要滾 kiau‘ ’sz veh yau‘ ’kwun, {prevent the water from boiling}.
撥拉我吃官司 peh ’lá ’ngú k’iuh kwé{n} sz, {causing me to be the subject
of a lawsuit}.
Obs. i The English auxiliary verb {must} is expressed by ’tsóng, as in
總要牢實’tsóng yau‘ lau zeh, {you must be upright}.
Obs. ii. The derivative verbs which have been already illustrated are
the following:— Inchoative, 提起筆來 {t}i ’k’í pih lé, {take up the
pen}; Reflexive, 自怨自 zz‘ yö{n}‘ zz‘, {be one’s own enemy};
Collective, 合攏來 {h}eh ’lóng lé, {combine together}; Separative, 折開
來 t’sák k’é lé, {pull open}; Completing, 造完 ’zau wé{n}, {finish
building}; Resisting, 擋住 tong dzû‘, {stand against}; Destroying, 丢脫
tieu t’eh, {throw away}. There are also forms for the various
directions indicated by prepositions, v. Art. 223.
(3.) {Modes of verbs}.
241. In very many cases the mood is determined entirely from the
sense, and has no particular sign.
我去買 ’ngú k’í‘ ’má, {I will go and buy}. (Indicative.)
是儂去還便當 ’zz nóng‘ k’í‘ wa{n} bíe{n}‘ tong‘, {if you should go, it
would be more convenient}. (Subjunctive.)
儂去買 nóng‘ k’í‘ má, {do you go and buy}. (Imperative.)
買是容易 ’má ’zz yúng {í}‘, {to buy is easy}. (Infinitive).
Obs. Here the four principal moods of Latin grammar are exemplified
without any distinctive sign.
242. The particle 者 ’tsé and 末 meh, at the end of the clause often
mark {indicative} and {conditional} prepositions respectively.
現在落雨末年世好者 {h}íe{n}‘ ’dzé loh ’{ü} meh, níe{n} sz‘ ’hau ’tsé,
{should it now rain, it will be a good year}.
年紀大末勿要者 níe{n} ’kí dú‘ meh veh yau‘ ’tsé, {if old, they are not
wanted}.
Obs. i. The conditional clause always precedes.
Obs. ii. These particles may in many cases be omitted without
affecting the sense. 勿落雨百姓要苦惱 veh loh ’{u} pák sing‘ yau‘ ’k’ú
’nau, {if it does not rain, the people must suffer}.
Obs. iii. In any two connected clauses, whether the former be
conditional or not, these particles are frequently used; e.g. k’ö{n}‘
kíe{n}‘ tsz ’t’au va{n}‘ kú‘ meh, dzieu‘ ’táng ’k’í lé ’tsé. 看見之討飯
個末就打起來者 {when he saw the beggars, he began beating them}. Both
these clauses are in the past time.
Obs. iv. An indicative clause standing alone often takes 者 ’tsé. Thus
來者 lé ’tsé, {I am come}, or {I come}; 去者 k’i‘ ’tsé, {I go}.
243. Another particle found in conditional sentences, is 之 tsz,
appended to the verb. This marks the past participle of the verb.
吾吃之飯就來者 ngú k’iuh tsz va{n}‘ dzieu‘ lé ’tsé, {having dined I came
at once}.
244. A {potential} mood is formed by many of the groups already
illustrated. Both kinds of ability, absolute or natural, and limited
or moral, are found in them. For examples of the former kind:—
寫勿來 ’siá veh lé, {I cannot write}.
講究得來 ’kong kieu‘ tuh lé, {I can discuss it}.
彎勿轉 wa{n} veh ’tsé{n}, {cannot turn round}.
Obs. 會 {w}é‘, prefixed to verbs makes them potential 念勿來 nia{n}‘
veh lé, {I cannot read}, is equivalent to veh {w}é‘ nia{n}‘.
245. The limited potential mood is formed by 起’k’í, e.g.
當勿起 tong veh ’k’í, {I do not deserve to receive it}.
牽勿起 k’íe{n} veh ’k’í, {not able to pull}.
