Obs. ii. The mandarin 中 chóng, {inside}, is found in some compounds;
e.g. 空中 k’óng tsóng, {in the air}.
258. Forms borrowed from other parts of speech, compensate for the
absence of several prepositions.
1. {Of}, the particle of the genitive case is compensated for either
by juxtaposition, or by the particle 個 kú‘.
中國規矩 Tsúng kóh kwé ’kü, {custom of China}.
別人個事體 {p}ih niun kú‘ zz‘ ’t’í, {what concerns others}.
2. {With}, (instrumental) by, are expressed by 担 ta{n}, and peh ’la or
peh.
担篙子撐 ta{n} kau ’tsz t’sáng, {pole the boat with the bamboo}.
3. {Except} is expressed by the verb 除脫 dzû t’eh, usually with 以外 ’í
ngá‘, or 外頭 ngá‘ deu, ending the clause.
除脫之儂個外頭就是我 dzû t’eh tsz nóng‘ kú‘ ngá‘ deu, dzieu‘ ’zz ’ngú,
{excepting you, there is only myself}.
4. {Beside} is expressed by, 勿算 veh sö{n}‘, at the end of the clause.
小末勿算共總有一百 ’siau meh veh sö{n}‘, {k}óng‘ ’tsóng ’{y}eu ih páh,
{without counting the small, there are 100 in all}.
5. {Beyond} takes 過去 kú‘ k’í‘, or 外頭 ngá deu.
廣東過去 ’Kwong tóng kú‘ k’i‘, {beyond Canton}.
6. {Through} or {pass by} is expressed by kiung kú‘ or kú‘ alone.
路上經過去杭州 lú‘ long‘ kiung kú‘ {H}ong-tseu, {go through Háng-cheú on
the way}.
7. {Towards} is expressed by the verbs 朝, 望, 對 zau, mong‘, té‘.
朝西轉灣朝南 zau sí ’tsé{n} wa{n} zau né{n}, {go to the west, and turn
to the south}.
朝第邊走 zau dí‘ píe{n} ’tseu, {go this way}.
望之第邊走 mong‘ tsz dí‘ píe{n} ’tseu, {ib}.
對故塊走 té‘ kú‘ k’wé‘ ’tseu, {go that way}.
Obs. Some of these prepositions in English, are easily reduced to
verbs and substantives. The author of the Diversion of purley would
readily find an etymology for them all. In common English grammars,
such words as {regarding} and {respecting}, are set down among the
prepositions, without a word to tell the juvenile student, how it is
that prepositions come to be formed by the termination {ing}.
{Section} 9. {On Adverbs}.
{Quality}. 259. Adverbs of manner are formed by affixing zé{n}, {h}ú,
nung and ’lí, to repeated adjectives.
隱隱然 ’yung ’yung zé{n}, {not clearly}.
興興然 h’iung h’iung zé{n}, prosperously.
約約乎 yáh yáh {h}ú, {indistinctly}.
幾幾乎 ’kí ’kí {h}ú, {very near}.
稀稀能 h’í h’í nung, {seldom met with}.
險險能 ’h’ie{n} ’h’ie{n} nung, {dangerously}.
快快裏 k’wá‘ k’wá‘ ’lí, {quickly}.
Obs. i. Zé{n} and {h}ú, are found in book phrases transferred to the
dialect. Expressions formed with nung and ’lí, are pure colloquial,
and are very numerous.
Obs. ii. Kiau‘ is used in one instance 慢慢敎 ma{n}‘ ma{n}‘ kiau‘,
{slowly}.
Obs. iii. Long adjective groups are more frequently used as adverbs
than as adjectives. They do not take the formative particles zé{n},
nung etc. 走路一門心思 ’tseu lú‘ ih mun sing sz, {he walks eagerly}.
260. The numerals 一 ih, 兩 ’liáng, combine with certain words,
principally adjectives, to form adverbs.
一直 ih dzuh, {straight}.
一連 ih líe{n}, {joined together}.
一氣 ih k’í‘, {together}.
兩氣 ’liáng k’í‘, {separate}.
一樣 ih {y}áng‘, {the same}.
兩樣 ’liáng {y}áng‘, {different}.
一向 ih h’iáng‘, {hitherto}.
一齊 ih dzí, {together}.
一切 ih t’sih, {the whole}.
一淘 ih dau, {ib}.
一般 ih pé{n}, {the same}.
Obs. These may be shown by examples to be adverbs. 放拉兩起個
fong‘ ’lá ’liáng k’í‘ kú‘, {place them apart}; 當伊父母一般 tong‘ í ’vú
’mú ih pé{n}, {treats him in the same way that he does his parents}.
261. Repeated adjectives standing before verbs, are used as adverbs.
早早來 ’tsau ’tsau lé, {come early}.
慢慢走 ma{n}‘ ma{n}‘ ’tseu, {walk slowly}.
Obs. Sometimes the adjective is not repeated, as in 慢去 ma{n}‘ k’í‘,
{be slow to go, good bye}, In 走好 ’tseu ’hau, {walk carefully}, the
adverb follows the verb as in English.
262. Repeated forms imitative of natural sounds are in frequent use.
丁冬了冬 ting tóng ting tóng, {sound of drum} (’kú).
鎟鋃鎟鋃 song long song long, {ib. horse bells} (ling).
帖塌帖塌 t’ih t’ah t’ih t’ah, {sound of shoes}.
結怪結怪 kih kwá kih kwá, {calling of crows}.
刮臘刮臘 kwah lah kwah lah, {wind blowing on reeds}.
兵兵浜浜 ping ping páng páng, {noise of beating ice}.
以列以列 ’í lih ’í lih, {braying of asses}.
以挨以挨 ’í á ’í á, {creaking of doors}.
胡盧胡盧 {ú} lú {ú} lú, {sound of piping}.
㷸爆㷸爆 pih póh pih póh, {sound of splitting bamboo as by fire}.
Obs. Words of this sort occur so frequently in conversation, that at
the risk of their being thought too amusing for a serious book they
are here noticed. The second and third tones scarcely occur in these
onomatopœia. The forms used in other dialects differ from these.
263. Adverbs of manner applied to qualify actions, and not reducible
to the heads already given are such as,—
白白裏 {p}áh báh ’lí, {in vain}; or, {p}áh alone, e.g. {p}áh sóng‘ t’éh.
特特裏 {t}uh duh ’lí, {on purpose}.
特意 {t}uh í‘, {intentionally}.
偷伴子 t’eu bé{n} ’tsz, {secretly}.
假佯頭 ’ká {y}áng deu, {falsely}.
倖喜 {y}ung‘ ’h’í, {luckily}.
造化 ’zau hó‘, 恰好 hah ’hau, {fortunately}.
264. There is a large number of primitive adverbs, applied to qualify
adjectives.
{а}. 更 kung‘, 還 {w}a{n}, 又 {i}‘, 再 tse‘, signify {more}. They
precede their word, and form the comparative degree, v. Art. 177.
{b}. 頂 ’ting, 最 tsûe‘, 極 {k}iuh, 蠻 ma{n}, 怪 kwá‘, 好 ’hau, 狠 ’hun,
{very}. These words precede their word and form the superlative. v.
Art 178.
{c}. 些 ’sí, 煞 sah, 極 {k}iuh, 野 ’yá, come after their word and form
a superlative.
{d}. 忒 t’uh, gives to adjectives the sense of {too}; e.g. 忒大 t’uh
dú‘, {too large}.
Obs. i. These words which in English qualify only adjectives,
sometimes qualify verbs whether construed as participles or not. 頂愛拉
個 ’ting é‘ ’lá kú‘, {the most beloved}; 蠻會做 ma{n} {w}é‘ tsú‘,
{extremely well able to do it}; 話煞 {w}ó‘ sah, {say decisively}; 極有文
理 {k}iuh ’{y}eu vun ’lí, {has very (great) literary beauty}; or {it
has extreme beauty}.
Obs. ii. The mandarin intensitive particle 好 ’hau is found only in
the phrase 好幾 ’hau ’kí, {very many}.
Obs. iii. It has been seen in illustrating the comparison of
adjectives, that some verbs, single and grouped with the auxiliaries
tuh and lé, (得, 來,) are applied to adjectives. In addition to the
examples there given, may be noticed 熱勿過 nyih veh kú‘, {unbearably
hot}.
{Correlative Adverbs}. 265. The questions how? how much? how many? why?
when? and where? are formed by interrogative pronouns with the most
general words for manner, place and time, and a mere particle for the
rest.
那能 ná‘ nung, {how?} 幾時 ’kí zz, {when?}
幾許 ’kí hó‘, {how much?} {how many?} 那裏 ’{á} ’lí, {where?}
„ {how many?} 啥所 sá‘ sü, „
啥咾 sá‘ lau, {why?} Also 為啥 {w}é‘ sá‘, 有啥 ’{y}eu sá‘.
Obs. i. {How may parts in ten?} is 十分裏幾分 {s}eh vun‘ ’lí ’kí vun‘.
The answer might be 十分裏有三分 {s}eh vun‘ ’lí ’{y}eu sa{n} vun‘,
{three tenths}. Questions and replies may be framed in the same way
with any numerals.
Obs. ii. For other examples, see section on pronouns, to which
etymologically these words belong.
Obs. iii. {How much more used as a logical particle}, is expressed by
何况於 {h}ú hwong‘ ü.
266. The adverbs corresponding to these, {thus, however, whenever,
wherever} are expressed in various ways.
什蓋能 {s}eh ké‘ nung, {thus}, {s}eh ké‘, {ib}.
隨便那能 zûe bíe{n}‘ ná‘ nung, {which ever way you please}.
勿論幾許 veh lun‘ ’kí hó‘, {however much}.
勿拘那裏 veh kü {á} ’lí, {wherever you please}.
要那能就那能 yau‘ ná‘ nung dzieu‘ ná‘ nung, {however you want it, it
shall be so}.
我那能做勿要問 ’ngú ná‘ nung tsú‘ veh yau‘ mun‘, {do not ask how I do
it}.
Obs. i. Other examples may be seen in the section on pronouns. The
answers to {when? where? how many?} will be found among the adverbs of
time, place and number. {Why?} is answered by any direct statement,
with or without the conjunction 因爲 yung {w}é‘.
Obs. ii. Dzûe bíe{n}‘, veh lun‘, veh kü, are properly verb
combinations. They mean {following your convenience, without
regarding, not constraining}.
{Quantity}. 267. The forms for {about, enough, much, little,
together}, etc. are such as follow:—
{a}. {About}, is expressed by pó, kwong ’kiung, after their word, and
yáh, {t}eu, before.
約歸一百 yáh kwé ih páh, {about a hundred}.
約畧, 約摸 yáh liáh, yáh máh, both signify {about}.
約數幾許 yáh sú‘ ’kí ’hau, {about how many?}
里巴 ’lí pó, {about a le}.
尺巴 t’sák pó, {about a foot}.
步巴 {p}ú pó, {about a step}.
寸巴 t’sun‘ pó, {about an inch}.
桶巴 ’{t}óng pó, {a bucket-ful}.
本巴 ’pun pó, {about a volume}.
半夜巴 pé{n}‘ {y}á pó, {about midnight}.
半托巴 pé{n}‘ t’ok pó, {two arms length} (t’ok, {stretch out both arms}).
頭二百 {t}eu ní‘ páh, {about two hundred}.
約百錢 yák páh díe{n}, {about 100 cash}.
約有二十 yáh {y}eu ní‘ seh, {there are about 20}.
一千光景 ih t’síe{n} kwong ’kiung, {about 1000}.
Obs. A very common form is 差勿多 t’só veh tú, {not far wrong}, which
is used in the same sense as the above words.
{b}. {Enough} and {not enough} are expressed by keu‘, veh tsóh, veh
kû{n} zz‘, k’iöh ’sau and some verbs with the negative.
彀哩, 干事者 keu‘ ’lí, kû{n} zz‘ ’tsé, {enough}.
勿彀, 勿干事 veh keu‘, veh kû{n} zz‘, {not enough}.
有哩 ’{y}eu ’lí, {it is enough}.
勿足 veh tsóh, {not enough}.
勿到三十 veh tau‘ sa{n} seh, {not so many as 30}.
勿滿三十 veh ’mé{n} sa{n} seh, {ib}.
勿缺少個 veh k’iöh ’sau kú‘, {not insufficient}.
第個裏少一錢 {t}i‘ kú‘ ’lí ’sau ih die{n}, {this is deficient one cash}.
第籃桶子裡缺十隻 {t}i‘ la{n} kiöh ’tsz ’lí k’iöh seh tsáh, {this basket
of oranges in ten short}.
Obs. These words might be divided between adjectives and verbs, and no
place reserved for them here, were it not that their equivalents in
English and other languages are adverbs.
{c}. {Much, more, many} are all expressed by the adjective
多 tú. If tú precedes it is {more} (adv.): if it follows its word,
it is {much} or {many} (adj.) Other words for {more} are 還 {w}a{n},
越 yöh, and the verbs ká, t’íe{n}, ’tíe{n}, etc.
多撥點 tú peh ’tíe{n}, {give more}.
第袋米多二斤 {t}i‘ dé‘ ’mi tú ni‘ kiun, {this bag of rice is two catties
more} (or {over}).
人多個 niun tú kú‘, {the men are many}.
越加勿好 {y}öh ká veh ’hau, {much worse}.
加點, 添點 ká ’tíe{n}, t’íe{n} ’tíe{n}, {give more}.
一錢勿加 ih díe{n} veh ká, {I will not give one more cash}.
勿罷一百 veh bá‘ ih páh, {there are more than a hundred}.
也勿罷 ’{á} veh bá‘, {and more too}.
銅錢還要 {t}óng díe{n} {w}a{n} yau‘, {I want more cash}.
Obs. For examples of such forms as 好幾 ’hau ’kí, 多許 tú hau‘, {many}.
See section on pronouns. The only words here adduced that can claim to
be adverbs are 越 {still more}, 也 {too}, and {w}a{n} 還. {Too} is an
adverb in English, but its equivalent 也 becomes by its position a
conjunction, and {w}a{n} when it is not an adverb of time {still}, may
often fairly be considered a conjunction.
{d}. {Less, few} are represented by 少 ’sau, standing before its word,
and by such borrowed phrases as veh siau, {not necessary, less}:
’{y}eu {h}ie{n}‘ k’ú‘, {few, not much}.
兩日勿消 ’liáng nyih veh siau, {in less than 2 days}.
少吃點 ’sau k’iuh ’tíe{n}, {eat less}.
減脱點 ’ka{n} t’eh ’tíe{n}, {take less, subtract a little}.
勿能減少 veh nung ’ka{n} ’sau, {cannot take less}.
人有限個 niun ’{y}eu {h}íe{n}‘ kú‘, {of men there are few}.
{e}. {A little, any}, are used sometimes adverbially in English. Their
representatives in our dialect are liák sü, ’sau {w}é, sü ’sau with
the auxiliary substantive forms ih ’nga{n}, ’tíe{n}, etc.
畧須曉得 liák sü ’h’iau tuh, {know it a little}.
須為明白 sü {w}é ming báh, {understand it a little}.
須稍懂得 sü ’sau ’tóng tuh, {ib}.
些須加點 ’sí sü ká ’tíe{n}, {add a little}.
稍為要個 ’sau {w}é yau‘ kú‘, {I want it a little}.
稍為便宜點 ’sau {w}é bie{n}‘ ni ’tíe{n}, {a little cheaper}.
脚有一眼酸 kiáh ’{y}eu ih ’nga{n} sû{n}, {my feet are a little tired}.
有點怕個 ’{y}eu ’tíe{n} p’ó‘ kú‘, {he is a little afraid}.
一點點 ih ’tíe{n} ’tíe{n}, {a very little}.
有點𨅓跎 ’{y}eu ’tíe{n} sá dú, {I am a little tired}.
有點會飛 ’{y}eu ’tíe{n} {w}é‘ fí‘, {can fly a little}.
Obs. ’Tíe{n}, ih ’nga{n}, when they follow an adjective, while placing
it in the comparative degree, preserve their own sense {a little};
e.g. 好一眼多謝 ’hau ih ’nga{n} tú zia‘, {a little better thank you};
快點走 k’wá‘ ’tíe{n} ’tseu, {walk a little faster}.
{f}. {Not very, very much, too much} are expressed by the derivative
adverb, veh da‘ ’lí, and the forms {s}eh ní‘ fun, kú‘ vun‘, t’uh kú‘
vun‘.
勿大哩要 veh da‘ ’lí yau‘, {he does not much want it}.
勿大哩多 veh da‘ ’lí tú, {not very many}.
十分要 {s}eh fun yau‘, {wants it very much}.
十二分好 {s}eh ní‘ fun ’hau, {very good}.
{g}. {Not at all, not in the least}, are translated in several ways.
一無用頭 ih vú {y}úng‘ deu, {of no use}.
萬無好處 va{n}‘ vú ’hau t’sû‘, {of no use at all}.
絲毫勿對 sz {h}au veh té‘, {not in the least agreeing}.
嘸啥蹉跎 {m} sá‘ sá dú, {not at all tired}.
一眼勿差 ih ’nga{n} veh t’só, {just so, not at all wrong}.
{h}. To {altogether} correspond ’lóng ’tsóng, {k}óng ’tsóng, tseu sun,
’lóng ’t’óng.
共總二百 {k}óng‘ ’tsóng ni‘ páh, {in all two hundred}.
週身幾許 tseu sun ’kí hau‘, {in all how many?}
盡行勿好 dzing‘ {y}ung veh ’hau, {altogether wrong}.
一氣賣完 ih k’í‘ má‘ {w}é{n}, {altogether sold off}.
攏統三萬 ’lóng ’t’óng sa{n} ma{n}‘, {altogether 30,000}.
{i}. {Mostly, chiefly}, are expressed by pronominal forms, which have
been already partially illustrated.
大一半, {t}ú‘ ih pé{n}‘, {the greater part}.
大凡人勿懂 {t}á‘ va{n} niun veh ’tóng, {men mostly do not understand}.
大槩百姓 {t}á ké pák sing‘, {most people}.
大凡人什蓋寫個多, {t}a‘ va{n} niun seh ké ’sia kú‘ tú, {most persons
write it thus}.
第能貸色是好個多 {t}i‘ nung hú‘ suh ’zz ’hau kú‘ tú, {articles of this
kind are mostly good}.
吃鴉片烟個人勿牢寔個多 k’iuh {á} p’ie{n} ye{n} kú‘ niun veh lau zeh kú‘
tú, {opium smokers are for the most part dishonest}.
{j}. {Half} is sometimes used in English as an adverb; so also it is
in Chinese, as in the following phrases.
半死半活 pé{n}‘ ’sí pé{n}‘ {w}eh, {half dead half alive}.
半假半眞 pé{n}‘ ’ká pé{n}‘ tsun, {half false half true}.
半推半愛 pé{n}‘ t’é pé{n}‘ é‘, {refuse and yet wish for}.
半吞半吐 pé{n}‘ t’un pé{n}‘ t’ú‘, {cease from saying a thing when half
through it}.
Obs. The other proportional parts, such as 四分裏一分 si‘ vun‘ ’lí
ih vun‘, {a quarter}; 十分裏一分 {s}eh vun‘ ’lí ih vun‘, {one tenth},
are much too long to enter into such groups.
{k}. {only, alone} are represented by {tseh}, {t}ók, ta{n}, {t}a{n}‘
and forms into which they enter.
只得一眼 tseh tuh ih ’nga{n}, {only a little}.
獨一干 {t}ók ih kû{n}, {only one}.
獨干子 {t}ók kû{n} ’tsz, {alone}.
勿但一個 veh da{n}‘ ih kú‘, {not only one}.
惟獨兩個人 ví‘ dóh ’liáng kú‘ niun, {only two men}.
勿獨之一個 veh dók tsz ih kú‘, {not only one}.
一干子 ih kû{n} ’tsz, {alone}.
單單一個 ta{n} ta{n} ih kú‘, {a single one}.
不過一個 pih ({should be} peh) kú‘ ih kú‘, {only one}.
獨獨哩我會做 {t}óh dóh ’lí ’ngú {w}é‘ tsú‘, {only I can do it}.
Obs. i. Ta{n}, is also an adjective, as in the question, 花單個呢雙個
hwó ta{n} kú‘ ní song kú‘, {is the flower single or double?} {T}óh
and {t}a{n}‘ are both conjunctions, when joined to ’zz, as 但是, 獨是
{t}a{n}‘ ’zz, {t}óh ’zz, {but}.
Obs. ii. The numeral adverbs {once, twice}, etc. translated by 一次 ih
t’sz‘, etc. may be seen in section 4. on auxiliary substantives, Art.
163.
{Negative and Affirmative}. 268. One of the most common negative
particles is 嘸 {m}, to which 沒 meh, the same in meaning is frequently
appended. 嘸 {m} is properly a verb {not to have}.
嘸啥事體 m sá‘ zz‘ t’í, {it is nothing}.
嘸形嘸踪 m {y}ung m tsóng, {there is no trace of him}.
嘸沒啥話頭 m meh sá‘ {w}ó‘ deu, {there is nothing to say}.
嘸憂嘸慮 m yeu m lü‘, {having no grief or care}.
269. The literary word that corresponds to this particle is 無 vú,
which is also in common use in colloquial phrases derived from the
books or formed on book models.
無財無勢 vú dzé vú sz‘, {having no riches or influence}.
無親無戚 vú t’sing vú t’sih, {having no relations}.
無冬無夏 vú tóng vú ’{y}á, {having neither winter nor summer}.
270 The negative particle in most general use is 勿 veh. It is not
prohibitive as in the books, but simply denies like 不 peh in mandarin.
勿會度日 veh {w}é‘ dú‘ nyih, {I cannot live on}.
勿三勿四 veh sa{n} veh sz‘, {neither this nor that}.
勿聲勿嚮 veh sung veh ’h’iáng, {he said nothing}.
勿薦拉儂 veh tsíe{n}‘ ’lá nóng‘, {I shall not recommend him to you}.
勿是, 勿個 veh ’zz, veh kú‘, {it is not so} (or veh alone).
271. The particles 惟 ví, 不 peh and 非 fí, are used in a few
combinations.
惟獨 ví dóh, {only}.
惟我一人 ví ’ngú ih zun, {only I}.
不止一人 peh ’tsz ih zun, {not one man only}.
不知下落 peh tsz ’{y}á loh, {do not know where he is}.
眼不能見 ’nga{n} peh nung kíe{n}‘, {not to be seen}.
非獨之我 fí dók tsz ’ngú, {not only I}.
272. The simplest affirmative is 是 ’zz; certain auxiliary particles
are often appended or prefixed.
是個, 是拉個 ’zz kú‘, ’zz ’lá kú‘, {it is so}.
就是, 是者 dzieu‘ ’zz, ’zz ’tsé, {ib}.
273. When some quality is affirmed, an adjective of opposite meaning,
with the negative particle prefixed, is often employed.
勿孬 veh k’ieu, {that is good}.
倒勿對 ’tau veh té‘, {but that is wrong}.
勿差 veh t’só, {you are right}.
274. The emphasis of positive certainty is conveyed by phrases such as
tsun tsung‘, {s}eh zé‘, etc., and the double negation 無非 prefixed to
the proposition affirmed.
眞正嘸沒 tsun tsung‘ m meh, {certainly there is none}.
畢竟勿曾到 pih kiung‘ veh zung tau‘, {certainly he has not come}.
實在有個 {s}eh zé ’{y}eu kú‘, {there certainly is}.
斷斷乎是個 tö{n}‘ tö{n}‘ ú ’zz kú‘, {it certainly is so}.
果然勿差 ’kú ze{n} veh t’só, {it is certainly right}.
Obs. The interrogative final {mó}, is often used to express the same
sense with these words, 小囝蠻麽 ’siau nö{n} ma{n} mó, {the boys are
wild indeed}.
275. Some phrases imply a moral certainty or necessity ({must}), and
with the negative, the absence of that necessity ({need not}).
柴總有個 zá ’tsóng ’yeu kú‘, {there must be fire wood}.
銀子一定有 niung ’tsz ih ding‘ ’{y}eu, {there must be silver}.
總要解說個 ’tsóng yau‘ ’ká seh kú‘, {you must explain it}.
必定要去 pih ding‘ yau‘ k’i‘, {you must go}.
板定要來者 ’pa{n} ding‘ yau‘ lé ’tsé, {he must necessarily come}.
板要做個 ’pan yau‘ tsu‘ kú‘, {you must do it}.
善终有善報 ’zé{n} tsóng ’yeu ’zé{n} pau‘, {virtue will surely have a
good reward}.
做生意總要用心 tsú‘ sang i‘ ’tsóng yau‘ yúng‘ sing, {in transacting
business you must apply the mind}.
276. There are several phrases to express that the thing affirmed is
naturally so, and that nothing else ought to be expected.
本來什蓋能 ’pun lé {s}eh ké‘ nung, {it is originally so}.
本者來自家要來 ’pun ’tsé lé zz‘ ka yau‘ lé, {he originally wished to
come himself}.
自然者 zz‘ zé{n} ’tsé, {as might be expected}.
自然而然 zz‘ zé{n} rh zé{n}, {spontaneously}.
原來嘸啥 niö{n} lé {m} sá‘, {it is really nothing}.
本者乎勿肯 ’pun ’tsé {ú} veh ’k’ung, {by nature unwilling}.
良心本底子有個 liáng sing ’pun ’tí ’tsz ’{y}eu ku‘, {conscience belongs
to us by nature}.
277. Different words are usually appropriated to the affirmative and
negative forms of assertions. Thus (1) absolute certainty in the
negative is expressed by,—
並勿是 {p}ing‘ veh ’zz, {certainly it is not}.
决勿好做 kiöh veh ’hau tsu‘, {it ought surely not to be done}.
切勿可以 t’sih veh ’k’ó ’í, {you certainly may not}.
(2). The denial of necessity (need not) is conveyed in such
expressions as the following.
勿必得去 veh pih tuh ’k’í, {you need not go}.
勿必多 veh pih tú, {do not need many}.
Obs. The Imperative also, as in 勿要去 veh yau‘ k’í‘, {do not go}; 去
末者 k’í‘ meh ’tsé, {go} has distinct auxiliary words for the
affirmative and negative forms.
278. There are some adverbs appropriated to express affirmative and
negative propositions in the interrogative form.
豈勿是頂好 ’k’i veh ’zz ’ting ’hau, {how is it not admirable}.
難道儂勿曉得我 na{n} dau‘ nóng‘ veh ’h’iau tuh ’ngú, {it can hardly be
that you do not know me}.
有啥勿識字 ’{y}eu sá‘ veh suh zz‘, {why should I not know how to read}.
Obs. i. The final interrogative 麽 mau, or 呢 ní, is appended
frequently to any sentences of this sort.
Obs. ii. Affirmative questions implying a strong denial are also
occasionally asked by these particles; e.g. 豈有此理 k’í ’{y}eu ’t’sz
’lí, {how can this be?} 難道我哄騙儂否 na{n} dau‘ ’ngú hóng‘ p’ie{n}‘
nóng‘ ’vá, {could I deceive you?}
{Adverbs of place}. 279. Demonstrative adverbs are derived from
pronouns, as adverbs of manner from adjectives. Thus {here and there},
are translated by compounds formed from the three pronouns {t}í‘, kú‘,
í.
第塊, 第搭, 第頭, {t}í‘ k’wé‘, {t}í‘ tah, {t}í‘ deu, {here}.
故塊, 故搭, 故頭, kú‘ k’wé‘, kú‘ tah, kú‘ deu, {there}.
伊塊, 伊搭, 伊頭, í k’wé‘, í tah, í deu, {there}.
Obs. From 此 ’t’sz is formed 此地 ’t’sz dí‘, {here}; 堂 {t}ong, also
forms {t}í‘ dong, {here}, etc.
280. {On this}, and {on that side} are formed in a similar manner with
the auxiliaries míe{n}‘, {face}, and píe{n}, {side}.
第面, 第邊, {t}í‘ míe{n}‘, {t}í‘ píe{n}, {on this side}.
第半爿, {t}í‘ pé{n}‘ ba{n}, {ib}.
故面, 故邊, kú‘ míe{n}‘, kú‘ píe{n}, {on that side}.
故半爿, 伊半爿, kú‘ pé{n}‘ ba{n}, í pé{n}‘ ba{n}, {ib}.
伊面, 伊邊, í míe{n}‘, í píe{n}, {ib}.
281. The postpositions or case particles corresponding to our locative
prepositions enter into similar forms.
上面, 上頭 ’zong míe{n}‘, ’zong deu, {above}.
上邊, 上半爿 ’zong píe{n}, ’zong pé{n}‘ ba{n}, {on the upper side}.
上首, 上肩, 上底頭 ’zong ’seu, ’zong kíe{n}, ’zong ’tí deu, {on the
upper side}.
前面, 前頭, 前底 zíe{n} míe{n}‘, zíe{n} deu, zíe{n} ’tí, {before}.
後面, 後頭, 後首 ’{h}eu míe{n}‘, ’{h}eu deu, ’{h}eu ’seu, {behind}.
後底, 後底頭 ’{h}eu ’tí, ’{h}eu ’tí deu, {behind}.
裏頭, 裏厮, 裏面 ’lí deu, ’lí sz, ’lí míe{n}‘, {inside}.
裏向, 裏邊 ’lí h’iáng‘, ’lí píe{n}, {ib}.
裏半爿 ’lí pé{n}‘ ba{n}, {ib}.
Obs. i. 下 ’au forms the same compounds as 上 ’zong, with one other
下底 ’au ’tí, all of them with the sense {below}. 外 ngá‘, forms the
same compounds as 裏 ’lí (excepting that with 向 h’iáng‘), in the
sense of {outside}.
Obs. ii. For similar groups of nouns, with the points of the compass,
see Art. 152.
282. The adjectives ’tsú {y}eu‘, {right and left}, form some groups.
右邊, 右半爿, {y}eu‘ píe{n}, {y}eu‘ pé{n}‘ ba{n}, {on the right-hand}.
左邊, 左半爿, tsí‘ (ú) píe{n}, tsí‘ pé{n}‘ ba{n}, {on the left-hand}.
283. The adverbs of place and direction that remain are few.
週圍, 四週圍, tseu {w}é, sz‘ tseu {w}é, {all round}.
當中 tong tsóng, {in the middle}.
空中 k’óng tsóng, {in the air}.
橫肚裏 {w}áng ’tú ’lí, {obliquely}.
射角 dzák kok, {obliquely}.
對直 té‘ dzuh, {straight before}.
那裏那裏堂 ’{á} ’lí, ’{á} ’lí dong, {where?}
各處, 處處, 到處, kok t’sû‘, t’sû‘ t’sû‘, tau‘ t’sû‘, {everywhere}.
各道落處 kok tau‘ lok t’sû‘, {everywhere}.
284. {W}áng and ’zû form with verbs many groups of four characters, in
which the action is said to be done in various ways, literally {across
and perpendicularly}.
橫做𥪡做 {w}áng tsú‘ ’zû tsú‘, {do this and that}.
橫勿是𥪡勿是 {w}áng veh ’zz, ’zû veh ’zz, {wrong in this and in that}.
Obs. In weaving, the cross thread is 芉紗 ü‘ só, the other 經紗 kiung
só; here ü‘ is used for wei 緯.
285. The adverbs {in and out, up and down, here and there}, etc. are
translated in Chinese by repeated verbs.
飛進飛出 fí tsing‘ fí t’seh, {fly in and out}.
跳上跳下 t’iau‘ ’zong t’iau‘ ’{a}u, {jump up and down}.
搖來搖去 {y}au lé {y}au k’í‘, {row about}.
{Adverbs of time}. 286. The following are the primitive adverbs of
time employed in the dialect.
曾 zung, {already}; 勿曾 veh zung, {not yet}.
向 h’iáng‘, 一向 ih h’iáng‘, {hitherto}; (it embraces the whole of the
past time), 向來 h’iáng‘ lé, 向係 h’iáng‘ {í}‘, {ib}.
已 ’í, {already}; e.g. 已經 ’í kiung, {already}.
昨 zoh (zóh, zog), in 昨日 zoh nyih, {yesterday}.
先 síe{n}, {first}; 第個先要做 {t}í‘ kú‘ síe{n} yau‘ tsú‘, {this must be
done first}.
暴 {p}au‘, {at first}; e.g. 暴時 {p}au‘ zz, {at first}; 暴時間 {p}au‘ zz
ka{n}, {ib}.
預 ü‘, {beforehand}; 預先防備 ü‘ síe{n} bong bé‘, {guard against
beforehand}. (防 {guard against}; M. {fang}; S.R. {vong}).
初 t’sú, {at first}, is only found as an adverb in the phrase 當初 tong
t’sú, {formerly}.
今 kiun, {now}; e.g. 目今 mók kiun, 刻今 k’uk kiun, 現今 {h}íe{n}‘ kiun,
{now}; 今朝 kiun tsau, {to-day}; 今曰 kiun nyih, {ib}.; 今月 kiun niöh,
{this month}; 今年 kiun níe{n}, {this year}.
難 na{n}, {now}; 難故歇 na{n} kú‘ h’ih, {at the present moment}; 難朝後
na{n} dzau ’eu, {from this time forward}; 難下來 na{n} ’{a}u lé,
{ib}.; 難末 na{n} meh, {then}.
正 tsung‘, (or 淮 ’tsung) {just}; 正勒拉 tsung‘ leh ’lá, {just while};
貼正 t’ih (or t’eh) tsung‘, {just at the moment}.
現 {h}íe{n}‘ {now}; 現在 {h}íe{n}‘ dzé‘, {now}; 現時 {h}íe{n}‘ zz, {ib}.
暫 dza{n}‘, {temporarily}; e.g. 暫時 dza{n}‘ zz, {for a short time}; 暫為
dza{n}‘ {w}e‘, {ib}.
將 tsiáng, {about to be}; 將來 tsiáng lé, {it will happen that}.
卽 tsiuk (tsih) just; 隨卽 zûe tsiuk, {just}; 卽刻 tsih k’uh, {ib}. 卽鉛
tsih k’a{n}, {ib}.
再 tsé‘, {again}; 再會 tsé‘ {w}é‘, {we shall meet again}.
鉛 k’a{n} {just}; 鉛鉛 k’a{n} k’a{n} {ib}.; 鉛起始 k’a{n} ’k‘í ’sz, {at the
beginning}.
又 {í}‘, 又來者 {í}‘ lé ’tsé, {come again}.
還 {w}a{n}, {still}; 還要來 {w}a{n} yau‘ lé, {come again}.
就 dzieu‘, {immediately}; 就轉來 dzieu‘ ’tsé{n} lé, {return directly} 就此
dzieu‘ ’t’sz, {immediately}.
一 ih followed by 就 dzieu‘ {the moment that}; 一睏就覺 ih k’wun‘ dzieu‘
kau‘, {the moment he went to sleep he awoke}.
Obs. i. Of these words, only 難, 將, 再, 又, 還, 就, na{n}, tsiáng, tsé‘,
{í}‘, {w}a{n}, dzieu‘, are separable from the groups in which they are
found. 未 as in 未哩 mí‘ ’lí, {not yet}, is a negative adverb of time.
Obs. ii. All these adverbs are book words, except {p}au‘, na{n}, and
k’a{n}.
287. The demonstrative pronouns 第, 伊, 故, {t}í‘, í, kú‘, and some
other words combine with the substantives 歇, 刻, 時, h’ih, k’uh, zz, {a
short time}, to form adverbs of time.
第歇故歇 {t}í‘ h’ih, kú‘ h’ih, {at this moment}.
故歇頭上 kú‘ h’ih deu long‘, {at that time}.
伊歇頭上 í h’ih deu long‘, {ib}.
一時頭上 ih zz deu long‘, {all at once}.
立刻 lih k’uh, {immediately}.
立時立刻 lih zz lih k’uh, {ib}.
立時三刻 lih zz sa{n} k’uh, {ib}.
歇 h’ih, also helps to form 大歇 tá h’ih, 爽歇 zong h’ih, {after a
little time}; 少歇 ’sau h’ih, {ib}.
288. Several adjectives and prepositions are borrowed to form compound
adverbs of time.
{a}. 明 ming, {bright}. 明朝 ming tsau, {to-morrow}; 明日 ming nyih,
{ib}.; 明天 ming t’íe{n}, {ib}.; 明年 ming níe{n}, {next year}.
{b}. 早 ’tsau, {early}; 早早 ’tsau ’tsau, {early}; 老早 ’lau ’tsau,
{early}.
{c}. 古 ’kú {ancient}. 古時間 ’kú zz ka{n}, {in ancient times}; 古時節
’kú zz tsih, {ib}.; 古來 ’kú lé, {from ancient times}.
{d}. 新 sing, {new}. 新年 sing níe{n}, {new year}; 從新 dzóng sing,
{afresh}.
{e}. 近 ’{k}iun, {near}. 近年 ’{k}iun níe{n}, {of late years}; 近時
’{k}iun zz, {lately}; 近來 ’{k}iun lé, {ib}. 近今 ’{k}iun kiun, {ib}.
近世 ’{k}iun sz‘, {in modern times}.
{f}. 舊 ’{k}ieu, {old}. 舊年 ’{k}ieu níe{n}, {last year}; 仍舊 zung
’gieu, {as before}; 照舊 tsau‘ ’gieu, {ib}. 依舊 í‘ ’gieu, {ib}.
{g}. 常 dzáng, {constant}. 常庄 dzáng tsong, 打常 ’táng dzáng, 常常
dzáng dzáng 不常 peh dzáng, {always}; 常時 dzáng zz, {sometimes}; 日常
nyih dzáng, {daily}.
{h}. 前 zíe{n}, {former}. 前日子 zíe{n} nyih ’tsz, {day before
yesterday}; 目前 móh zíe{n}, {now}. 前年 zíe{n} níe{n}, {year before
last}. 從前 dzóng zíe{n}, {formerly}. 以前 ’í zíe{n}, {before};
前代 zíe{n} dé‘, {the former dynasty}. 前朝 zíe{n} zau, {ib}.;
前世 zíe{n} sz‘, {in a former life}.
{i}. 後 ’{h}eu, {after}. 後來 ’{h}eu lé, 以後 ’í {h}eu‘, {after};
後月 ’{h}eu niöh, {next month}; 後年 ’{h}eu níe{n}, {year after next};
後日 ’{h}eu nyih, {day after to-morrow}.
{j}. 下 ’{h}au, 目下 móh ’{h}au, {at present}.
{k}. 多 tú, 日多 nyih tú, {daily}.
Obs. Zie{n} deu, ’{h}eu deu, {before}, {after}, and the cognate
adverbs of place are used also for time.
289. Sometimes verbs take the place of what in English are adverbs.
They are 來, 過, 歇, 隔 lé, kú‘, h’ih, káh.
自古以來 zz‘ ’kú ’í lé, {from ancient times till now}.
周朝以來 Tseu dzau ’í lé, {from the Cheú dynasty till now}.
歇之兩日 h’ih tsz ’liáng nyih, {after two days}.
隔之幾十年 kák tsz ’kí zeh níe{n}, {after several tens of years}.
再過一月 tsé‘ kú‘ ih niöh, {after another month}.
290. There are some provincial adverbs of time, whose etymology is
uncertain, or at least not referable to words of time.
做慣 tsok (kwa{n}‘) kû{n}‘, {constantly (in the habit of)}.
只管 tseh ’kwé{n}, {ib}. or {my only concern is}, etc. (M.)
冷陌生頭 ’láng mák sáng deu, {suddenly}.
難板 na{n} ’pa{n}, {seldom (difficult to fix)}.
291. The adjective pronouns combine with substantives of time to form
common phrases, which are often used as adverbs.
多 tá, {several}; 多歇 tá h’ih, {after a little time}; 多日 tá nyih,
{after some days}; 多年 tá níe{n}, {after some years}; 多時 tá
zz, {a considerable time} (多 {tú} in this sense is generally
pronounced {tá}.)
幾 ’kí, {several}; 連幾日 líe{n} ’kí nyih, {during several days}.