磨勿起 mú veh ’k’í, {will not bear rubbing}.
吃勿起 k’iuh veh ’k’í, {cannot afford to eat it}.
打勿起 ’táng veh ’k’í, {cannot bear beating}.
手硬勿起 ’seu ngáng‘ veh ’k’í, {could not use my hand roughly}.
246. A {permissive} and {prohibitive} mood is formed by, —
{a}. 得 tuh.
看得 k’ö{n}‘ tuh, {you may look at}.
看勿得 k’ö{n}‘ veh tuh, {you may not look}.
{b}. 好 ’hau, and 可以 ’k’ó ’í, also give a permissive sense.
好進去杏 ’hau tsing‘ k’i‘ ’vá, {may I enter?}
勿好出去 veh ’hau t’seh k’i‘, {you must not go out}.
可以吃得 ’k’ó ’í k’iuk tuh, {you may eat it}.
247. An {optative} mode of the verb is formed by pó veh tuh, and
{h}ng‘ veh tuh. (恨 {h}ng‘, west of Shánghái {h}ung‘).
我巴勿得快點到 ’ngú pó veh tuh k’wa‘ ’tíe{n} tau‘, {would that I could
arrive quickly}.
恨勿得做好 {h}ng‘ veh tuh tsú‘ ’hau, {I wish I could do it}.
248. The {imperative} (1) in its negative form takes 要 yau‘, {want},
with the common negative particle 勿 veh.
勿要閙 veh yau‘ nau‘, {do not be noisy}.
(2.) The affirmative form of the {imperative} is expressed by the verb
alone, or by 末者 meh ’tsé, or 罷 {p}á‘ appended sometimes to a few verbs.
走末者 ’tseu meh ’tsé, {go}. 去罷 k’í bá‘, {go}.
Obs. All the verbs single and grouped, except those with the
affirmative and negative, may be used as imperatives without a
particle. 走過來 ’tseu kú‘ lé, means either {I am passing you} or {pass
over to me}.
249. the {Infinitive} it may be remarked, (1.) that it stands first in
many negative groups not potential. v. Art. 228. g.
念勿停 nia{n}‘ veh ding, {does not cease io recite}.
吵閙勿停 t’sau nau‘ veh ding, {does not cease to be noisy}.
(2) That when a verb is made the subject of a proposition, while the
predicate follows with a copula, the verb is translated in the
infinitive, e.g.
去是容易 k’í‘ ’zz yóng í‘, {it is easy to go}.
250. When a verb takes a case particle, it is construed as a present
participle or gerund.
物事勒拉來 meh zz‘ leh ’lá lé, {the things are coming}.
吃飯個辰光 k’iuh va{n}‘ kú‘ zun kwong, {time for dining}.
我拉寫字 ’ngú ’lá ’siá zz‘, {I am writing}.
吃個物事 k’iuh kú‘ meh zz‘, {things to eat}
Obs. The supine {in order to} has no sign, 買點啥去者, ’má ’tíe{n} sá‘
k’í‘ ’tsé, {he is gone (in order) to buy something}; 我來望望㑚 ’ngú lé
mong‘ mong‘ ná‘, {I come to see you}. v. 252. f.
251. The forms of interrogation are of two kinds.
1. By the interrogative particles ma{n}‘ and ’vá.
飯好曼 va{n}‘ ’hau ma{n}‘, {is dinner ready?}
去否 k’í‘ ’vá, {will you go?}
2. By putting the question in the form of an affirmative and negative,
side by side. The particle ní is often placed between.
肯去勿肯去 ’k’ung k’í‘ veh ’k’ung k’í‘, {will you or not?}
曉得勿曉得 ’h’iau tuh veh ’h’iau tuh, {do you know?}
買呢勿買 ’má ní veh ’má, {will you buy?}
Obs. After ní, the second clause is sometimes supplied by sa‘; e.g.
要打呢啥 yau ’táng ní sá, {do you want to fight, or what is it you want
to do?}
(4) {Particles of time, forming tenses of verbs}.
252. For the expression of present time, no auxiliary word is
necessary.