多 tú, {many}; 介多 ká‘ tú, {mutually}.
逐 dzóh, {each}; 日逐 nyih dzóh, {daily}; 逐點逐點高 dzók ’tíe{n} dzók
’tíe{n} kau, {gradually growing higher}.
292. Substantives of time, when repeated, are adverbs.
日日 nyih nyih, {daily}.
年年 níe{n} níe{n}, {yearly}.
時時刻刻 zz zz k’uh k’uh, {constantly}.
歇歇 h’ih h’ih, {ib}.
出出變, 囘囘變 t’seh t’seh pie{n}‘, {w}é {w}é pie{n}‘, {constantly
changing}.
Obs. Succession in time is frequently represented in English by
repetition of a noun with an adverb inserted. Thus, {day by day}
corresponds to 日日 nyih nyih. Such phrases as {year after year, one
after another} are other examples, and have their Chinese equivalents
in the next article.
{Order and Succession}. 293. Succession of periods of time is
represented by repetition, and the intervention of the verb 過 kú‘,
{pass} (English adverb {after}).
一世過一世 ih sz‘ kú‘ ih sz‘, {age after age}.
294. The particles {and}, {after}, {by}, in {one by one}, {two and
two}, {in rows}, etc. are not represented, succession being expressed
by mere repetition of the numeral and its particle.
一個一個出去者 ih kú‘ ih kú‘ t’seh k’i‘ ’tsé, {one after another they went
out}.
要種個一行一行個 yau‘ tsóng‘ kú‘ ih {h}ong ih {h}ong kú‘, {plant them in
rows}.
Obs. For the repetition of verbs, in phrases such as 站一站
dza{n}‘ ih dza{n}‘, {stand waiting a little}; 研一研 níe{n} ih níe{n},
{rub a little ink}; 冷個冷 ’láng kú‘ ’láng, {cool it a little}; 調個調
diau kú‘ diau, {stir it a little}; 淘個淘 dau kú‘ dau, {wash it} (of
rice); 净個净 zing‘ kú‘ zing‘, {wash it} (of clothes); 我要辨個辨清爽
’ngú yau‘ bíe{n}‘ kú‘ bíe{n}‘ t’sing ’song, {I wish to distinguish
clearly}; see also Art. 232.
295. Gradual increase by little and little, is expressed by repeating
the auxiliary phrases ih ’nga{n}, ih ’tíe{n}, with the adjective in
the centre. When the gradual change is in time, words of time form
similar phrases.
一眼高一眼 ih ’nga{n} kau ih ’nga{n}, {to become gradually higher}.
一點大一點 ih ’tíe{n} dú‘ ih ’tíe{n}, {grow gradually greater}.
一歇大一歇 ih h’ih dú‘ ih h’ih, {greater every moment}.
一日小一日 ih nyih ’siau ih nyih, {grow less every day}.
296. Many adverbial phrases are formed by verbs and other words. Thus,
the adverb {when} is often supplied by a noun of time following the
verb with the connecting particle 個 kú‘.
覺個辰光 kau‘ kú‘ zun kwong, {when you awake}.
出門個時候 t’seh mun kú‘ zz {h}eu‘, {when on a journey}.
297. {Never}, is expressed by 一向 ih h’iáng‘, with a negative phrase
following it.
一向勿曾讀書 ih h’iáng‘ veh zung {t}ók sû, {I have never gone to school}.
298. The questions why? and how? are often asked by verbs with the
pronoun {what?} thus rendering an adverb unnecessary.
昨日想啥咾勿來 zóh nyih ’siáng sá‘ lau veh lé, {why (thinking of what) did
you not come yesterday?}.
聽之啥咾曉得個 t’ing tsz sá‘ lau ’h’iau tuh kú‘, {how (having heard what)
do you know?}
{Adverbs of Similarity and Reciprocity}. 299. The adverb 恰 hah, and
adjective 像 {s}iáng‘, {like}, assist in forming several compound
phrases in the sense {like}.
恰像 hah ziáng‘, 恰替 hah t’í‘, {like}.
好像 hau ziáng‘, {very like}.
恰得小囝能個 hah tuh ’siau nö{n} nung kú‘, {like a child}.
倒像 ’tau ziáng‘, {or rather it is like}.
Obs. 能 nung, is usually appended to the noun that follows these words,
in the sense of {like}; 一樣 ih {y}áng‘, 一般 ih pé{n}, are also
employed in the sense {in the same manner}.
300.The adverbs of reciprocity are 大介 {t}á‘ ká‘, 介家 ká‘ ká, 介多 ká‘
tú, {mutually, one to another}, and 相 in combination with verbs and
adjectives; e.g. siáng ziáng‘, 相像 {like one another}.
Obs. {Together with}, is expressed by means of certain adverbs 一淘,
ih dau, 一氣 ih k’í‘, following the preposition and its noun. 忒我一氣進
城 t’eh ’ngú ih k’i‘ tsing‘ zung, {go with me into the city}. v. Art.
140.
301. The primitive adverbs are not repeated, except in one or two
instances. It is different with those that are derived. Some examples
in addition to these already given are here appended.
自自在在 zz‘ zz‘ ’zé ’zé, {at ease}.
活的活的 {w}eh tih {w}eh tih, {constantly moving}.
什蓋什蓋 {s}eh ké‘ {s}eh ké‘, {thus}.
適適意意 suh suh í‘ í‘, {comfortably}.
Obs. It has been shown that adjectives, and also substantives of time,
become adverbs by repetition.
302. Some verbs combine intimately with adverbs, so as to form
compound adverbs.
加 ká, {add}, forms {y}öh ká, 越加; {í}‘ ká, 又加; kung‘ ká,
更加 {still more}.
發 fah, {produce}, forms 越發 {y}öh fah; {still more}.
隨 zûe, {follow}, 隨時 zûe zz, {always}; 隨處 zûe t’sû‘, {everywhere}.
303. It will be seen in the next section, that some words marked as
adverbs are also conjunctions. The converse is also true. For some
words, such as 越, 且, 如 {y}öh, ’t’síe, zû regarded in this work as
primitive conjunctions, form adverbial phrases.
並且勿是 {p}ing‘ ’t’síe veh ’zz, {it certainly is not so}.
如同皇帝能 zû dóng {w}ong {t}í‘ nung, {like the emperor}.
304. The foregoing analysis shows that adverbs qualifying verbs, and
expressive of place and quantity are for the most part derived. On the
other hand, those adverbs that qualify adjectives, and express time
are usually primitive. In our own language, the adverbs that qualify
affirmations, e.g. assuredly, certainly, etc. are derived, while here
they are primitive. The old division of this part of speech by western
grammarians into two parts, viz. primitive and derivative, thus
appears to be properly applicable to a language, that has been often
supposed to present no resemblance in etymological development to the
speech of the rest of mankind. The Romans made their adverbs of place
out of demonstrative pronouns, and prepositions, in a manner very
similar to the Chinese, (e.g. hic {here}, supra {above}, etc.)
Adjectives with particular terminations supplied them with adverbs of
manner, (cito, bene, omnino.) Nunc, jam, are examples of primitive
adverbs of time, while the root stá {stand}, in statim, exactly
corresponds to 立 lih, {stand}, in 立刻 lih k’uh, {immediately}. It may
be added that zé{n}, {h}ú, etc. in Art. 259 form appendages to the
root, of the same value as the terminations -{ly}, -{like}, to which
we are accustomed. What is new, is the extensive use of repetitions,
the great number of fixed phrases, and the peculiarities in the laws
of grouping.
{Section} 10. {Conjunctions}.
305. The primitive conjunctions may be thus classed:—
{a}. Connectives, 咾 lau, 也 ’{á}, {and}; 且, ’t’siá, 而 rh. {and,
further}.
{b}. Adversatives 但 da{n}‘. Forms like 但是 da{n}‘ ’zz 獨是 {t}óh ’zz,
{but}, etc. are compounded of adverbs, verbs, etc.
{c}. Illative 故 kú‘, 蓋 ké‘ (keh), {therefore}.
{d}. Causal. 因 yung, 為 {w}é‘, {because}.
{e}. Conditional. 末 meh, 若 záh, 倘 ’t’ong.
{f}. Antithetical, 雖 sûe, 然 zé{n}, 或 {w}óh, 越 yöh, 也 ’{á}, 又 {i}‘.
Obs. The compounds formed by these words, and words and phrases used
as conjunctions derived from other parts of speech, will most of them
be found in the following articles.
{Connectives}. 306. The particle that connects words like the English
{and}, is 咾 lau.
進咾出 tsing‘ lau t’seh, {going in and out}.
中牲咾窵咾魚 tsóng sáng lau ’tiau lau {n}g, {beasts, bird, and fishes}.
Obs. The preposition tah, t’eh, {with}, often serve the same purpose,
e.g. 儂忒我 nóng‘ t’eh ’ngú, {you and I}; 日頭搭之月 nyih deu tah tsz
niöh, {the sun and moon}.
307. Clauses are connected by 也 ’{á} and 還 {w}a{n}. They are also
frequently used merely as introductory particles.
南京去過之末, 我也要上北京去 Né{n} kiung k’í‘ kú‘ tsz meh, ’ngú ’{á} yau‘
’zong Poh kiung k’í‘, {after going to Nanking, I also wish to go
to Peking}.
明朝我也要歸去 ming tsau ’ngú ’{á} yau‘ kü k’í‘, {to-morrow, I wish to go
home.} (introductory).
也要買否 ’{á} yau‘ ’má ’vá, {do you wish to buy?}
Obs. i. If the ’{á} or {w}a{n} is emphasized it means {also}. If
pronounced without emphasis, it is simply introductory.
Obs. ii. The adverbs dzieu‘, niö{n}, are used as introductory
particles to affirmative prepositions: 就是我 dzieu‘ ’zz ’ngú, 原是我
niön ’zz ’ngú, {it is I}.
308. Another circumstance to be considered, in addition to what has
preceded, is introduced 而且 rh ’t’siá, {and further} 尙且 zong‘ ’t’siá,
{and what is still more}.
今朝路勿好跑個而且我脚跑勿動 kiun tsau lú‘ veh ’hau pau‘ kú‘, rh ’t’siá
’ngú kiáh pau‘ veh ’dóng, {it is bad walking to-day, and besides
I am lame}.
有個朋友話昨日來, 尙且勿曾來 ’{y}eu kú‘ báng ’{y}eu {w}ó‘ zóh nyih lé,
zong‘ ’t’siá veh zung lé, {a friend told me he would come
yesterday, and still he has not yet come}. (adverbial).
前頭借過歇銅錢, 而且勿曾還哩, 難又要借否 zie{n} deu tsiá‘ kú‘ h’ih dóng
díe{n}, rh ’t’siá veh zung {w}a{n} ’lí, na{n} {í}‘ yau‘ tsiá‘ ’vá,
{you borrowed money before, and further you have not returned it,
and do you wish to borrow again?} (adverbial).
水深而且渾 ’sz sun rh ’t’siá {w}un, {the water is deep and also muddy}.
309. A new subject of remark is introduced by 再者 tsé‘ ’tsé, {again,
to proceed}; 還有 {w}a{n} ’{y}eu, {there is another thing}; 那裏曉得 ’á
’lí ’h’iau tuh, {meantime; who could have thought it? strange to say!}
托儂買蒔菇, 再者呌船一隻 t’oh nóng‘ ’má zz kú, tsé‘ ’tsé kiau‘ zé{n} ih tsáh,
{I commission you to buy fruit, and also to call a boat}.
還有一樣事體 {w}a{n} ’{y}eu ih {y}áng‘ zz‘ ’t’i, {there is another thing
I have to say}.
{Adversatives}. 310. {But} is represented by 但 {t}a{n}‘ 但是 {t}a{n}‘
’zz, 獨是 {t}óh (g) ’zz; {however} is 到底 tau‘ ’tí, or 究竟 kieu‘ kiung‘.
說話好聽, 但是道理嘸啥好 seh {w}ó ’hau t’ing, {t}a{n}‘ ’zz ’{t}au ’lí {m}
sá‘ ’hau, {his words are plausible but his doctrine bad}.
現在還勿起到底要還儂個 {h}íe{n}‘ zé {w}a{n} veh ’k’í tau‘ ’tí yau‘ {w}a{n}
nóng‘ kú‘, {I cannot pay you now, but I intend to do so in the
end}. (adverbial).
Obs. Of these words, tau‘ ’tí is the most common. It sometimes
preserves its etymological meaning {in the end}, as in the example
given.
311. {Lest} is expressed 常怕 dzáng p’ó‘. The compounded phrase 只怕
tseh p’ó‘, {I am only afraid that}, has come to mean {I suppose that}.
要打伊隻夠常怕要咬 yau‘ ’táng í tsáh ’keu dzáng p’ó‘ yau‘ ’ngau, {beat that
dog lest he should bite}.
伊個話頭只怕虛個 í kú‘ ’{w}ó‘ deu tseh p’ó‘ h’ü kú‘, {that account is I
suppose false}. (or 恐怕 ’k’úng p’ó‘).
Obs. 恐怕, ’k’úng p’ó‘ is {I fear that}; 只怕 tseh p’ó‘ has sometimes a
similar meaning. 燈旺來些只怕燙壞之手 tung {y}ong‘ lé ’sí tseh p’ó‘
t’ong‘ {w}á‘ tsz ’seu, {the lamp is very hot (bright) I fear it will
burn your hand}.
312. The conjunctional phrases {and yet, on the other hand}, are
expressed by 倒 ’tau and 偏 píe{n}, {perversely}.
第個事體呌儂做, 儂倒撥拉別人做 {t}í kú‘ zz ’t’í kau‘
nóng‘ tsú‘, nóng‘ ’tau peh ’la bih niun tsú‘, {I called you to
do this, and yet you have given it to some one else to do}.
打伊倒勿痛 ’táng i ’tau veh t’óng‘, {he is beaten and yet feels no pain}.
勸儂好偏勿肯好 k’iö{n}‘ nóng‘ ’hau p’íe{n} veh ’k’ung ’hau,
{when exhorted to be good, you on the other hand will not}.
313. Such conjunctional phrases as {it would be better to}, are
represented by 勿如 veh zû, {not so good as}, or 𡨴可 niung ’k’ó, {I
would rather}, 勿比 veh ’pí, {it cannot be compared with}.
勿如轉去更好 veh zû ’tsé{n} k’í‘ kung‘ ’hau, {it would be better to go
back}.
讀勿熟勿比再讀 {t}óh veh zóh veh ’pí tsé‘ dóh, {not having learned it
perfectly, it would be better to study it again}.
惡事𡨴可死勿做 oh zz‘ niung ’k’ó ’sí veh tsú‘, {I would rather die than
do what is wrong}.
{Illative or Transitional Conjunctions}. 314. {Therefore} is
represented by 所以 ’sú ’í, 故此 kú‘ ’t’sz, 故所以 kú‘ ’sú ’í, 𡀽咾 keh
lau.
心裏勿忘記儂故此又來 sing ’lí veh mong‘ kí‘ nóng‘, kú‘ ’t’sz {í}‘ lé,
{I have not forgotten you, and therefore have come again}.
315. {Then} is expressed by 𡀽末 ké‘ (keh) meh, when it denotes a
logical consequence, and by 難末 na{n} meh, when the transition is one
of time.
撥勒儂勿要, 𡀽末要啥 peh ’lá nóng‘ veh yau‘, ké‘ meh yau‘ sá‘, {I give
it and you do not want it, then what do you want?}
懂之道理難末好者 ’tóng tsz ’dau ’lí na{n} meh ’hau ’tsé, {the doctrine
being understood, then all is well}.
Obs. Na{n} meh, has also been placed among the adverbs as a particle
of time. Its book equivalent 於是 ü ’zz, {consequently}.
{Causal Conjunctions}. 316. 因爲 {y}ung {w}é‘, 爲 {w}é‘ and 爲之 {w}é‘
tsz correspond to our word {because}.
{Conditional particles}. 317. 末 meh, {if}, is placed at the
end of the clause.
賤末要買, 貴末勿要買 {k}iáng (zíe{n}‘) meh yau‘ ’má, kü‘ meh veh yau‘
’má, {if it is cheap buy it, but not if it is dear}.
318. 若使 zák sz‘, 若是 zog ’sz, 若然 zog zé{n}, 倘或 ’t’ong {w}óh, 倘使
’t’ong sz‘, 倘然 ’t’ong zé{n}, are used in the sense of {if}: 旣然 kí‘
zé{n} is {if it was already so}.
若使勿看見末, 就歸來 zák sz‘ veh k’ö{n}‘ kíe{n}‘ meh, dzieu‘ kü lé, {if you
do not see him, return at once}.
Obs. The verbs 使, 是, and adverb 然 lose their primary sense, and form
in colloquial usage merely a terminating syllable to the conjunction
with which they combine.
319. {Even if} is expressed by 就是 dzieu‘ ’zz, 也怕 ’{á} p’ó‘ 那裏怕
’{á} ’lí p’ó‘.
就是其哭, 也勿要憑其 dzieu‘ ’zz gí k’óh, ’{á} veh yau‘ bing gí, {even if
he cries, do not yield to him}.
也怕嘸末銅錢, 總勿要去偷人家 ’{á} p’ó‘ m meh dóng díe{n}, ’tsóng veh yau‘
k’í‘ t’eu niun ká, {even if you have no money, you must not
steal from others}.
320. {If}, with the negative is represented 勿然 veh zé{n}, or 再勿然
tsé‘ veh zé{n}, {should it not be so}.
快點撥勒我, 勿然我要去者 k’wá ’tíe{n} peh ’lá ’ngú, veh zé{n} ’ngú yau‘
k’í‘ ’tsé, {If you do not give it me quickly, I shall go}.
再勿然我自家去 tsé‘ veh ze{n} ’ngú zz‘ ká k’í‘, {if is so, I shall go
myself}.
Obs. This amounts to an entire omission of the {if}, for 然 zé{n} is
an adverb {so}. In fact, the {if} is often not used in affirmative
sentences as well as negative.
321. The conjunctional phrases {suppose that, for instance, for
example}, are expressed by 比方 ’pí fong, 譬如 p’í zû, 猶如 {y}eu zû, etc.
比方死之末那能 ’pí fong ’sí tsz meh ná‘ nung, {if you should die, what
then?}
猶之乎 {y}eu tsz {h}ú, {just as if}.
猶如 {y}eu zû, {ib}.
Obs. The adverbs of likeness (see Art. 299) are also similarly
employed. 好像日頭忒旺, 眼睛勿好對之伊咾看 ’hau ziáng‘ nyih deu t’uh {y}ong‘,
’nga{n} tsing veh ’hau té‘ tsz í lau k’ön, {just as the sun
is too bright for our eyes to gaze on him}.
{Antithetical Conjunctions}. 322. Clauses with the particles
{although, yet}, are formed by 雖然 sûe zé{n} and 然而 zé{n} rh, etc.
雖然巧個, 然而勿牢實個 sûe zé{n} ’k’iau kú‘, zé{n} rh veh lau zeh kú‘,
{although clever, he is not trustworthy}.
好是好個, 到底本事平常 ’hau ’zz ’hau kú‘ tau‘ ’tí ’pun zz‘ bing dzáng, {he
is well disposed, but his abilities are not great}.
雖然路遠, 究竟走得到 sûe zé{n} lú‘ ’yö{n}, kieu‘ kiung‘ ’tseu tuh tau‘,
{although it is a long way, yet I can walk it}.
Obs. {Although} is very frequently omitted, as in the second example.
323. {Either,—or} are expressed by 或者 {w}óh ’tsé, 或者 {w}óh ’tsé, or
by 勿是, 就是 veh ’zz—dzieu‘ ’zz.
勿是打贏, 就是打敗 veh ’zz ’táng {y}ung, dzieu‘ ’zz ’táng bá‘, {you must
either conquer, or be vanquished}.
或在東, 或在西 {w}óh ’dzé tóng, {w}óh ’dzé sí, {it is either east or west}.
勿是儂, 就是儂個兄弟 veh ’zz nóng‘, dzieu‘ ’zz nóng‘ kú‘ h’iung dí‘, {it
is either you or your brother}.
或是姓張, 或是姓李 {w}óh ’zz sing‘ tsáng, {w}óh ’zz sing‘ lí, {it must be
some one named Cháng or Lí}.
324. {Neither,—nor} are represented both by 也—也 ’{á}—’{á},
and by 又—又 {í}‘—{í}‘, with a negative.
也勿會飛, 也勿會走 ’{á} veh {w}é‘ fí, ’{á} veh {w}é‘ ’tseu. {he
can neither fly nor walk}.
口也勿開, 手也勿動 ’k’eu ’{á} veh k’é, ’seu ’{á} veh ’dóng,
{he neither opens his mouth, nor moves his hands}.
又勿賤, 又勿貴 {í}‘ veh giáng, {í}‘ veh kü‘, {it is neither cheap nor dear}.
325. When the first clause is interrogative, and the second commences
with {or}, the equivalent form is ní, the interrogative particle at
the end of the first clause, and 還是 {w}a{n} ’zz beginning the second.
Sometimes 也 ’{á} alone is used.
明朝要去呢, 還是要待兩日 ming tsau yau‘ k’í‘ ní, {w}a{n} ’zz yau‘ dé‘ ’liáng
nyih, {will you go to-morrow, or wait for a few days?}
(See also Art. 251).
326. {Because,—therefore} are expressed by 因爲 yung {w}é‘, or 爲之
{w}é‘ tsz, in the first clause, and any of the illative particles in
the second.
因爲勿曾熟哩, 所以還要燒 yung {w}é‘ veh zung zóh ’lí, ’sú ’í {w}a{n} yau‘ sau,
{since it is not yet well done, you must boil it longer}.
爲之儂勿快活咾, 故此我勿來 {w}é‘ tsz nóng‘ veh k’á‘ {w}eh lau, kú‘ ’t’sz ’ngú
veh lé, {because you were displeased, I did not come again}.
327. {Why—? because—}are expressed by any of the adverb forms for
{why?} and the casual conjunctions in the answering clause.
爲啥要眠檣因爲要過橋拉 {w}é‘ sá‘ yau‘ míe{n} dziáng? yung {w}é‘ yau‘ kú‘
giau ’lá, {why do you take down the mast? because there is a
bridge to pass}.
328. {On the one hand, on the other hand}, are expressed by ih míe{n}‘
or ih deu repeated.
一面近河咾要沉殺, 一面兵過來咾要嚇昏 ih míe{n}‘ ’giun {h}ú lau yau zung sah,
ih míe{n}‘ ping kú‘ lé lau yau‘ háh hwun, {on the one side it is
near the river, and they will be drowned, on the other side
soldiers are coming who fill them with fear}.
一半哭一半笑 ih pé{n}‘ k’oh, ih pé{n}‘ siau‘, {partly crying and partly
laughing}.
一頭走一頭想 ih deu ’tseu, ih deu ’siáng, {while he walks he thinks}.
329. {Not only—but even},— are expressed by 勿獨之 veh dók tsz, 惟獨
ví {t}ók, {not only}, or 勿但不過 veh {d}an‘ peh kú‘ in the first
clause, 就是 dzieu‘ ’zz, or 連 líe{n} or 連搭 líe{n} tah, in the second.
勿獨之朋友什蓋, 就是陌生人也什蓋 veh dók tsz {p}áng ’{y}eu {s}eh ké‘, dzieu‘
’zz mák sáng niun ’á zeh ké‘, {it is not only friends that are
so, but even strangers too}.
勿獨自家, 連搭子孫 veh dók zz‘ ká, líe{n} tah ’tsz sun, {not only himself,
but even his children also}.
非獨逆風, 連水也逆個 fí dók niuk fóng, líe{n} ’sz ’á niuk kú‘, {not only
is the wind contrary, but the tide is also against us}.
330. {The—the—}are expressed by 越 yöh repeated, 越早越好 yöh ’tsau
yöh ’hau, {the earlier the better}.
Obs. Similar phrases are formed with 越發 yöh fah, {the more}, in each
clause, also with 越加 yöh ká.
331. When the supplementary clause is, {how much more}, 何况于 {h}ú
hwong‘ ü, 况乎 hwong‘ {ú}, 而况 rh hwong‘ or 况且 hwong‘ ’t’siá, are
employed.
天好勿看見, 而况雨落 t’íe{n} ’hau veh k’ö{n}‘ kíe{n}’, {h}ú hwong’ ’{ü}
loh, {when the weather is fine you cannot see it, how much more
when it rains}.
小個做勿來, 况且大個 ’siau kú‘ tsú‘ veh lé, hwong‘ ’t’siá dú‘ kú‘, {if
you cannot do a little thing, how much more impossible for you
to do a greater}.
自家尙且勿會做, 何况于別人 zz ká zang‘ ’t’siá veh {w}é tsú‘, {h}ú hwong‘ ü
bih niun, {since you cannot do it yourself, much more cannot
others do it}.
{Section} 11. {Expletives and Interjections}.
332. There are some words which though they have important grammatical
uses cannot be conveniently set down among the preceding parts of
speech and they are therefore placed here. Such are 個, 之, 者, 哩, kú‘,
tsz, ’tsé, ’lí.
{a}. 個 kú‘, besides its use as a numeral particle (Art. 156), as the
sign of the possessive (130) and in relative pronoun sentences, also
takes its place as a final after a verb, or adjective in any
indicative proposition.
好個好拉個 ’hau kú‘, ’hau ’lá kú‘, {it is good, well}.
勿能做個 veh nung tsú‘ kú‘, or veh nung kú‘ tsú‘, {I cannot do it}.
{b}. 之 tsz is the sign of the past or past participle, but as will be
seen in the first three examples, it is often indicative.
前年做之宰相者 zíe{n} níe{n} tsú‘ tsz tsé‘ siáng‘ ’tsé, {the year before
last, he was prime minister}.
本地白也會話之 ’pun dí‘ {p}ah ’{á} {w}é‘ {w}ó‘ tsz, {he can speak in the
dialect of this place}.
明朝要寫好之末者 ming tsau yau‘ ’siá ’hau tsz meh ’tsé, {finish writing
it to-morrow}.
做之十年官咾告老者 tsú‘ tsz zeh níe{n} kwé{n} lau kau‘ ’lau ’tsé, {after
having been in office for ten years, he retired on the plea of
old age}.
{c}. 者 ’tsé is the sign of an action completed, or in course of being
done, whether expressed by a verb or adjective; also of the imperative.
做拉者, 好者 tsú‘ ’lá ’tsé, ’hau ’tsé, {it is done, it is right}.
去拉個者 k’í‘ ’lá kú‘ ’tsé, {he is gone}.
吾拉做者 ngú ’lá tsú‘ ’tsé, {I am doing it}.
{d}. 哩 ’lí and 拉 ’lá, are used like ’tsé and kú‘, as finals
to any indicative proposition. 拉 ’lá is also a preposition
(Art. 256).
好哩, 勿好拉哩, 好個哩 ’hau ’lí, veh ’hau ’lá ’lí, ’hau kú‘ ’lí, {good,
it is not well, it is well}.
{e}. 咾 lau, the particle that connects a string of substantives,
occurs at the end of sentences that require something to complete
their sense.
已經話拉者咾, 有啥再話 ’í kiung {w}ó‘ ’lá ’tsé lau, ’{y}eu sá‘ tsé‘
{w}ó‘, {I have said it, and why should I say it again}.
Obs. 𫡄 ná is a final expletive used with 者 ’tsé.
讀者𫡄 {t}ók ’tsé ná, I am reading.
333. The final interrogatives are 呢, 否, 蠻, 麽, ní, ’vá, ma{n}‘, mó.
Characters are borrowed for ’vá and ma{n}‘.
{a}. 呢 ní is used either at the end of the first clause in an
interrogative antithesis, or at the end of a single clause. It is
sometimes pronounced ’nia{n}.
做呢勿做 tsú‘ ní veh tsú‘, {will you do it or not?}
好勿好呢 ’hau veh ’hau ní, {is it right or not?}
勿懂呢啥 veh ’tóng ní sa‘, {do you not understand?}
物事忒貴個呢 meh zz‘ tuh kü‘ kú‘ ní, {are the things too dear?}
{b}. 否 ’vá and 蠻 ma{n}‘ are appropriated to direct interrogations,
where not antithetical. They are colloquialisms.
飯用蠻 va{n}‘ {y}úng‘ ma{n}‘, {have you dined?}
還要再來否 wa{n} yau‘ tsé‘ lé‘ vá, {shall you come again?}
曉得否 ’h’iau tuh ’vá, {do you understand?}
{c}. 麽 mó (mau), besides expressing direct and indirect interrogation,
also implies a strong affirmative. (Art. 278).
第個稀奇個物事有磨 {t}í‘ kú‘ h’í gí kú‘ meh zz‘ ’{y}eu mó, {is there this
remarkable thing?}
倒勿是十分壞良心麽 ’tau veh ’zz {s}eh vun {w}á‘ liáng sing mó? {is it not
most wilfully unconscionable!}
是否, 是麽 ’zz ’vá, ’zz mó, {is it so? indeed it is?}
第個價錢大麽 {t}í‘ kú‘ ká‘ díe{n} dú‘ mó, {the price of this is great
indeed} (亦通嗎).
334. The initial interrogatives 豈 ’k’í, {how?} 幾 ’kí, {how many?}
with 那 ’ná, forming ’{á} ’lí, 那裏 {where? which?} and 那能 ’ná nung,
{how?} have already been illustrated among the pronouns and adverbs.
335. The interjections properly so called are such as—
噯 é, {ah!} 噯動勿得個 é ’{t}óng veh tuh kú‘, {ah! you must not do such
a thing}.
呔 t’é, {ho!} 呸 ’p’é, {it is bad}.
阿唷 ah yóh, {alas! oh!}
㕭 au‘, indicates assent, {yes}, or {I understand}. In the first tone,
it calls attention or conveys a warning, 當心㕭 tong sing au, {be
careful and mind what I say}.
呀 á, 喲 yá, as in 是呀 ’zz á, 是喲 ’zz yáh, {it is so}.
哇 vá, {is it not so?} 哈 hé, {ah!}
PART III.
{ON SYNTAX}.
{Section} 1. {On Government}.
336. The rules for the relative position of the parts of speech are
few and simple. They will be first considered without reference to
grouping, repetition, etc.; the syntax of words used under those forms
will be presented in subsequent sections.
A substantive that governs another as an attributive genitive always
precedes it, and the particle 個 kú‘ is inserted.
牛個角比之鹿個角短 nieu kú‘ koh ’pí tsz lók kú‘ koh ’{t}ö{n}, {the horns
of oxen are short compared with those of deer}.
羊咾牛個皮有多許用頭拉 {y}áng lau nieu kú‘ bí ’{y}eu tú hau‘ {y}úng‘ deu
’lá, {the skin of sheep and oxen has many uses}.
鷄個聲氣最响 kí kú‘ sáng k’í‘ tsûe‘ ’h’iáng, {the cock crows very loud}.
Obs. i. Thus substance precedes accident or attribute, and the whole
its part.
Obs. ii In English this order is reversed, when the particle {of} is
employed; e.g. {affairs of the nation} is in our dialect, 國家個事體
kók kiá kú‘ zz‘ ’t’í. When a possessive case is formed with ’{s}, the
order agrees with that of the Chinese; e.g. {the emperor’s palace},
皇帝個宮殿 {w}ong {t}í‘ kú‘ kóng díe{n}‘.
Obs. iii. 個 kú‘ is omitted in some instances where it would incommode
the rhythmus; e.g. 外國人總要來帮助此地咸豐皇帝 ngá‘ koh niun ’tsóng yau‘
lé póng ’zú ’t’sz dí‘ Ya{n} fóng {w}ong {t}í‘, {foreigners must come
and assist Hien Fung, the emperor of this country}; 一向嘸沒興旺辰光 ih
h’iang‘ {m} meh h’iung {w}ong‘ zun kwong, {it has never had a time of
prosperity}.
337. Adjectives precede their substantives with or without 個 kú‘.
大地方 {t}ú‘ {t}í‘ fong, {a large place}.
西國 sí kóh, {western nations}.
黑天 huk tíe{n}, {black sky}.
晒拉旺日頭裏 só ’lá {y}ong‘ nyih deu ’lí, {dry it in the hot sun}.
利害個物事 lí‘ {h}é kú‘ meh zz‘, {a dangerous thing}.
Obs. Numbers take the auxiliary word (Part II. section 4.)
appropriated to the substantive they precede, between them and the
substantive. An adjective if needed, is inserted after the auxiliary,
e.g. 一座大房子 ih zû‘ dú‘ vong ’tsz, {a large house}; 匹匹白馬 sz‘ p’ih
báh ’mó, {four white horses}.
338. Transitive verbs precede their objects.
生火 sáng ’hú, {light a fire}.
染布 ’níe{n} pú‘, {dye cloth}.
買紅紙頭做帖子, ’má {h}óng ’tsz deu tsú‘ t’ih ’tsz, {buy red paper to
make cards}.
Obs. i. If there is a dative and accusative, the latter comes next to
the verb. For examples, see Art. 236 and 133.
Obs. ii. Impersonal verbs take a substantive after them as transitive
verbs; e.g. 難開花者 na{n} k’é hwó ’tsé, {now the flowers open} (lit.
{open the flowers}); 落雨 loh ’{ü}, {it rains} (lit. {falls rain}).
339. Adverbs are placed for the most part before the adjectives and
verbs that they qualify.
忒認眞 t’uh niung‘ tsun, {unnecessarily industrious}.
廟裏最興 miau‘ ’lí tsûe‘ h’iung‘, {in the temple, it is most crowded}.
此地寫 ’t’sz dí‘ ’siá, {write it here}.
歇兩日再會 h’ih ’liáng nyih tsé‘ {w}é‘. {after a few days, we shall
meet again}.
又是一氣 {í} ’zz ih k’í‘, {that is a different set}.
Obs. The adverbs that follow their adjectives, such as 近煞 ’{k}iun
sah, {very near}, 好極 ’hau giuh, {very good}, will be found in their
places, where the comparison of adjectives and adverbs of quality are
treated of.
340. Of the prepositions, some forming the locative case follow their
words; the rest inclusive of 在 ’dzé, 勒拉 leh ’lá, 勒裏 leh ’lí, all
meaning {being at} or {in}, precede their substantives. 勿在鄕下 veh
’dzé h’iáng ’{a}u, {not down in the country}.
Obs. Prepositions of motion and direction preceding the personal
pronouns require a substantive of place to follow. 到我堂來 tau‘ ’ngú
dong lé, {come to me}; 拉㑚堂勿有 ’lá ná‘ dong veh ’{y}eu, {where you
come from, there are none}. See also Art. 197.
{Section} 2. {Interchange of the Parts of Speech}.
341. Under this heading, will be exhibited examples of the manner in
which words by a change in position, must be construed as included in
parts of speech, different from those to which when alone, they
obviously belong. First, there are three principal changes of
position, by which {adjectives} become {substantives}.
{а}. Adjectives when they follow a substantive with 個 kú‘ are to be
construed as substantives.
心裏向個勿好, 總要改正 sing ’lí h’iáng‘ kú‘ veh ’hau, ’tsóng yau‘ ’ké
tsung‘, {the evil of the heart must be rectified}.
泰山個高量勿出 t’é‘ sa{n} kú‘ kau liáng veh t’seh, {the height of
T’ai-shan cannot be measured}.
房間個闊狹勿清爽 vong ka{n} kú‘ k’weh {h}ah veh t’sing ’song, {the width
of the room, I do not know}.
吾個相好死者 ngú kú‘ siáng ’hau ’sí ’tsé, {my friend is dead}.
Obs. i. Compare In English “the theory of the beautiful,” etc.
Obs. ii. Sometimes 處 t’sû‘ is added to the adjective, as also 頭 deu
and fah 發, compound substantives are thus formed; cf. Art. 110. The
same words also form substantives from verbs.
{b}. Adjectives are frequently the objects of transitive verbs, and in
consequence are necessarily translated in such cases as substantives.
學好 {h}oh ’hau, {to grow good (to learn good)}.
講和 ’kong {h}ú, {treat for peace}.
學壞 {h}oh {w}á‘, {to grow bad}.
Obs. These examples differ from compounds, such as 加大 ká dú‘, {make
larger}; 開闊 k’é k’weh, {to extend in width} (see Art. 219), which in
their combined form, constitute transitive verbs with a regimen.
These on the other hand contain the verb and its object within them.
勿論大咾小, 全是一樣個 veh lun‘ dú‘ lau ’siau, dzé{n} ’zz ih {y}áng‘ kú‘,
{without taking account of the great and the small, all are the
same}.
勿要話別人個長短 veh yau‘ {w}ó‘ bih niun kú‘ dzáng ’tö{n}, {do not speak
of the faults of others}.
Obs. 短處 ’tö{n} t’sû‘ is also used for {faults}.
第條河開多少闊 {t}í‘ diau {h}ú k’é tú ’sau k’weh, {how wide is this
river?}
Obs. Adjectives with the interrogatives {how much? how many?}
preceding them, the verb being understood, are in common use; e.g.
幾許深淺 ’kí hó‘ sun ’t’síe{n}, {how much depth is there?} or
{how deep is it?} 多少深 tú ’sau sun {ib}.; 勿知多少高低 veh tsz tú
’sau kau tí, {I do not know how high it is}.
{c}. When one adjective is qualified by another, it becomes a
substantive; with this, English usage agrees, as in the following
names of colours.
濃黑 nióng huh, {deep black}.
淡紅 ’{t}a{n} {h}óng, {light red}.
老黃 ’láu {w}ong, {faded yellow}.
嫩黃 nung‘ {w}ong, {fresh yellow}.
重藍 ’dzóng la{n}, {deep blue}.
淺藍 ’t’síen la{n}, {light blue}.
{Verb as Substantive}. 342. Construing verbs as substantives is common
to many languages. The infinitive and gerund forms are used for this
purpose, as also the present participle. In Chinese these are all
identical, being the root itself.
{a}. The verb as {subject} of a proposition with a predicate following
(inf. and pres, part.).
活命難 {w}eh ming‘ na{n}, {it is hard} (predic.) {to live}. (subj.）
會得勝總好個 {w}é‘ tuk sung‘ ’tsóng ’hau kú‘, {to be able to conquer
must be a good thing}.
行篷船走得快個 {h}áng bóng, zé{n} ’tseu tuk k’wá‘ kú‘, {by using a sail,
the boat will go quickly}.
國度亂做生意勿便當個 kóh dú‘ lö{n}‘ tsú‘ sáng í‘ veh bíe{n}‘ tong‘ kú‘,
{the country is disturbed and in consequence, it is hard}
(pred.) {to carry on trade}. (subj.)
兵勿好咾, 打仗勿見得成功 ping veh ’hau lau, ’t’áng tsáng‘ veh kíe{n}‘ tuh
zung kóng‘, {the soldiers are bad, and consequently fighting}
(subj.) {is not likely to be successful}. (pred.)
{b}. The verb as {subject}, with a noun as {attribute} (in Latin
grammar, the genitive of the gerund).
種田個家生有鋤頭鐵咾還有多許 tsóng‘ díe{n} kú‘ ká sáng ’{y}eu zz deu, t’ih
tah lau, {w}a{n} ’{y}eu tú hó‘, {the implements of husbandry are
the spade, the spiked hoe, and such like} (arma colendi).
嘸沒反个意思 {m} meh ’fa{n} kú‘ í‘ sz‘, {he has not the intention of
rebelling} (consilium deficiendi).
敎書个本事勿有 kau‘ sû kú‘ ’pun zz‘ veh ’{y}eu, {the ability to
instruct, he does not possess}.
{c}. The verb preceded by or followed by case particles.
我現在拉做 ’ngú {h}íe{n}‘ dzé‘ ’lá tsú‘, {I am now doing it}.
勒拉吃茶 leh ’lá k’iuh dzó, {drinking tea} ({inter bibendum}).
勒裏打算 leh ’lí ’táng sö{n}‘, {he is considering} ({inter putandum}).
做官裏向也有辛苦 tsú‘ kwé{n} ’lí h’iáng‘ ’{á} ’{y}eu sing ’k’ú, {in the
office of mandarin, there is much care and anxiety} (in
magistrato gerendo).