我勿做啥 ’ngú veh tsú‘ sá‘, {I am doing nothing}.
來呢勿來 lé ní veh lé, {is he coming or not?}
懂勿懂 ’tóng veh ’tóng, {do you understand or not?}
怕冷否 p’ó‘ ’láng ’vá, {do you fear cold?}
勿能勿怕冷 veh nung veh p’o‘ ’lang; {I cannot but fear cold}.
Obs. Instead of considering the rest of the tenses in their order, it
will be better to take the particles in succession, and show what
tenses they may be used for.
{a}. 歇 h’ih, {a moment}; this particle gives a past sense to the
phrases in which it occurs, and is perhaps most accurately designated
an {aorist}.
看歇戲否 k’ö{n}‘ h’ih h’í‘ ’vá, {have you seen the play?}
去歇兩囘 k’í‘ h’ih ’liáng {w}é‘, {I have gone twice}.
{b}. 者 ’tsé, 哩 ’lí; these particles express that the action is
completed, or determined on. M. 了 ’liaú. Their English grammatical
equivalent is usually the passive participle joined with the auxiliary
verb {to be}.
買好拉者 ’má ’hau ’lá ’tsé, {they are bought}.
賣脱者 má‘ t’eh ’tsé, {it is sold}.
我去者 ’ngú k’í‘ ’tsé, {I am going}.
{c}. 過 kú‘, {past}; this particle has the sense of the preterite tense.
到過兩囘 tau‘ kú‘ ’liáng {w}é‘, {I have gone twice}.
花種過多少 hwó tsóng‘ kú‘ tú ’sau, {how many flowers have you planted?}
路跑過幾化里 lú‘ pau‘ kú‘ ’ki hó‘ ’li, {how many miles of road have we
walked?}
Obs. 有 ’{y}eu and 可 ’k’ó, employed in some dialects as signs of the
past, are never so used in this.
{d}. 歇者 h’ih ’tsé or h’ih ’lá ’tsé, express perfect time.
認得過歇者 niung‘ tuh kú‘ h’ih ’tsé, {have known him}.
忒伊話歇者 t’eh í {w}ó‘ h’ih ’tsé, {have told him}.
鐘敲歇拉者 tsóng k’au h’ih ’lá ’tsé, {bell has rung}.
托撥歇者 t’ok peh h’ih ’tsé, {have entrusted to him}.
{e}. 過歇 kú‘ h’ih, form a perfect farther in the past than the above.
來過歇者 lé kú‘ h’ih ’tsé, {I have come formerly}.
勿曾去過歇 veh zung k’i‘ kú‘ h’ih, {I have yet gone}.
學過歇拉者 {h}ok kú‘ h’ih ’lá ’tsé, {I have learnt it before}.
{f}. 要 yau‘ expresses future time; sometimes {tsiáng} precedes.
要 may often be translated {in order to} (supine).
要落雨者 yau‘ loh ’{ü} ’tsé, {it will rain}.
明朝要去 ming tsau yau‘ k’í‘, {I will go to-morrow}.
{g}. 將 tsiáng, is frequently used for the future.
將有閙事 tsiáng ’yeu nau‘ zz‘, {there will be a disturbance}.
Obs. These particles give the affirmative future. The form for the
negative is different as is shown below.
{h}. 之 tsz; this particle appended to a verb, gives it the
time of a past participle. English auxiliary participle {having}.
看之書末曉得者 k’ö{n}‘ tsz sû meh, ’h’iau tuh ’tsé, {when you have read it,
you will know}.
懂之末好講 ’tóng tsz meh ’hau ’kong, {when you understand it, you can
explain it}.
做之兵咾打帳去者 tsu‘ tsz ping lau ’táng tsáng‘ k’í‘ ’tsé, {having
become a soldier, he has gone to fight}.