寫字裏向也有法則 ’siá zz‘ ’lí hiáng‘ ’{á} ’{y}eu fah tsuh, {in writing,
there is a method}.
{d}. The verb as regimen of another verb.
斷絕往來 ’{t}ö{n} dzih ’{w}ong lé, {cease to have communications}.
嘸啥做 {m} sá‘ tsú‘, {I have nothing to do}.
勿曾有啥爭論 veh zung ’{y}eu sá‘ tsáng lun‘, {there has not been any
quarreling}.
我勿想去 ’ngú veh ’siáng k’í‘, {I do not think of going}.
勿要討我厭 veh yau‘ ’t’au ’ngú {y}íe{n}‘, {do not make me displeased}.
{e}. The verb as the {instrument} of effecting an action.
問之咾曉得 mun‘ tsz lau ’h’iau tuh, {you would know by asking}.
開之砲咾攻破城頭 k’é tsz p’au‘ lau kóng p’ú‘ zung deu, {he made a breach
in the wall by firing cannon}.
勿留心咾忘記脱者 veh lieu sing lau mong‘ ki‘ t’eh ’tsé, {though not
attending to it, I have forgotten it}.
Obs. Some verbs are found among substantives and adjectives too.
孝 h’iau‘ is a substantive in 百善孝爲先 puh ’zé{n} h’iau‘ {w}é‘ síe{n},
{of all the virtues, filial piety is the chief}; an adjective in 孝子
h’iau‘ ’tsz, {a filial son}, and a verb in 孝順父母 h’iau‘ zun‘ ’vú
’mú, {to reverence parents}. In the books such variations of
grammatical character in the same words are very numerous. In the
verse 庶民子來 sû ming ’tsz lé, {all the people came as if they were
his sons}, 子 ’tsz is used adverbially.
{Verb as Adjective}. 343. The passive gerund of Latin is related to
adjectives as the active gerund is to substantives. The corresponding
forms in our dialect are compounds which may be translated either as
adjectives or passive gerunds.
可惡 ’k’ó ú‘, {to be hated}, or {hateful}.
可殺 ’k’ó sah, {ought to be killed}.
好笑 ’hau siau‘, {laughable, fit to be laughed at}.
好種个 ’hau tsóng‘ kú‘, {capable of cultivation}.
Obs. The examples given In Art. 246, as in the {permissive} mood,
might also be explained as verbs construed as adjectives.
344. Many of the longer verb groups are translated most conveniently
as verbal adjectives.
耐勿過 né‘ veh kú‘, {unbearable}.
話勿來 {w}ó‘ veh lé, {unutterable}.
數勿明白 sú‘ veh ming báh, {incalculable}.
Obs. i. For a classification of these phrases v. Art. 227.
Obs. ii. Adjectives coming after verbs, with 得 tuh and 來 lé are best
translated as adverbs; 做來勿好 tsú‘ lé veh ’hau, {it is done badly}；
寫來通極 ’siá lé t’ong giuh, {it is written exactly to the purpose};
燕子飛起來頂快 ’íen ’tsz fí ’k’í lé ’ting k’wá‘, {the swallow flies
very swiftly}; 幅子戴得齊整 mau‘ ’tsz tá‘ tuh zí tsung‘, {he wears his
hat properly}.
345. Many verbs are used as prepositions. They are 從 zóng, 由 {y}eu, 到
tau‘, 連 líe{n}, 朝 zau, 望 mong‘, 對 té‘, 上 ’zong, 下 ’{h}au. Examples
of both uses are given.
由儂末哉 {y}eu nóng‘ meh tsé‘, {it will be as you decide}.
由那裏一條路 {y}eu ’{á} ’lí ih diau lú‘, {by which way?}
字眼要連下來 zz‘ ’nga{n} yau‘ líe{n} ’{a}u lé, {words and expressions
should be connected}.
紙頭連筆全勿有 ’tsz deu líe{n} pih dzé{n} veh ’{y}eu, {paper and pencil
are both wanting}.
{Adverb as Substantive}. 346. Adverbs of time and place precede
substantives with 個 kú‘, just as one substantive precedes another.
此地個百姓 ’t’sz dí‘ kú‘ pák sing‘, {people of this place}.
什蓋能個人 {s}eh ké‘ nung kú‘ niun, {people of that sort}.
明朝個事體測度勿出 ming tsau kú‘ zz‘ ’t’i t’suh doh veh t’seh, {the
things of to-morrow cannot be known by thinking}.
Obs.先 síe{n}, is an adverb in síe{n} yau‘ ’tsung ’tung ’hau, 先要整頓
好, {you must first make preparations}, and an adjective in 出世最先
t’seh sz‘ tsûe‘ síe{n}, {he was born very early}.
347. When the adverbs take case particles, they must be regarded as
substantives.
轎子拉前頭 {k}iau‘ ’tsz ’lá zíe{n} deu, {the chair is before}.
{Adverb as Adjective}. 348. The derivative adverbs like the pure
adjectives, form the predicate of a proposition.
人是好好能個 niun ’zz ’hau ’hau nung kú‘, {the man is good}.
Or they qualify substantives.
做私底下個事體 tsú‘ sz ’tí ’{á}u kú‘ zz‘ ’t’í, {to do underhand things}.
{Adjective as Adverb}. 349. Some adjectives precede verbs, and must in
such cases be regarded as adverbs.
多話兩句 tú {w}ó‘ ’liáng kü‘, {say a few sentences more}.
好聽來些 ’hau t’ing lé, {very pleasant to hear}.
酒要少吃 ’tsieu yau‘ ’sau k’iuk, {drink sparingly of wine}.
好走進去 ’hau ’tseu tsing‘ k’í‘, {you are quite at liberty to enter}.
Obs. 前 zíe{n} is an adjective in 前門 zíe{n} mun, {the front door}; a
post-position in 門前 mun zíe{n}, {before the door}: and an adverb in
前兩日 zíe{n} ’liáng nyih, {a few days ago}: 大 is usually an adjective,
but in 大兩樣個 {t}ú‘ ’liáng {y}áng‘ kú‘, {very different} and in 勿大哩
興 veh dá‘ ’lí h’iung‘, {not very crowded}, it is an adverb.
{Postposition as Adjective}. 350. When the locative case particles 外
ngá‘, 上 ’zong, 下 ’{h}au, 前 zíe{n}, 後 ’{h}eu, precede their words,
they are adjectives. When they follow them, they are postpositions.
外國 ngá‘ kóh, {foreign nations}.
城外 zung ngá‘, {outside the city}.
下手 ’{h}au ’seu, {an under workman}.
手下 ’seu ’{a}u, 手底下 ’seu ’tí ’{a}u, {another’s authority}.
後門 ’{h}eu mun, {back door}.
飯後 va{n}‘ ’{h}eu, {after breakfast}.
Obs. The words for north, south, east and west, are employed in the
same manner, and may be regarded as postpositions. 北斗星 póh ’teu sing,
{north star}; 江北 kong póh, {north of the river}; 浦東 p’u‘ tóng, {east
of the Hwáng-p’ú river}. In the last two examples, 北 and 東 may be
considered locative case particles.
{Substantive as Adjective}. 351. When one substantive qualifies
another, it may be regarded as an adjective.
窵籠 ’tiau lóng, {bird-cage}.
牛棚 nieu báng, {cow shed}.
花園 hwó {y}ö{n}, {flower garden}.
玻璃窻 pú lí t’song, {glass window}. (See Art. 174).
{Section} 3. {Government of words in groups or combinations}.
{Inseparable groups}. 352. In the closest kind of combinations, when
words of different parts of speech form a dissyllabic word, one of
them loses its proper grammatical validity by becoming a syllabic
appendage to the other.
{a}. Thus, 交 kiau, {to join}, in the noun 交界 kiau ká‘, {a boundary},
has not the property of governing a substantive, that belongs to it in
相交朋友總要實際 siáng kiau báng ’{y}eu ’tsong yau‘ zeh tsí‘, {in
treating friends you must be true}. So also other verbs, as—
應 {y}ung‘, {to correspond}, in 應騐 {y}ung‘ níe{n}‘, {agreement with
prediction}. (Sometimes also {to agree, etc}.)
容 {y}úng, {to allow}, in 容易꜄ {y}úng {í}‘, {easy}.
過 kú‘, {to pass}, in 過失 kú‘ seh, {a fault} (cf. {trans}gression).
{b}. In the same manner 功 kóng, {work}, 形 {y}ung, {form}, and 氣 k’í‘,
{anger}, in the following examples are not nouns, since they are
neither in the nominative or accusative, or any other case. They
simply add their primitive sense to the verbs they assist to form.
勿會成功太平 veh {w}é‘ zung kóng t’á‘ bing, {he cannot establish peace}.
形容出來 {y}ung {y}óng t’seh lé, {bring into visible form}.
有啥要動氣我 ’{y}eu sá‘ yau‘ ’dóng k’í ’ngú, why are you angry with me?
{c}. Similarly, adjectives in composition, while retaining their
etymological sense, lose their individuality, and cease to qualify
substantives, or to form a predicate to a subject.
討一個大娘子 ’t’au ih kú‘ dú‘ niáng ’tsz, {to take a wife}.
燒小菜 sau ’siau t’sé‘, {to cook vegetables}.
定牢個生意 {t}ing‘ lau kú‘ ’tsû í‘, {to fix one’s determination}.
保全萬物 ’pau dzíe{n} va{n}‘ veh, {to preserve all things}.
Obs. In the first example 大 {great} is prefixed to the word for
{wife}, independently of any second wife, and is usually equivalent to
niáng ’tsz. In the third 牢 {firm} is joined with 定 {t}ing‘, and the
two words together govern the following substantive.
353. So in larger groups, when words of different parts of speech
combine, the predominant character of the group is communicated to
words, which alone have quite another kind of force; e.g. if 針 tsun,
{needle}; 線 síe{n}‘, {thread}; 情 zing, {feeling}, represent {actions}
not {things} in the sentences—
女人認眞針線紡織 ’nü niun niung‘-tsun tsun-síe{n}‘-’fong-tsuh,
{women diligently sew, spin and weave}.
甘心情願 ké{n} sing zing niö{n}‘, {ready for and wishing}.
354. When words combine to form a new compound term, different in
sense from both of them, their grammatical validity is lost, and the
new phrase is recognized in its entirety as a noun, verb, etc.
according to its meaning. Thus, 引 ’{y}ung, to {lead}, and 線 síe{n}‘,
{thread}, form the compound 引線 ’{y}ung síe{n}‘, {a needle}; 方 fong,
{square}, and 便 {p}íe{n}‘ {convenient}, form 方便 fong bíe{n}‘,
{alms}; 裁 dzé, {to cut with scissors} and 縫 vóng‘, {a seam}, form 裁縫
dzé vóng, {tailor}; 招 tsau, {to call}, and 軍 kiün, {an army}, form
招軍 tsau kiün, {a trumpet}.
開路先鋒 k’é lú‘ síe{n} fóng, {a herald}.
牢頭禁子 lau deu kiun‘ ’tsz, {jailor}.
地保 {t}í‘ ’pau, {village bailiff}.
代書 {t}é sû, {notary}.
355. Coordinate words having the same grammatical power, arranged in
groups of from two to five or even more characters, form a numerous
class. In regard to the laws of position, the whole group is treated
as a single noun or verb, or adjective as the case may be. In the
examples, a hyphen connects the coordinate words.
伊個行事, 全是仁義道德 í‘ kú‘ {h}áng-zz‘, dzé{n} ’zz zun-ní‘-’{d}au-tuh,
{his actions are all based on benevolence, rectitude, reason and
virtue}.
做親個時候, 夫妻兩個板要拜天地神明 tsú‘ t’sing kú‘ zz-k’í‘, fú-t’sí ’liáng
kú‘ ’pa{n} yau‘ pá‘ t’íe{n}-dí‘-zun-ming, {at the time of
marriage, the husband and wife must worship heaven, earth and
the inferior deities}.
大細有啥事體, 爺娘要問醫卜星相要好勿要好 {t}ú‘ sí‘ ’{y}eu sá‘ zz‘ ’t’í,
{y}á-niáng yau‘ mun‘ í-póh-sing-siáng‘ yau‘ ’hau veh yau‘ ’hau,
{if there be anything that concerns their children, the parents
will ask the doctor, the diviner, the astrologer, and the
physiognomist, if all will be well}.
勿能用之器皿傢生, 測量伊個長闊高深 veh nung {y}úng‘ tsz k’í‘-’ming-ká-sáng,
t’seh liáng, í‘ kú‘ dzang-k’weh-kau-sun, {you cannot by taking
instruments measure its length, breadth, height and depth}.
(four adj. here form one substantive, viz. {dimensions}.)
人勿好担兇來, 待之馬牛羊三樣中牲, 因備人用 niun veh ’hau ta{n} h’iúng lé,
de‘ tsz ’mó-nieu-yáng sa{n} yáng‘ tsóng sáng, yung bé‘ niun
{y}úng‘, {men ought not to be cruel in treating the three
animals, horse, cow and sheep, because they are useful to man}.
人嘸啥事體個辰光, 担琴碁書畫來, 消悶過日 niun {m} sá‘ zz‘ ’tí kú‘ zun
kwong, ta{n}‘ giun-gí-sû-{w}ó‘ lé‘ siau mun‘ kó‘ nyih, {when men
have nothing to do, they take to the harp, chess, writing and
painting, to dissipate care and pass away the time}.
被褥鋪盖 {p}í‘-niók-p’ú-ké‘, {coverlid and mattrass, for bedding}.
鞋襪衣帽 {h}á-mah-í-mau‘, {shoes, stockings, clothes and hat}.
順從 zun‘-zóng, {to yield to and follow}.
等待 ’tung-dé‘, {wait for}.
骨頭指節 kweh-deu-tsz tsih, {bones, limbs and joints}.
廣大 ’kwong dú‘, {wide and great}.
牢硬 lau ngáng‘, {firm and hard}.
播揚奧妙個道理 pú‘-yáng au‘-miau‘ kú‘ ’{t}au-’lí, {to propagate
mysterious and wonderful doctrines}.
356. Another numerous class of compounds consist of words, which,
while helping to form a larger group, retain a grammatical relation to
each other.
有一種爲非作歹個人 ’{y}eu ih ’tsóng {w}é-fí-tsok-’té kú‘ niun, {there is
a sort of vicious mischief-making men}.
一眼嘸情嘸義個 ih ’nga{n} {m}-dzing-{m}-ní‘ kú‘, {quite destitute of
feeling and principle}.
正管偷閑懶惰 tsung‘ ’kwé{n} t’eu {h}a{n} ’la{n} dú‘, {they do nothing
but waste time and be lazy}.
認差之假佯頭發囘往心 niung‘ t’só tsz ’ká {y}á deu fah {w}é ’wong sing,
{he was misled by his pretend change of mind}.
領之傳杯弄盞個朋友出去 ’ling tsz dzé{n} pé lóng‘ ’tsa{n} kú‘ {p}áng ’{y}eu
t’seh k’í‘, {he led out his friends who were his drinking
companions}.
嘸沒出典 {m} meh t’seh ’tíe{n}, {has on classical authority}.
Obs. i. 出 governs 典 {ancient books}, and the two words together form
a substantive in the objective case, after the verb {m} meh. The whole
is equivalent 勿上書本 veh ’zong sû ’pun, {it is not used in books}.
Obs. ii. In phrases of this sort, we have government within
government. A transitive verb with its regimen, may form part of a
group, which is an elongated adjective, qualifying the following noun.
Compare in English, such phrases as “a luxurious, {do-nothing} life.”
Obs. iii. Verbs with their regimen are freely used as adjectives, and
connected by means of 箇, with the following noun; e.g. 養蠶咾種茶葉個百
姓, 今年苦惱者 {y}áng‘ zé{n} lau tsóng‘ dzó {y}ih kú‘ pká síng‘, kiun
níe{n} ’k’ú ’nau ’tsé, {the silk-worm breeders and tea cultivators
will this year suffer greatly}. So also other combinations, 拉廣東做個
物事, 全是巧個 ’lá ’kwong tóng tsú‘ kú‘ meh zz‘, dzé{n} ’zz ’k’iau kú‘,
{things made at Canton are all ingeniously worked}.
357. In many cases, while there is a common grammatical character
belonging to the whole group, only part of the constituent words give
the {sense}. Thus in 苦楚 ’k’ú ’t’sú, {miserable}; 福氣 fók k’í‘,
{happiness}; 恩典 un ’tíe{n}‘ {favour}; the second word in each has no
influence on the sense. So also 相 in 相信 siáng sing‘, {to believe in},
does not in colloquial usage retain the sense of reciprocity. To give
that idea, an adverb such as 大家 {t}á‘ ká, must be prefixed.
358. Some terms originally consist of two syllables, which are written
separately, only because the Chinese mode of writing requires each
character to be the sign of a monosyllable.
吩咐 fun fú, {to command}.
須張 sü tsáng,[1] {to nurse} (C).
叮囑 ting tsóh, {give directions}.
Obs. Such words as these are construed as verbs, just as if they were
monosyllabic words.
-----------------------------------------------------------------
1. Or 張羅 tsáng lú, {to nurse} (also c.)
-----------------------------------------------------------------
{Separable groups}. 359. Those combinations that admit of the
insertion of other words, so as to lengthen the group will now be
illustrated.
{a}. Those that consist of two coordinate words, admit of a qualifying
or governing term being applied to each word.
飛禽走獸 fí giun ’tseu seu‘, {birds and beasts}.
歡天喜地 hwé{n} t’íe{n} ’h’í dí‘, {exceedingly pleased}.
通文達理 t’óng vun ta ’lí, {thoroughly understand literary composition}.
心滿意足 sing ’mé{n} í‘ tsóh, {satisfied}.
咬牙切齒 ’ngau ngá t’sih ’t’sz, {grinding the teeth in pain}.
囘心轉意 {w}é sing ’tsé{n} í‘, {to change one’s mind}.
思前想後 sz zíe{n} ’siáng {h}eu‘, {thinks of the past and future}.
循規蹈矩 dzing kwé‘ dau‘ ’kü, {follow the rule of propriety}.
求神拜佛 {k}ieu zun pá‘ veh, {pray to spirits and worship Buddha}.
早思暮想 ’tsau sz mú‘ ’siáng, {meditate early and late}.
{b}. The groups formed by the numeral particles admit the insertion of
adjectives and adjective phrases, between those particles and their
substantives. Material nouns sometimes take their auxiliary after them.
一根長銅絲 ih kun dzáng dóng sz, {a long piece of brass wire}.
一片大鐵片 ih p’íe{n}‘ dú‘ t’ih p’íe{n}‘, {a large piece of iron}.
一隻會白話個鸚𪃿 ih tsáh {w}é‘ báh {w}ó‘ kú‘ áng kú, {a talking parrot}.
一根長竹頭 ih kun dzáng tsóh deu, {a long stick of bamboo}.
一隻花狗 ih tsáh hwó ’keu, {a spotted dog}.
一張厚紙 ih tsáng ’{h}eu ’tsz, {a thick sheet of paper}.
一張薄紙張 ih tsáng bóh ’tsz tsáng, {a thin piece of paper}.
一枝有鋒鋩個筆 ih tsz ’{y}eu fóng mong kú‘ pih, {a pencil that has a
point}.
{c}. When a group consists of a transitive verb and its regimen (which
sometimes answer to a single verb in English), auxiliary words come
between the verb, and its object.
上之檔者 ’zong tsz tong‘ ’tsé, {he has been entrapped}.
專之權咾殺脱之皇帝者 tsé{n} tsz giö{n} lau sah t’eh tsz {w}ong tí‘ ’tsé,
{relying on his influence, he killed the emperor}.
惹有見識個笑 ’zá ’{y}eu kíe{n}‘ suh kú‘ siau‘, {causing the laughter of
those who are intelligent}.
叨儂光嗄 t’au nóng‘ kwong au, {I beg your favour} (light).
Obs. When a verb and adjective are combined, the tense particle
follows the adjective; e.g. 繩放鬆之末好 zung fong‘ sóng tsz meh ’hau,
{it would be better to slacken the rope}.