Obs. As a relative tense particle, this word may be used in past or
future time. In the former case, it is the sign of the narrative
participle; e.g. 看見之山高咾走上去者 k’ö{n}‘ kíe{n}‘ tsz sa{n} kau lau,
’tseu ’zong k’í‘ ’tsé, {seeing the hill was high, he went up}. In the
latter case it forms a future perfect, such as is introduced in
English with “when,” 寫好之撥拉我看 ’sia ’hau tsz peh ’lá ’ngú k’ö{n}‘,
{when you have written it, let me see it}. The conditional particle
末 meh, is frequently introduced at the end of the first clause.
{i}. 曾 zung; as 之 tsz expresses the past in affirmative sentences,
so zung in those that are negative.
勿曾看歇 veh zung k’ö{n}‘ h’ih, {I have not seen it}.
勿曾來 veh zung lé, {he has not come}.
Obs. In a negative reply to a question, this particle is introduced,
when in English the present tense is employed; 勿曾去 veh zung k’í‘,
{he is not gone}.
253. Adverbs of time often render these particles unnecessary.
昨日去個 zoh (g) nyih k’í‘ kú‘, {he went yesterday}.
我後日去 ’ngú ’{h}eu nyih k’í‘, {I shall go on the day after
to-morrow}.
254. The particles for future time are not used in the negative form.
我勿去, ’ngú veh k’í‘, {I shall not go}.
Obs. i. If yau‘ 要 is employed in a negative sentence whose time is
future, it is in the sense of {wish} or {must}; e.g. 我勿要去 ’ngú veh
yau‘ k’í‘, {I do not wish to go}. 將 tsiáng, when it occurs, must
stand first, so that when 勿 veh introduces the sentence, it cannot
form a part of it.
Obs. ii. 勿見得 veh kíe{n}‘ tuh, {it is not likely}, is very commonly
employed as a negative future; e.g. 勿見得落雨 veh kíe{n}‘ tuh loh ’{u},
{it is not likely to rain}, or {it will not rain}.
255. Examples of some verbs that require illustration are here
appended.
{а}. 當 tong in combination {ought}, {receive}: tong‘ {regard as,
to pawn}. N. B. The tone differs in the last two senses.
當之年撥草伊吃 tong‘ tsz nieu peh ’t’sau í k’iuh, {regard him as a
buffalo, and feed him on grass}.
輕個當之重個 k’iung kú‘ tong‘ tsz ’dzóng kú‘, {what is light regard as
heavy}.
該當個 ké tong kú‘, {ought}.
勿敢當 veh ’ké{n} tong, {not dare receive it}.
當衣裳去 tong‘ í zong k’í’, {am going to pawn clothes}.
{b}. 打 ’táng, {beat, set in operation}.
打官司 ’táng kwé{n} sz, {go to law}.
打官話 ’táng kwé{n} {w}ó‘, {speak mandarin}.
打秋風 ’táng t’sieu fóng, {make presents in hope of gain}.
{c}. 待 {t}é‘, {to treat, wait}.
待慢 {t}é‘ ma{n}‘, {treat contemptuously}.
待人接物 {t}é‘ niun tsih veh, {treat persons respectfully}.
待我來 {t}é‘ ’ngú lé, {wait till I come}.
{d}. 銷 siau, {consume, melt}.
開銷 k’é siau, {to expend}.
銷烊 siau {y}áng, {to melt}.
{e}. 對 té‘ (d) {correspond, opposite}.
總勿對境 ’tsóng veh té‘ ’kiung, {nothing pleases him}.
更加勿對 kung‘ ká veh té‘, {still more wrong}.
對面看起來 té‘ míe{n}‘ k’ö{n}‘ ’k’í lé, {on the other hand you see}.
{f}. 弄 lóng‘, {meddle with, play with}.
弄壞 lóng‘ {w}á‘, {spoil}.
作弄 tsoh lóng‘, {deceive}.
弄假成眞 lóng‘ ’ká zung tsun, {make-believe becomes truth at last}.
弄孛相 lóng‘ beh siáng‘, {amuse one’s-self with}.
{g}. 費 fí‘, {to expend}.
費用 fí‘ yúng‘, {expenses}.
費神 fí‘ zun, 費心 fí‘ sing, {may I trouble you}.