{d}. In the verb groups of direction and motion, the substantive
governed is sometimes inserted after the principal verb, sometimes
between the second and third auxiliaries when there are two, and
sometimes it is placed at the end.
同壺滴水下來 {t}óng {ú} tih ’sz ’{a}u lé, {brazen urn dropping water}.
放轎子下來 fong‘ giau‘ ’tsz ’{a}u lé, {let the chair down}.
放我開來 fong‘ ’ngú k’é lé, {let me go}.
赶兵出去 kû{n} ping t’seh k’í‘, {drive out soldiers}.
挑担出來 t’iau ta{n} t’seh lé, {carry out a load}.
打馬前去 ’táng ’mó zíe{n} k’í‘, {drive a horse forward}.
併傢生攏來 ’ping ká sáng ’lóng lé, {collect domestic articles}.
再活別人轉來 tsé‘ {w}eh bih niun ’tsé{n} lé, {call a man to life again}.
轉水進去 ’tsé{n} ’sz tsing‘ k’í‘, {pour in water}.
殺進城來 sah tsing‘ zung lé, {enter the city fighting}.
赶出狗來 kû{n} t’seh ’keu lé, {drive out dogs}.
担出衣裳來 ta{n} t’seh í zong lé, {bring clothes out}.
反轉手來 ’fa{n} ’tsé{n} ’seu lé, {turn one’s hand over}.
旋轉盤來 zíe{n}‘ ’tsé{n} bé{n} lé, {turn the tray round}.
撐開船來 t’sáng ké‘ zé{n} lé, {pole the boat away}.
推開窻來 t’é k’é t’song lé, {push the window open}.
行起風來 {h}áng ’k’í fóng le, {take the wind to work the boat}.
擎起刀來 {k}iung ’k’í tau lé, {lift up a knife}.
放起炮來 fong‘ ’k’í p’au‘ lé, {commence firing cannon}.
Obs. Rarely the nominative is placed after the verb it governs, 走人下來
’tseu niun ’{a}u lé, {men are coming down}; 吹風進去 t’sz fóng tsing‘
k’i‘, {wind blows in}.
{e}. Negative verb groups sometimes admit of an adverb qualifying the
principal verb, and coming immediately after it.
認大勿出 niun‘ dá‘ veh t’seh, {I scarcely recognize him.}
話大勿來 {w}ó‘ dá‘ veh lé, {I cannot well talk}.
看大勿見 k’ö{n}‘ dá‘ veh kíe{n}‘, {I can scarcely see it}.
吃大勿落 k’iuh dá‘ veh loh, {I cannot well eat}.
{f}. Verb groups with the affirmative and negative particles, also
admit the objective case after the principal verb.
呌伊勿出 kiau‘ í veh t’seh, {I do not know its name}.
甩伊勿開 hwah í veh k’é, {I cannot throw him off}.
拔伊勿起 {p}ah í veh ’k’í, {I cannot pull it up}.
Obs. In many cases, the object comes after the whole group; e.g. 當勿
住大兵 tong veh dzû‘ dá‘ ping, {he cannot resist the great army}; 做勿動
生活 tsú‘ veh ’dóng sáng {w}eh, {I cannot do any work}.
{g}. Repeated verbs with the tentative 看 k’ö{n}‘, take their
accusative case before 看 k’ö{n}‘.
問問伊看 mun‘ mun‘ í k’ö{n}‘, ask him and see.
做做文章看 tsú‘ tsú‘ vun tsáng k’ö{n}‘, {write an essay as a
specimen}.
{Section} 4. {On Repetition}.
360. The repetition of words frequently affects the grammatical sense
of the words repeated. At other times it is mere tautology adopted for
rhythmical reasons, or for the purpose of emphasis as in English.
Cases in which the repeating of a word has a grammatical value, will
be first considered.
Appellative and relative substantives, when repeated, are translated
by {all} or {every}.
人人算日頭, 無價之寶 niun niun sö{n}‘ nyih deu, vú ká‘ tsz ’pau, {all men
feel that the sun is inestimably precious}.
處處反亂 t’sû‘ t’sû‘ ’fan lö{n}‘, {rebellion and disturbance everywhere}.
君君臣臣 kiun kiun zun zun, {all princes and magistrates}.
樹樹有皮, 人人有面 zû‘ zû‘ ’{y}eu bí, niun niun ’{y}eu míe{n}‘, {trees
all have bark, and men all have faces}.
361. The numeral particles are all repeated, thereby giving the sense
of {all} and {every} to their substantives. Subdivisions of time, and
space, measures of material nouns, etc. are also repeated in the same
sense.
店家家關者 tíe{n}‘ ká ká kwa{n} ’tsé, {the shops are all shut}.
門扇扇鎖好拉 mun sé{n}‘ sé{n}‘ ’sú ’hau ’lá, {the doors are all locked}.
羊隻隻要修 {y}áng tsáh tsáh yau‘ sieu, {the sheep all need to be shorn.}
城裏向舖舖有小甲 zung ’lí h’iáng‘ p’ú‘ p’ú‘ ’{y}eu ’siau kah, {in the
city every ward has a bailiff}.
天天好日頭 t’íe{n} t’íe{n} ’hau nyih deu, {the sun shines every day}.
物事斤斤缺少 meh zz‘ kiun kiun k’iöh ’sau, {each catty of articles is
short}.
把把刀磨快末者 pó pó tau mú k’wá‘ meh ’tsé, {grind all the knives}.
間間房子坍脱者 ka{n} ka{n} vong ’tsz t’a{n} t’eh ’tsé, {every house is
fallen}.
今年菓子種種勿好 kiun níe{n} ’kú ’tsz ’tsóng ’tsóng veh ’hau, {this year
all kinds of fruits have failed}.
姊妹雙雙出來 tsí mé‘ song song t’seh lé, {the elder and younger sisters
are come out in pairs}.
寫字個法則是筆筆中鋒 ’siá zz‘ kú‘ fah tsuh pih pih tsóng fóng, {the
method of writing is for each stroke to be made with the point
of the pencil}.
條條大路 {t}iau diau dá‘ lú‘, {they are all great roads}.
句句眞話 kü‘ kü‘ tsun {w}ó‘, {every sentence is truth}.
Obs. i. The difference between full appellative or other nouns, and
the auxiliary nouns that define time, space, quantity, and form, is
here again prominently brought to view. Duplication serves to show
where the two classes of terms border on each other. Thus, 街 ká,
{a street} is not repeated; the form being, such as 街路條條沒滿之一寸高血
ká lú‘ diau diau meh ’mé{n} tsz ih t’sun‘ kau h’iöh, {the streets were
all covered with blood an inch high}. 衖 long‘, {a lane}, on the other
hand is treated as a subdivision in space, and takes no numeral
particle; e.g. 衖衖有十外家人家 lóng‘ lóng‘ {y}eu {s}eh ngá ká niun ká,
{in every lane there are ten families or more}.
Obs. ii. It has been shown in the section on adverbs, that
substantives of time when doubled are used in the sense {always}.
This is an instance in agreement with the broader principle, that all
names of subdivisions and auxiliary numeral particles are repeated,
and that the repetition implies universality.
362. Adjectives are sometimes repeated before a substantive, but much
more frequently when placed as predicate after it. No addition is
thereby made to the sense.
做生活個人勞勞碌碌 tsú‘ sáng {w}eh kú‘ niun lau lau lóh lóh, {the workmen
are tired}.
好好物事 ’hau ’hau meh zz‘, {a good article}.
小小個一圓鐵蛋 ’siau ’siau kú‘ ih {y}ön t’ih da{n}‘, {a small iron shot}.
多多百姓 tú tú pák sing‘, {very many people}.
花卉妖妖嬈嬈 hwó ’hwé yau yau zau zau, {the flowers are very beautiful}.
樹林密密層層 zû‘ ling mih mih zung zung, {the wood is crowded with trees}.
山頭玲玲瓏瓏 sa{n} deu ling ling lóng lóng, {the hill is picturesque}.
若惆惆 ’k’ú tseu tseu, {unhappy}.
聽見之書聲朗朗 t’ing kíe{n}‘ tsz sû sung long‘ long‘, {we heard the
sound of reading pleasant and clear}.
眼淚汪汪 ’nga{n} lí‘ wong wong, {tears flowing abundantly}.
火星燄燄 ’hú sing {y}a{n}‘ {y}a{n}‘, {the sparks are very bright}.
十指尖尖 {s}eh ’tsz tsíe{n} tsíe{n}, {ten sharp-pointed fingers}.
363. When doubled, adjectives follow verbs they are translated as
adverbs.
物事安排舒舒徐徐個 meh zz‘ ö{n} bá sû sû zí zí kú‘, {the things were
placed in admirable order}.
做來潦潦草草 tsú‘ lé lau lau t’sau‘ t’sau‘, {it is done in a coarse way}.
Obs. It has been shown that repeated adjectives placed before verbs
qualify them like adverbs. We have also 攏攏總總有一百 ’lóng ’lóng
tsóng‘ tsóng‘ ’{y}eu ih páh, {altogether there are a hundred}. The
primitive adverbs are not repeated.
364. Several relative substantives are repeated without any alteration
in the sense.
叔叔 sóh sóh, {uncle}.
嫂嫂 ’sau sau‘, {sister-in-law}.
爹爹 tiá tiá, {father}.
第第 ’{t}í ’dí, {younger brother}.
姊姊 ’tsí tsí‘, {sister} (ah tsí, {idem}).
妹妹 mí‘ mí‘, {younger sister} (mé‘ mé‘).
媽媽 má má, {mother} (or ah má).
哥哥 kú kú, {elder brother} (ah kú, ib.).
弟弟 {t}í‘ dí‘, {younger brother} (hiúng dí‘).
365. When verbs are repeated, it is for rhythmical reasons, and for
the sake of alliteration. In addition to the examples given in Art.
231, the following will serve to exhibit the use of these seeming
tautologies.
{a}. Single verbs are repeated with or without a regimen.
要買點飯吃吃 yau‘ ’má ’tíe{n} va{n}‘ k’iuh k’iuh, {I wish to buy a
little rice to eat}.
我不過澆澆花咾, 修修丫枝 ’ngú peh kú‘ kiau kiau hwó lau, sieu sieu au tsz,
{I am just watering the flowers, and pruning the branches of the
trees}.
{b}. In a verb group of two, the second word is often repeated.
孛相相 {p}eh siáng‘ siáng‘, {rambling for amusement}.
笑嘻嘻 siau‘ h’í h’í, {laughing}.
魚拉水裏活動動 ng ’lá ’sz ’lí {w}eh ’dóng ’dóng, {the fish are swimming
actively in the water}.
遊嬉嬉咾, 勿肯用必 yeu h’í h’í lau, veh ’k’ung {y}úng‘ sing, {he rambles
about amusing himself, and will not attend to anything}.
哭漓漓 k’óh lí lí, {he is weeping}.
{c}. Many groups of four contain a single repeated verb.
打敗之咾紛紛各散 ’táng bá‘ tsz lau fun fun koh sa{n}‘, {being conquered,
they divided and were all scattered}.
打贏之咾歸來得意揚揚 ’tang {y}ung tsz lau kü lé tuh í‘ {y}áng {y}áng,
{having conquered, he came back satisfied and elated}.
衣袂飄飄 í mé‘ p’iau p’iau, {the shirts of clothes blowing about}.
星光閃閃 sing kwong sé{n}‘ sé{n}‘, {the star-light twinkles}.
枝葉洽洽 tsz ih {y}ah {y}ah, {the branches and leaves are waving}.
{d}. Many verb groups of two are extended by the repetition of each
word.
事體定定當當 zz‘ t’í {t}ing‘ ding‘ tong‘ tong‘, {the thing is brought
to a settlement}.
勿必疑疑惑惑 veh pih ní ní {ó}h {ó}h, {you need not suspect}.
牙齒活活落落 ngá ’t’sz {w}eh {w}eh loh loh, {his teeth are shaking and
falling out}.
走𨅓跎之咾興興夯夯 ’tseu sá dú tsz lau h’iung h’iung hong hong, {he has
walked himself tired and is panting for breath}.
碗盞相碰响咾歴歴碌碌 ’wé{n} ’tsa{n} siáng báng‘ ’h’iáng lau líh líh lóh
lóh, {the cups and saucers are falling together and making a
noise}.
{e}. Frequently in repeated groups of four, the constituent
words alternate.
打算打算也勿對景 ’táng sö{n}‘ ’táng sö{n}‘ ’{á} veh té‘ ’kiung, {with all
his meditating, he cannot satisfy himself}.
留步留歩勿要送者 lieu bú‘ lieu bú‘ veh yau‘ sóng‘ ’tsé, {stay, stay, do
not escort me out}.
物事好吃有味有味 meh zz‘ ’hau k’iuh ’{y}eu mí‘ ’{y}eu mí‘, {this thing
is very nice, it has a fine taste}.
{f}. The verb is repeated alternately with two accusatives.
總要勞心勞力 ’tsóng yau‘ lau sing lau lih, {you must use your mind and
all your efforts}.
年成好者謝天謝地 níe{n} zung ’hau ’tsé ziá‘ t’íe{n} ziá‘ dí‘, {it is a
good year, and we must thank heaven and earth for it}.
爲皇爲帝 {w}é {w}ong {w}é tí‘, {to be an emperor}.
做官做府 tsú‘ kwé{n} tsú‘ ’fú, {to be a mandarin}.
366. With regard to their syntax, groups consisting of repetitions
frequently form separate clauses of a sentence, but not exclusively
so. They also like other groups, obey the laws of position of section
1. in relation to neighbouring words, and in their internal structure,
and are construed as adjectives, verbs, or adverbs according to their
particular character and use as a whole.
{a}. As adjective, whether forming a predicate or in apposition.
做一個人總要正正派派 tsu‘ ih kú‘ niun ’tsóng yau‘ tsung‘ tsung‘ p’á‘
p’á‘, {as a man, you must be correct in conduct}.
人住勒拉花花世界, 大有福氣拉 niun dzû‘ leh ’lá hwó hwó sz‘ kú‘, dú‘
’{y}eu fok kí‘ ’lá, {man living in a beautiful world, has great
happiness}.
{b}. As verb.
看看許多人跟拉 k’ö{n}‘ k’ö{n}‘ tú hau‘ niun kun ’lá, {see there is a
great number of persons following}.
{c}. As verb.
逃走脱者就快快活活接到船上 {t}au ’tseu t’eh ’tsé dzieu‘ k’á‘ k’á‘ {w}eh
{w}eh tsih tau‘ zé{n} long‘, {when he had escaped, they gladly
received him to the boat}.
明明亮亮收受徒弟 ming ming liáng‘ liáng‘ seu ’zeu dú dí‘,
{they openly received disciples}.
詳詳細細考究實骨子那能個 ziáng ziáng sí‘ sí‘ ’k’au kieu‘ zeh kweh ’tsz
ná‘ nung kú‘, {carefully examine how it truly is}.
Obs. Groups of four, whether formed by repeated words or not, very
commonly fall into separate clauses; e.g. 文理嘸啥好草草不工 vun ’lí {m}
sá‘ ’hau, ’t’sau ’t’sau peh kóng, {it is not at all well written, but
coarse and unpolished}.
{Section} 5. {Order in groups}.
367. There are various principles of arrangement in the words of a
group. A group of four (1) may contain in itself an entire sentence;
e.g. 懂呢勿懂 ’tóng ní veh ’tóng, {do you understand?} (2) or it may
consist of verbs and their regimen, nouns and their adjectives, or
other combinations of the parts of speech; e.g. 伸冤理枉 sun yö{n} ’lí
’wong, {to redress injuries}. (3) Repetition direct and alternate,
forms many short phrases into longer groups, (4.) The principle of
arrangement in many groups is, the order of nature, species being
placed before genus, and the whole before its parts. (5.) The
constituent words may be coordinate in meaning, and alike in
grammatical character.
In addition to these varieties of structure, there are also mixed
groups in which repetition for instance forms one part, and words
combined grammatically, another; e.g. 念念不忘 nia{n}‘ nia{n}‘ peh
vong, {think of constantly}.
368. Complete sentences are here placed with the other groups, because
they fall into regular forms, and obey the laws of rhythm in a manner
similar the fixed phrases of two, three, four or more words here
referred to. Hence the predominance of short pithy sentences in common
conversation.
有啥勿懂 ’{y}eu sá‘ veh ’tong, {why should I not understand?}
勿曾曉得 veh zung ’h’iau tuh, {I do not know}.
洋價大者 {y}áng ká‘ dú‘ ’tsé, {the price of the dollar is high}.
那能辦法 ná‘ nung‘ {p}a{n}‘ fah, {how should we proceed?}
要好就好 yau‘ ’hau dzieu‘ ’hau, {if you want it good, it is at once
good}.
Obs. The order of the words in these phrases is regulated by the
rules of Part III, section 1, and the sections on propositions.
369. Many groups have an internal syntactical arrangement, and they
are so numerous, that although some examples have already been given,
more will here appended. They may be divided into (a), those in which
there is a repetition of the idea, and (b) where there is none.
嘴尖舌快 ’tsz tsíe{n} zeh k’wá‘, {sharp lips and tongue}.
靑天白日 t’sing t’íe{n} bah nyih, {clear sky and bright sun}.
忘恩負義 vong un veu‘ ní‘, {forget kindness}.
欺天瞞地 k’í t’íe{n} mé{n} dí‘, {deceive heaven and earth}.
東倒西歪 tóng ’tau sí hwá, {all is in disorder}.
話長話短 {w}ó‘ dzáng {w}ó‘ ’tö{n}, {very loquacious}.
搬嘴弄舌 pé{n} ’tsz lóng‘ zeh, {fond of using the tongue}.
呑飢忍餓 t’un kí ’niun ngú‘, {to endure hunger}.
人面獸心 niun míe{n}‘ seu‘ sing, {in face a man, but in heart a wild
beast}.
苦口良言 ’k’ú ’k’eu líang {í}e{n}, {advice bitter but salutary}.
山珍海味 sa{n} tsun ’hé mí‘, {delicacies from the mountain and the sea}.
指東話西 ’tsz tóng {w}ó‘ sí, {advising this and then that}.
藏頭露尾 dzong deu lú‘ ’ví, {act contrary to propriety}.
喜富怕窮 ’h’í fú‘ p’ó‘ gióng, {pleased with riches but fearing poverty}.
損人利己 ’sun niun lí‘ ’kí, {rob others to enrich one’s-self}.
呼兄喊第 hú h’iúng ha{n}‘ dí‘, {to call brothers}.
或三或四 {w}oh sa{n} {w}óh sz‘, {sometimes this and sometimes that}.
引經據典 ’{y}ung kiung kü‘ ’tíe{n}, {to cite books and appeal to the
classics}.
吹哥唱曲 t’sz kú t’song‘ k’ióh, {to play airs and sing songs}.
370. Passing over repetition groups, as already sufficiently
illustrated, some examples will be given of those in which several
words coordinate in sense are placed in proximity. In many instances
such words as express relative superiority stand first.
風雲雷雨 fóng {y}ün lé ’{ü}, {wind, clouds, thunder and rain}.
雨雪霜露 ’{ü} sih song lú‘, {rain, snow, hail and dew}.
賢良方正 {h}íen liáng fong tsung‘, {the wise, good, noble and upright}.
柴米油鹽 zá ’mí {y}eu {í}e{n}, {fuel, rice, oil and salt}.
荳穀米麥 {t}eu‘ kóh ’mí máh, {beans, rice and wheat}.
始終本末 ’sz tsóng ’pun meh, {beginning and end, origin and conclusion}.
牛羊犬馬 nieu, {y}áng, ’k’iö{n}, ’mó, {cattle, sleep, dogs and horses}.
君親師友 kiün t’sing sz ’{y}eu, {king, parents, teacher and friends}.
磚瓦石灰 tsé{n} ’ngó záh hwé, {bricks, tiles and lime}.
禽獸昆蟲 {k}iun seu‘ k’wun dzóng, {birds, beasts and insects}.
瓶甏罐頭 {p}ing báng kwé{n} deu, {pitchers, pots and pans}.
耳目口鼻 ’rh móh ’k’eu bih, {ear eyes, mouth and nose}.
魚鳞蝦蟹 ng ling hö{n} ’há, {fish, crabs and shrimps}.
金銀銅錫 kiun niun dóng t’ih sih, {gold, copper, copper, iron and tin}.
解釋 ’ká seh, {explain}.
審斷 ’sun tö{n}‘, {to judge}.
離散 lí sa{n}‘, {to be scattered}.
偷竊 t’eu t’sih, {to steal}.
圓滿 {y}ö{n} ’mé{n}, {round & full}.
端方 tö{n} fong, {upright}.
紡織 ’fong tsuh, {spinning and weaving}.
Obs. On presenting these examples to a Fuh-kien literary man, it was
found that half of the groups were in use in his dialect; of the
remainder, more than half were partially the same with collocations
familiar to him, while the rest were entirely different.
371. Species invariably precedes genus, and matter form, in groups
formed of words thus related.
筆筒好插個 pih dóng ’hau t’sah kú‘, {you can stick it in the pencil
holder}.
嘸沒筆帽子 {m} meh pih mau ’tsz, {there is no top-case to the pencil}.
蚊帳破個 mun tsáng, p’ú‘ kú‘, {the mosquito curtain is torn}.
扇骨綠漆個 sé{n}‘ kweh lók t’sih kú‘, {the frame of the fan is painted
green}.
鐵店裏打拉個 t’ih tíe{n}‘ lí ’táng ’lá kú‘, {it was made in the
blacksmith’s shop}.
石馬 {s}áh ’mó, {stone horse}.
蒲扇 {p}ú sé{n}‘, {broad-leaf fans}.
砂皮 só bí, {sand paper}.
瓦粒屑 ’ngó lih sih, {earthenware fragments}.
Obs. i. Substance precedes accident or attribute, and the whole its
part. This is sometimes the same with the proposition immediately
above, {genus} being only such part of {species} as happens to belong
commonly to several objects. We may fix our attention on either word
in the compound indifferently, considering it as the {essence}, while
the other is the {accident}. Thus, 屋基 óh kí, {foundation of a house};
屋頂 hó ’ting, {house roof}, are parts of the appellative substantive
{house}. So, if speaking of the articles into which bamboo is
manufactured, the second word in 竹牌 tsóh bá, {piece of flattened
bamboo}; 竹簾 tsóh líe{n}, {bamboo window-blinds}; 竹紙 tsóh ’tsz,
{bamboo paper}, is in each case that which expresses {form}, while the
first describes the {material}.
The latter may be viewed as accidental to the former, or if preferred,
the second word may called {genus}, while the first is considered as
limiting it to a particular {species}.
Obs. ii. In conformity with the principle, that the word in which the
substance of the noun inheres should stand first, the auxiliary
appendages 頭 deu, 子 ’tsz, 處 t’sû‘, 法 fah follow their words; e.g.
飯嘸尋處 va{n}‘ {m} zing t’sû‘, {there is no way of getting a living};
寫法總有個 ’siá fah ’tsóng ’{y}eu kú‘, {there must be some mode of
writing it}.
Obs. iii. The auxiliary substantives and numeral particles
appropriated to particular nouns, when they follow their words without
a numeral, exemplify the same law; e.g. 白話裏向勿要加出多許書句 {p}áh {w}ó‘
’lí h’iáng‘ veh yau‘ ká t’seh tú hau‘ sû kü‘, {do not mingle so many
book sentences in what you say}.
Obs. iv. In double substantives formed partly with a verb, the verb as
giving the species stands first; e.g. 算盤 sö{n}‘ bé{n}, {counting
board}; 印板 yun‘ ’pa{n}, {printing blocks}; 話柄 {w}ó ping‘, {a bon
mot} (See Art. 113.).
Obs. v. Many inseparable dissyllabic substantives, in which the
distinction of matter and form is not obvious in their daily use, if
viewed etymologically may be noticed to have the same order; e.g. 文章
vun tsáng, {literary compositions}; 地方 {t}í‘ fong, {a place}. The
word giving the matter stands in each case first.
372. If the action be gradual in a compound verb, the word first in
time is first in order. The word that concludes the action comes last.
担來銷化 ta{n} lé siau hwó‘, {to take and burn}.
燈點完者 tung ’tíe{n} {w}é{n} ’tsé, {the lamp is burnt out}.
撥拉賊匪打輸 peh ’lá zuh fí‘ ’táng sû, {he was defeated by the rebels}.
Obs. i. Most of the auxiliary particles occurring in compound verbs
follow the principal word; v. Art. 217, 222, but 打 ’táng, and such
adverbs as help to form compound verbs precede the principal words;
e.g. 打緝打緝看 ’táng t’sih ’táng t’sih k’ö{n}‘, {make inquiries}.
Obs. ii. The auxiliary verbs of {power}, forming a potential mode,
precede their verbs. 勿會白話 veh {w}é‘ báh {w}ó‘, {he cannot talk};
勿能去 veh nung k’í‘, {he cannot go}. In English, there are also
auxiliaries of this kind preceding other verbs in apposition, without
the sign of the infinitive intervening; e.g. {may, can}.
{Variation in Order}. 373. The components of some groups admit of more
than one mode of arrangement. The following may be used in a direct or
inverted order.
來往 lé ’wong, {communication}.
氣力 k’í‘ lih, {strength}.
笑談 siau‘ da{n}, {laughing and talking}.
征戰 tsung tsé{n}‘ {to fight}.
週身上下 tseu sun ’zong ’{a}u, {the whole body} (or 下上).
歡喜 hwe{n} ’h’í, {pleased}.
勿論損益 veh lun‘ ’sun yuh, {without regarding whether it be injurious
or beneficial}.
小大 ’siao dú‘, {small, great}.
黑白 huh, báh, {black, white}.
南北東西 né{n} póh tóng sí, {south, north, east and west}.
靈魂 ling {w}ung, {the soul}.
彎轉 wa{n} ’tsé{n}, {to turn around}.
長短 dzáng ’tö{n}, {long and short}.
Obs. The number of groups variable in order, is comparatively
extremely small. The number of cases in English, where one particular
order of coordinate words is maintained, is by no means small; e.g.
{long and happy reign; far and near; kings and queens}.
374. The following principles of arrangement may be distinguished in
the apposition of verbs.
{a}. The auxiliaries of the future tense, and the imperative and
potential moods precede their verb. 要 yau‘, 會 {w}é‘, 能 nung.
總要去 ’tsóng yau‘ k’í‘, {you must go}.
我會寫 ’ngú {w}é‘ ’siá, {I can write}.
勿能來 veh nung lé, {he cannot come}.
勿要來 veh yau‘ lé, {I do not wish to come; or do not come}.
勿會話要來 veh zung {w}ó‘ yau‘ lé, {I did not say, I should come}.
儂也要來 nóng‘ ’{á} yau‘ lé, {you must come}.
{b}. When the object of a verb is an action, it is expressed by a
verb in Chinese, instead of a verbal derivative, or infinitive, or
gerund form, such as would be used in languages having grammatical
forms.
勿免死 veh ’míe{n} ’sí, {cannot avoid dying}.
勿想吃 veh ’siáng k’iuh, {I do not think of eating}.
勿算逃走 veh sö{n}‘ dau ’tseu, {not to be regarded as flight}.
勿敢做 veh ’ké{n} tsú‘, {he does not dare do it}.
幾時想修 ’kí zz ’siáng sieu, {when do you think of reforming}.
打算謀反 ’táng sö{n}‘ meu ’fa{n}, {to meditate a revolt}.
愛吃酒 é‘ k’iuk ’tsieu, {to be fond of drinking wine}.
{c}. The auxiliary verbs expressive of direction and motion,
beginning and completion, etc. follow the principal verb.
買進來 ’má tsing‘ lé, {to buy in}.
抱進抱出 ’{p}au tsing‘ ’{p}au t’seh, {to carry in and out in one’s arms}.
{d}. Priority in time often determines the order of verbs.
我去送 ’ngú k’í‘ sóng‘, {I will go and present it}.
要來相幫 yau‘ lé siáng pong, {you must come and assist}.
勸化世界上人 k’iö{n}‘ hwó‘ sz‘ ká‘ long‘ niung, {to exhort and convert
mankind}.
打殺別人 ’táng sah bih niun, {to beat persons to death}.
{e}. Coordinate verbs.
保護𩻴寡孤獨 ’pau {ú}‘ kwa{n} kwó kú dóh, {to protect and save widows,
orphans, and those who have no relatives}.
{Section} 6. {Simple Propositions}.
375. The simplest sentence is that in which there is a single word,
forming the subject (主 ’tsû), and another the predicate (賓 ping). The
subject always precedes.
馬來 ’mó lé, {a horse comes}.
天熱 t’íe{n} nyih, {the weather is hot}.
Obs. i. Occasionally the predicate precedes, 出會 t’seh {w}é‘, {the
procession is out}; 落水 lok ’sz, {the tide is falling}. These forms
may also be explained as impersonal verbs with an accusative.
Obs. ii. An adjective forms of itself a complete predicate, and
usually has no copula to connect it with the preceding nominative.
桃子熟者 {t}au ’tsz zók ’tsé, {the peaches are ripe}.
376. The simple proposition in its full form has also a copula.
是吾作主 ’zz ngú tsok ’tsû, {I act for myself}.
海裏個水是深個 ’hé ’lí kú‘ ’sz ’zz sun kú‘, {the water of the sea is
deep}.
天來得熱 t’íe{n} lé tuh nyih, {the weather is hot}.
Obs. When the predicate is a verb, the copula may be always considered
as included in it. It is when the predicate is an adjective that a
vacuum becomes obvious to a foreign ear.
377. The subject may consist of a substantive, or a substantive group,
a pronoun, a verb or a verb group, or adverbs of place and time,
construed as nouns.
日頭勿出來 nyih deu veh t’seh lé, {the sun does not come out}.
菴堂寺院秃有燒香 é{n} dong zz‘ {y}ö{n}‘ t’oh ’{y}eu ’sau h’iáng, {in all
convents and monasteries there is incense burning}.
第個是好點個 {t}í‘ kú‘ ’zz ’hau ’tíe{n} kú‘, {this is better}.
買是勿能 ’má ’zz veh nung, {to buy is impossible}.
挑咾扛勿會個 t’iau lau kong veh {w}é‘ kú‘, {to act as porter alone or
with others, is what I cannot do}.
此地有雪 ’t’sz dí‘ ’{y}eu sih, {it snows here}.
明朝初六 ming tsau t’sú lóh, {to-morrow is the sixth}.
Obs. i. Sometimes the subject is understood; e.g. 總要立定主意
’tsóng yau‘ lih ding‘ ’tsû í‘, ({you}) {must be resolute}.
Obs. ii. Adjectives also sometimes form a predicate. 好有好報, ’hau
’{y}eu ’hau pau‘, {goodness has a good reward}; 善咾惡總要辨出來
’zé{n} lau oh ’tsóng yau‘ bíe{n}‘ t’seh lé, {virtue and vice must
be distinguished}.
Obs. iii. Any word that qualifies a noun may be removed from its place
in apposition, and become a predicate. Thus, 第座房子是拉個 {t}í‘ zú‘
vong ’tsz ’zz ’lá kú‘, {this house is the right one}, may become,
是第座房子 ’zz dí‘ zú‘ vong ’tsz, {it is this one}; 兩條橋有, ’liáng
diau giau ’{y}eu, {there are two bridges}, or 橋有兩條 {k}iau ’{y}eu
’liáng diau, {of bridge there are two}.
378. When the copula is used, it takes the forms of 是 ’zz, 得 tuh, 來得
lé tuh, and 來 lé before adjective predicates, while 做 tsu‘, and in
some groups 爲 {w}é‘ and 作 tsoh precede substantives.
道理是勿差個 ’{t}au ’lí ’zz veh t’só kú‘, {the doctrine, is right}.
心裏來得笨 sing ’lí lé tuh {p}un‘, {in mind he is stupid}.
我勿做兵 ’ngú veh tsú‘ ping, {I am not a soldier}.
我勿為官 ’ngú veh {w}é kwé{n} ’fú, {I am not a mandarin}.
寫來好看 ’siá lé ’hau k’ö{n}‘, {it is well written}.
寫得勿好 ’siá tuh veh ’hau, {it is written badly}.
Obs. Educated men appear to avoid the use of 來 lé, as a substitute
for 得, but it is extremely common among the lower classes.
379. In the predicate are found, a substantive, adjective, verb, or
adverb, or a group of either.
比我大個是阿哥 ’pí ’ngú dú‘ kú‘ ’zz á kú, {he who is
older than I is called elder brother}.
赦免小過失好個 só‘ ’míe{n} ’siau kú‘ seh ’hau kú‘, {to forgive little
faults readily is good}.
戲咾戲法咾啥勿看 h’í‘ lau h’í‘ fah lau sá‘ veh k’ö{n}‘, {plays, jugglery
and such things, I do not go to see}.
價錢最大個是珍珠八寶 ká‘ díe{n} tsúe‘ dú‘ kú‘ ’zz tsun tsû pah ’pau,
{things of the highest price are pearls and the eight precious
stones}.
Obs. The final expletives are usually appended to the predicate. 說話
好個 seh {w}ó‘ ’hau kú‘, {your words are good}.
380. In very many sentences, the predicate is a transitive verb with
an object, which in its simplest form is a substantive, monosyllabic
or consisting of a group.
做好事就是周濟窮人 tsú‘ ’hau zz‘ dzieu‘ ’zz tseu tsí‘ gióng niun,
{charity consists in giving to the poor}.
伊勿能辦事體 í veh nung {p}a{n}‘ zz‘ ’t’í, {he cannot transact business}.
有銅錢個人要吃燕窩咾魚翅, ’{y}eu dóng díe{n} kú‘ niun yau‘ k’iuh íe{n}‘
{ú} lau ng t’sz‘, {those who are rich eat birds’ nests and
sharks’ fins}.
381. Great variety is introduced into sentences, without the addition
of separate clauses, by applying qualifying words and groups to the
parts just enumerated. Extension by the apposition of words, alike or
contrasted in meaning, and in the same parts of speech, is also very
common. The subject is extended:—
{a}. By prefixing an adjective.
聖人出世 sung‘ niun t’seh sz‘, {a wise man was born}.
窮苦個人多 {k}ióng ’k’ú kú‘ niun tú, {poor men are very many}.
好老個讀書人少 ’hau ’lau kú‘ {t}ók sû niun ’sau, {really good scholars
are rare}.
{b}. By apposition of substantives with or without kú‘, whether in the
relation of species and genus, or subject and attribute.
鄕下人告荒去者 h’iáng ’{a}u niun kau‘ hwong k’í‘ ’tsé, {the country
people are gone to announce that there is a famine} (or 哭荒).
上輩個好處要講拉子孫聽 ’záng pé‘ kú‘ ’hau t’sû‘ yau‘ ’kong ’lá ’tsz sun
t’ing, {the goodness of their forefathers, you should tell to
their descendants}.
{c}. By a transitive infinitive with its objective case.
吃牛肉眞正罪過 k’iuh nieu nióh tsun tsung‘ ’zé kú‘, {to eat beef is an
unquestionable sin}.
{d}. By the addition of nouns or verbs governed by case particles.
屋裏向嘸沒人 óh ’lí h’iáng‘ {m} meh niun, {there is no one at home}.
勒拉睏個辰光有賊偷之去者 leh ’lá k’wun‘ kú‘ zun kwong ’{y}eu zuh t’eu tsz
k’í‘ ’tsé, {at the time of sleeping, thieves came and stole it}.
Obs. The so-called genitive with 個 kú‘, included under (b) as an
instance of apposition. It is the attributive genitive, or possessive
case of western grammars. The genitive sense is given by the relative
position of the words, and not by the connecting particle kú‘ often
omitted.
{e}. By prefixing numbers and numeral particles to substantives.
兩個女人投井者 ’liáng kú‘ ’nü niun deu ’tsing ’tsé, {two women have
thrown themselves into wells}.
三隻廟燒毀完者 sa{n} tsáh miau‘ sau ’hwé {w}é{n} ’tsé, {three temples
have been burnt to ashes}.
{f}. By prefixing demonstrative, possessive and other adjective
pronouns to substantives.
是㑚個房屋勿穩足個 ’zz ná‘ kú‘ vong óh veh ’wun tsóh kú‘, {your house is
not safe}.
第部牛車了脱者 {t}í‘ ’bú‘ nieu t’só ’liau t’eh ’tsé, {this chain pump is
broken}.
各人個脾氣各樣個 koh niun kú‘ bí‘ k’í‘ koh {y}áng‘ kú‘, {each man has his
own disposition}.
{g}. By prefixing adverbs of place or time with the sign of the
possessive, or with no intervening particle. It might also be said,
that these adverbs are here all treated as substantives.
此地個水清個 ’t’sz dí‘ kú‘ ’sz t’sing kú‘, {the water of this place is
clear}.
蕩搭個人掉皮個 {t}ong tah kú‘ niun {t}iau‘ bí‘ kú‘, {the men of this
place are not honest}.
間壁房子火灼 kah pih vong ’tsz ’hú dzáh, {the house next door is on
fire}.
什蓋能個謠言拉城裏 {s}eh ké‘ nung kú‘ {y}au {í}e{n} ’lá zung ’lí,
{there is a report of that sort in the city}.
現在個百姓勿比古時間 {í}e{n} ’zé kú‘ pák sing‘ veh ’pí ’kú zz ka{n},
{people of the present time are not to be compared to those of
antiquity}.
382. Several of these adjuncts may concur in forming a subject.
外國梳頭個規矩又是一樣者 ngá‘ kóh sz deu kú‘ kwé ’kü {í}‘ ’zz ih {y}áng‘
’tsé, {the foreign method of dressing the hair is different}.
孝順父母恭敬祖宗原是一樣個道理 h’iau‘ zun‘ ’vú ’mú, kúng kiung‘ ’tsú tsóng,
niön ’zz ih {y}áng‘ kú‘ ’{t}au ’lí, {filial regard to parents
and reverencing ancestors are the same thing}.
383. The predicate is extended in a similar manner. It may assume the
following forms.
{а}. Substantive with its adjective.
是其勿是正派人 ’zz gí veh ’zz tsung‘ p’á‘ niun, {he is not a man of good
morals}.
一日到夜做正經事體 ih nyih tau‘ {y}á‘ tsú‘ tsung‘ kiung zz‘ ’t’í, {all
day long he does what is lawful and right}.
{b}. Substantives in apposition, in the relation of species and genus,
or subject and attribute, with or without 個 kú‘.
伊話個勿是上海話 í {w}ó‘ kú‘ veh ’zz ’zong ’hé {w}ó‘, {what he speaks is
not the dialect of Shánghái}.
八月裏開個有桂花 pah niöh ’lí k’é kú‘ ’{y}eu kwé‘ hwó, {among the
flowers that blossom in the eighth month is the olea fragrans}.
{c}. Verbs in apposition. Any verbs in English connected by {and},
{to} and {of} are translated by two corresponding verbs in apposition.
我要走前去做 ’ngú yau‘ ’tseu zíe{n} k’í‘ tsú‘, {I wish to go forward and
do it}.
我勿想考 ’ngú veh ’siáng ’k’au, {I do not think of being examined}.
我勿來打儂 ’ngú veh lé ’táng nóng‘, {I do not come to beat you}.
{d}. Verb with an object.
別人恨伊拉 {p}ih niun {h}ung‘ í ’lá, {men hated him}.
脚勿踏斜路 kiáh veh tah ziá lú‘, {his foot does not tread the path of
evil}.
早夜用功 ’tsau {y}á‘ {y}úng‘ kóng, {morning and night, he applies
himself to study}.
雲裏向看相殺 {y}ün ’lí h’iáng‘ k’ö{n}‘ siáng sah, {to take a bird’s-eye
view of a battle} (相殺 is construed as a noun).
{e}. Verbs, nouns or adverbs of place and time in construction with 拉
or 在.
東家勿拉屋裏 túng ká veh ’lá óh ’lí, {the master is not at home}.
百姓勒拉掛墓 pák sing‘ leh ’lá kwó‘ {m}‘, {the people are hanging}
(paper) {on the tombs}.