{h}. 是 ’zz, {it is, it is right, right}.
是非 ’zz fí, {right and wrong}.
是得極 ’zz tuh giuh, {very right}.
嘸啥勿是 {m} sá veh ’zz, {not at all untrue}.
{i}. 話 {w}ó‘, {say} (M. ’kiáng, or shwóh), in combination, {words}.
話勿轉 {w}ó‘ veh ’tse{n}, {will not listen to words, or he keeps his
words}.
話定當 {w}ó‘ ding‘ tong‘, {said decisively}.
啥話頭 sá‘ {w}ó‘ deu, {why use such words?}
{k}. 可 ’k’ó, {can, may}.
可恨 ’k’ó {h}ng‘, {a thing to be hated, hateful}.
實在可愛 {s}eh zé‘ ’k’ó é‘, {truly to be loved, (truly loveable.)}
Obs. These forms with ’k’ó, might also, if construed as dissyllables,
be placed among the adjectives, as derivatives from verbs.
{l}. 倒 ’tau, {to overturn}.
推倒 t’é ’tau, {to turn over}.
推倒傅來 tíe{n} ’tau tsé{n} lé, {place upside down}.
倒勿是 ’tau veh ’zz, {and yet it is not}.
{m}. 生 sáng, {produce, be by nature, be born}.
耳𦖋生得好 ’ní ’tú sáng tuh ’hau, {has handsome ears}.
生來好看 sáng lé ’hau k’ö{n}‘, {naturally handsome}.
未生之前 ví‘ sung tsz zíe{n}, {before birth}.
生出果子來 sáng t’seh ’ku ’tsz lé, {bear fruit}.
{Section} 8. {Prepositions and Postpositions}.
256. The words that express the relations (cases) of nouns to one
another are placed, some of them before and some after the governed
substantive. The case particles that are used for the dative and
ablative are prepositions, as also those that express {motion towards}
and {substitution}.
打 ’tang, {from, by}. 對 té‘, {to, towards}.
從 zóng, {from}. 到 tau‘, {to arrive at}.
拉 ’lá (M. 於), {to}. 替 t’i‘, {to, with, instead of}.
搭 tah, {with}. 忒 t’eh, {to, for, with}.
同 {t}óng, {with}. 代 {t}e‘, {instead of}.
聯 líe{n}, {ib}. 由 {y}eu, {by}.
Obs. i. 勒拉 leh lá, a locative particle also precedes its noun. 在
zé‘, its M. equivalent is in our dialect only used in fixed
collocations, as 實在 zeh zé‘, {certain}.
Obs. ii. 自 zz‘ is an inseparable preposition used in combination with
zóng, {from}. 當 a locative preposition, preceding its noun, is also
only found in fixed groups; e.g. 當初 tong t’sú, {formerly}.
Obs. iii. Several of these words are also used as verbs with a cognate
sense, viz. 徒, 到, 對, 而, {to follow, to arrive at, to correspond, to
take origin from}.
Obs. iv. 爲 {w}é‘, {on account of}, is found with the particles 之 tsz,
or 着 záh; 搭 tah also very frequently takes 之 tsz.
Obs. v. 連 líe{n}, {together with}, is also used as a verb to
{connect}. It frequently takes 搭 tah, after it; e.g. 連搭一家屋裏人
líe{n} tah ih ká óh ’lí niun, {together with all his family}.
257. The particles that are used for the locative case are
postpositions.
裏 ’lí, {inside}. 前 zíe{n}, {before}.
外 ngá‘, {outside}. 後 ’{h}eu, {behind}.
上 long‘, {above}, R. ’zong. 下 ’{hau}, {below}.
Obs. i. 裏 ’lí, forms the compound 裏向 ’lí h’iáng, M. 中 chóng; 以 ’í,
combines with 外 ngá‘, 前 zíe{n} and 後 ’heu, in the sense of
{beside}, {before} and {after}, or {since}; e.g. 今朝以後 kiun tsau ’í
’{h}eu, {after to-day}. Numerous compounds of these words, which will
be found among the adverbs, are also often used as prepositions. See