{f}. Adjective pronouns, and numbers with the particles appropriated
to the substantives contained in the subject.
銀子有一百兩 niung ’tsz ’{y}eu ih páh ’liáng, {of silver, there are a
hundred taels}.
第把雨傘是吾個 {t}í‘ pó ’{ü} sa{n}‘ ’zz ngú kú‘, {this umbrella is mine}.
{g}. The verb is qualified by the various kinds of adverbs, either
preceding it in apposition, or following it with 得 tuh, or 來 lé, as
subordinate copula.
件件事體禿是做得正經個 {k}íe{n} gíe{n} zz‘ ’t’í t’óh ’zz tsú‘ tuh tsung‘
kiung kú‘, {everything is done as propriety requires}.
菩薩一定曉得 {p}ú sah ih ding‘ ’h’iau tuh, {the gods will certainly know
it}.
{h}. The cause, manner, instrument, place or time of the action are
expressed by nouns preceding the verb.
黃衣裳是皇帝送個 {w}ong í zong ’zz {w}ong tí‘ sóng‘ kú‘, {yellow dresses
are given by the emperor}.
團扇是蘇州做個 {t}ön se{n}‘ ’zz Sú-tseu tsú‘ kú‘, {round (silk) fans are
made at Sú-cheú}.
人個過犯全是神道查察個 niun kú‘ kú‘ va{n} dzé{n} ’zz zun dau‘ dzó t’sah
kú‘, {men’s sins are all watched and noted by the spiritual
powers}.
人全是一個祖宗傳下來 niun dzé{n} ’zz ih kú‘ ’tsú tsóng zé{n} ’{a}u lé,
{men are all descended from one ancestor}.
我下半晝轉來個 ’ngú ’au pé{n}‘ tseu‘ ’tse{n} lé kú‘, {I will return in
the afternoon}.
地皮是牛犂個 {t}í‘ bí ’zz nieu lí kú‘, {the ground is ploughed by oxen}.
從小到大是爺娘照應 dzóng ’siau tau‘ dú‘ ’zz {y}á niáng tsau‘ yung‘,
{from childhood till they are grown they are watched over by
their parents}.
Obs. The number of prepositions omitted in examples similar to these
is very great. Few of them are so essential that they may not be
rejected. The remarkable conciseness of written and spoken Chinese is
due very much to the omission of prepositions in the manner here
illustrated. For that conciseness, there is however in many cases full
compensation, in the wordiness or richness, whichever term be
preferred, of the groups.
{j}. The same circumstances of cause manner, etc. are also expressed
with case particles attached to the noun.
張舉人到蘇去者 Tsáng ’kü niun tau‘ Sú-tseu k’í‘ ’tsé, {the Master of
Arts named Cháng, is gone to Sú-cheú}.
第個砲架子替吳道台做個 {t}í‘ kú‘ p’au‘ ká‘ ’tsz t’í‘ {W}ú ’dau dé tsú‘
kú‘, {this cannon-carriage is made for Wú the Taú-tái}.
{k}. Adjective with a qualifying adverb.
是㑚飄流個人忒多 ’zz ná‘ p’iau lieu kú‘ niun t’uk tú, {you wandering
people are too many}.
打官司要速訊定當 ’táng kwé{n} sz yau‘ sók sin‘ ding‘ tong‘, {lawsuits
should be quickly decided}.
384. The predicate is further enlarged by a combination of the above
forms of arrangement, by simple apposition as coordinates, or
according to the laws of position already detailed.
生活要做到夜 sáng {w}eh yau‘ tsú‘ tau‘ {y}á‘, {work must be done till
evening}.
我白費脱之許多手脚 ’ngú {p}ák fí‘ t’eh tsz ’h’ü tú ’seu kiáh, {I do have
gone through a great deal of labour to no purpose}.
賭銅錢勿曉得敗脫之幾千幾萬個人家 ’tú dóng díe{n} veh ’h’iau tuh bá‘ t’eh
tsz ’kí t’síe{n} ’kí ma{n}‘ kú‘ niun ká, {gaming has ruined I do
not know how many thousands and myriads of men}.
我看見伊出來 ’ngú (subj.) k’ö{n}‘ kíe{n}‘ í t’seh lé, {I saw him come
out}.
385. The copula by a little extension of the meaning of the terms, may
be considered as embracing the emphatic adverbs, and the verb forms
for affirmation and negation. In conformity with this, the substantive
verb 是 is constantly used in the sense of {yes}, and with the negative
particle (勿是), {no}. The adverbs of emphasis precede the copula.
新眞正來得硬 sing tsun tsung‘ lé tuh ngáng‘, {his heart is certainly
hard}.
一定是牢實 ih ding‘ ’zz lau zeh, {he is certainly trustworthy}.
總是花頭花腦 ’tsóng ’zz hwó deu hwó ’nau, {it is surely false}.
昨日來個就是我 zóh nyih lé kú‘ dzieu‘ ’zz ’ngú, {he who came yesterday
was I myself}.
Obs. The verb {to have} 有 ’{y}eu (with its opposite 嘸沒 {m} meh)
describes existence, as in French the verb {avoir}. The adverbs of
emphasis precede it, as they do the other substantive verb; e.g.
一點嘸沒啥 ih ’tíe{n} {m} meh sá, or {m} sá‘, {there is nothing the
matter}; 第個道理實在有 {t}í‘ kú‘ ’{t}au ’lí zeh zé‘ ’{y}eu, {there
certainly is this doctrine}.
386. When there is a negative particle, the adverb of emphasis
precedes it.
一眼勿疑心 ih ’nga{n} veh ní sing, {not at all incredulous}.
伊並勿是要騙打㑚 í {p}ing‘ veh ’zz yau‘ p’íe{n}‘ ’táng ná‘, {he surely
does not attempt to deceive you}.
樹木倒勿曾發靑 zû‘ móh ’tau veh zung fah t’sing, {the trees have still
not yet opened their buds}.
Obs. When the necessity is denied, the negative precedes the adverb
expressity; e.g. 勿必要去 veh pih yau‘ k’i‘, {you are not obliged to
go}.
387. There are several verbs, not having a full transitive power, that
are often to be taken as little more than an extension of the copula.
They are such as, 呌 kiau‘, 做 tsú‘, 爲 {w}é, 作 tsoh.
第個勿呌公道 {t}í‘ kú‘ veh kiau‘ kúng ’dau, {that is not
(or cannot be called) just} (or veh kúng ’dau), (or veh sö{n}‘
kúng ’dau, {cannot be considered as just}).
我做用人 ’ngú tsú‘ {y}úng‘ niun, {I am a servant}.
謀反爲大事體 meu ’fa{n} {w}é dú‘ zz‘ ’t’í, {rebellion is a great matter}.
女人勿好作主張 ’nü niun veh ’hau tsok ’tsû tsáng, {women should not be
rulers}.
Obs. The equivalents of these words, in languages having forms of
declension, usually take the nominative case after them.
388. The correlative pronouns and sometimes adjectives, are placed
like the emphatic adverbs before the copula, the substantives they
represent being the subject.
人秃是劃一個 niun t’óh ’zz {w}áh ih kú‘, {the men are all honest}.
惡事體一切全要甩脫個 og zz‘ ’t’í ih t’sih dzé{n} yau‘ hwah t’eh kú‘, {bad
actions are all to be abandoned}.
字目大有用頭 zz‘ móh {t}ú‘ ’{y}eu {y}úng‘ deu, {great is the use of the
written character}.
389. The most remarkable use of the copula is in the potential verb
groups, where 得 tuh and 勿 veh stand between two verbs; e.g. 打勿贏
’táng veh {y}ung, {fighting he does not conquer}; 話得出 {w}ó‘ tuh
t’seh, {speaking can express it}; 走得轉 ’tseu tuk ’tsé{n}, {walking you
can turn back}.
Obs. i. In colloquial use, these words mean {he cannot conquer, it
can be described in words, he can turn back}. If viewed alone as
separate sentences, the first verb is the subject, and the second the
predicate. So when the last word in these groups is an adjective, it
may be regarded as predicate to the verb which stands first. This is
particularly obvious where the potential force of 得 tuh and 勿 veh are
wanting, 推板勿多 t’é pa{n} veh tú, {there is no great difference}; 寫得
快 ’siá tuh k’wá‘, {he writes fast}. Where the potential force exists
in these phrases; e.g. 吹勿响 t’sz veh ’h’iáng, {it cannot be sounded}
(of a flute); 豎勿直 ’zû veh dzuh, {it cannot be set upright}; 改勿正
’ke veh tsung‘, {it cannot be corrected}; though the relation of
subject and predicate is less manifest, it is perhaps the best
explanation.
Obs. ii. When adjectives occupy both the first and last places, there
is no potential force, and the second adjective becomes comparative
高得多 kau tuh tú, {it is much higher}.
Obs. iii. Wherever the potential force is wanting, 來 lé is used
convertibly with 得 tuh; i.e. 寫來快 ’siá lé k’wá‘, {he writes fast}.
Of the two 得 is most used by the educated.
390. The subject and predicate are still further lengthened by
expletives. 末 meh belongs to the former, and 個, 拉, 哩, 者 kú‘, ’lá,
’lí, ’tsé to the latter.
Obs. Educated natives used these words much less frequently than the
common people, except when they modify the verb in time, or as in the
case of 末, give a conditional sense. The predicate if an adjective
has time given to it by these particles, just as if it were a verb.
{Section} 7. {Subordinate Sentences}.
391. Sentences illustrative of verbs of knowing, saying and wishing,
etc. taking the initiatory particle {that} in English, usually follow
the proposition or verb they explain.
不過聽見儂欵待讀書人 pih kú‘ t’ing kíe{n}‘ nóng‘ k’wé{n} dé‘ {t}ók sû
niun, {I have merely heard that you treat with generosity
literary men}.
伊話勿能來 í {w}ó‘ veh nung lé, {he said he could not come}.
我曉得伊難過日脚 ’ngú‘ ’h’iau tuh í na{n} ku‘ nyih kiáh, {I know that he
lived on with difficulty}.
我勿相信第隻船將要翻脫 ’ngú veh siáng sing‘ {t}í‘ tsáh zé{n} tsiáng yau‘
’fa{n} t’eh, {I do not believe this boat is going to overturn}.
Obs. i. The clause introduced with {that} is often placed first.
官府嘸没銀子是人人曉得個 kwé{n} ’fú {m} meh niung ’tsz ’zz niun niun
’h’iau tuh kú‘, {that the mandarins have no money is known by every
one}; 要進城話拉 yau‘ tsing‘ zung {w}ó‘ ’lá, {he said that he wished to
go into the city}. The educated usually place the verb 話 {w}ó‘ first.
Obs. ii. In Latin the construction of the explanatory clause, is that
of the accusative and infinitive.
392. Clauses expressing the object of an act, usually follow the
sentence that contain the act.
領伊到學堂讀書 ’ling í tau‘ {h}oh dong {t}óh sû, {take him to school,
that he may learn to read}.
請和尙拜懺 ’t’sing {ú} zong‘ pá‘ tsa{n}, {invite Buddhist priests to
perform a service}.
呌畵工來畵小照 kiau‘ {w}ó‘ kong lé {w}ó‘ ’siau tsau‘, {call a painter to
draw a likeness}.
講鄕約勸士農工商做本分꜄ ’kong h’iáng {y}ah k’iö{n}‘ ’zz nóng‘ kóng song
tsú‘ ’pun vun‘, {read the sacred edict (country regulations), to
induce the reading, agricultural, artisan, mid mercantile
classes to perform their duties}.
Obs. In English, the subordinate clause is introduced often by the
final {that}, as the previous examples are by the explanatory {that}.
393. The final {that} or {to} is often expressed by the auxiliary
verbs 要 yau‘, and 呌 kau‘.
橫勸豎勸呌伊學好 {w}áng k’iö{n}‘ ’zû k’iö{n}‘ kau‘ í {h}oh ’hau, {use all
kinds of exhortations to make him improve}.
關窵拉籠裏要伊呌個 kwa{n} ’tiau ’lá ’lóng ’lí yau‘ í kiau kú‘, {shut
birds in cages that they may sing}.
Obs. In examples such as those of the present, and the previous
article, the clauses may be inverted. 要捉魚咾出去登拉更舍裏 yau‘ tsoh ng
lau t’seh k’í‘ tung ’lá káng só‘ lí, {in order to catch fish, he goes
out to stay in the watch-hut}. 咾 lau must be appended to the clause
expressing the object of the action.
394. The final {that} being often omitted, or expressed by verbs, the
way is open to form one sentence out of the two component clauses, so
as to improve the general rhythmical effect. This is done in such
common sentences as the following.
送勒儂看 sóng‘ ’lá nóng k’ö{n}‘, {I present it to you to look at}.
講勒㑚聽 ’kóng ’lá ná‘ t’ing, {I speak that you may hear}.
話撥㑚聽 {w}ó‘ peh ná‘ t’ing, {ib}.
撥飯伊吃 peh va{n}‘ í k’iuh, {give him rice to eat}.
斟酌起來看 tsun tsáh ’k’í lé k’ö{n}‘, {deliberate upon it and see}.
Obs. These examples differ from those of those of the next article,
only in being obviously pronounced as one sentence.
395. The clause expressing the object of the verb is often a single
verb repeated or not. (In Latin, often the supine).
捨點物事拉我吃吃 só‘ ’tíe{n} meh zz‘ ’lá ’ngú k’iuh k’iuh,
{give me something to eat}.
要到店裏去買 yau‘ tau‘ tíe{n}‘ ’lí k’í‘ ’má, {go to the shop and buy it}.
396. The clause containing the action frequently consists of a
substantive, or substantive group, with any of the auxiliary verbs of
causing, or instrumentality, and the verb of motion 來, or 去
concluding the clause.
呌瞎子來拜斗 kau‘ hah ’tsz lé pá‘ ’teu, {call a blind man to worship the
north star}.
担衣裳來晾 ta{n} í zong lé long‘, {take the clothes and hang them out to
dry}.
挪石灰漿來刷壁 nó záh hwé tsiáng lé seh pih, {bring lime to white-wash
the wall.}
担馬來騎到海灘去 ta{n} ’mó lé gí tau‘ ’hé t’a{n} k’í‘, {bring a horse and
ride to the sea shore}.
担棕來絞繩 ta{n} tsóng lé kau zung, {bring tsóng wood bark to make ropes}.
担茄瓢舀水 ta{n} {k}á biau {y}au ’sz, {bring a cocoa-nut shell to lade
water}.
Obs. The object of any transitive verb may be made to precede its verb
by prefixing some one of these auxiliary verbs and appending 來 lé 去
k’í‘.
397. Substantive groups of many words are inserted between the
instrumental verb, and the verb of motion.
担合天底下個事體來講究明白 ta{n} {h}eh t’íe{n} ’tí ’{a}u kú‘ zz‘ ’t’í lé
’kong kíeu‘ ming báh, {he takes the affairs of the whole world
and explains them clearly}.
担各家人家個姓咾名頭寫拉人丁冊上 ta{n} kok ká niun ká kú‘ sing‘ lau ming
deu ’siá ’lá niun ting t’sáh long‘, {take the names and surnames
of every householder and write them in the register}.
398. A relative clause precedes its word as an adjective, and is
connected with it by the particle 個 kú‘.
做慣拉個生活勿吃力個 tsú‘ kwa{n}‘ ’lá kú‘ sáng {w}eh veh k’iuh lih kú‘,
{work to which one is accustomed does not fatigue}.
行方便個人家子孫要多者 {h}áng fong bíe{n}‘ kú‘ niun ká ’tsz sun yau‘ tú
’tsé, {he who gives alms will have many descendants}.
圍困拉個城頭有四五六個 {w}é k’wun‘ ’lá kú‘ dzung deu ’{y}eu sz‘ ’{n}g lók
kú‘, {of besieged cities there are five or six}.
Obs. The relative or adjective clause standing thus in apposition with
a noun, may be considered as forming with it the subject of the
sentence, i.e. the {logical} subject as distinguished from the
{grammatical}, which consists of the substantive only.
399. Circumstances of cause, manner, instrumentality, etc. precede in
the same way, the words to which they belong.
皇帝送個翎毛咾蟒袍總要看重個 {w}ong tí‘ sóng‘ kú, ling mau lau ’mong bau
’tsóng yau‘ k’ö{n}‘ ’dzóng kú‘, {peacock’s feathers and
embroidered tunics presented by the emperor are sure to be
highly valued}.
祖宗傳下來個派頭勿好改換 ’tsú tsóng dzé{n} ’{a}u lé kú‘ p’á‘ deu, veh ’hau
’ké {w}é{n}‘, {customs delivered down by ancestors should not be
changed}.
聖人賢人講個道理莫非三綱五常 sung‘ niun {h}íe{n} niun ’kong kú‘ ’dau ’lí
móh fí sa{n} kong ’{ú} dzáng, {the doctrine taught by sages and
learned men is all on the three relations and five constant
virtues}.
山上泉眼出個水淸個 sa{n} long‘ dzíe{n} ’nga{n} t’seh kú‘ ’sz, t’sing kú‘,
{water that comes from mountain springs is clear}.
石頭造拉個房子堅牢個 záh deu ’zau ’lá kú‘ vong ’tsz kíe{n} lau kú‘,
{houses built of stone are strong}.
Obs. Many such sentences admit of the clauses being inverted. Thus,
天定拉個數目人勿曉得 may also be read, niun veh ’h’iau tuh t’íe{n} ding‘
’lá kú‘ sú‘ máh, {man does not know the times decreed by heaven}.
400. There are some auxiliary verbs, and preposition forms employed to
introduce the subject, which then appears in the form of a subordinate
sentence.
話到死過以後個事體難講 {w}ó‘ tau‘ ’sí kú‘ ’í {h}eu‘ kú‘ zz‘ ’t’í na{n}
’kong, {in reference to what happens after death, it is
difficult discussion}.
造到發大財是勿能個 ’zau tau‘ fah dú‘ ’dzé ’zz veh nung kú‘, {as to
getting rich, I cannot}.
講到登基坐江山勿見得實蓋能造化 ’kong tau‘ tung kí ’zû kong sa{n} veh
kíe{n}‘ tuh zeh ké‘ nung ’zau hwó‘, {but as to ascending the
throne, and taking his seat on the rivers and mountains, it is
not likely he will be so fortunate}.
Obs. These words are not indispensable to the introduction of a
subject as a subordinate clause; e.g. 大是大個 {t}ú‘ ’zz dú‘ kú‘, {as
to size it is large}.
401. Similar to these is the construction of the verb forms prefixed
to interrogative pronouns which thereby become relatives.
隨便那裏一樣事體要做差個 zûe bíe{n}‘ ’{á} ’lí ih {y}áng‘ zz‘ ’t’í, yau‘
tsú t’só kú‘, {whatever thing it be, he will do it wrong}.
勿論啥官總要得賄個 veh lun‘ sá kwé{n} ’tsóng yau‘ tuh ’hwé kú‘, {mandarins
of all offices whatsoever will take bribes}.
勿拘幾許兵卒總會戰敗 veh kü ’kí hó‘ ping tseh, ’tsóng {w}é‘ tsé{n}‘ bá‘,
{however many soldiers there be, we are sure to conquer}.
402. Subordinate clauses expressive of time and place, are placed
before the principal clauses.
住拉啥地方勿肯話 dzû‘ ’lá sá‘ {t}í‘ fong, veh ’k’ung {w}ó,
{he is unwilling to say where he lives}.
清明節氣幾時黃曆上有 t’sing ming tsih k’í‘ ’kí zz, {w}ong lih long‘
’{y}eu, {the time at which the Tsing-ming solar period occurs,
is recorded in the calendar}.
到明朝我又到伊壗頭去 tau‘ ming tsau ’ngú {í}‘ tau‘ í ha{n}‘ deu k’í‘,
{on the next day I went to him again}.
403. The subject consisting of a verb and substantive, often takes the
form of a subordinate introductory clause.
待別人要用禮貌 {t}é‘ bih niun yau‘ yung‘ ’lí mau‘, {in treating others,
a man should be polite}.
存心要存得好 dzun sing yau‘ dzun tuh ’hau, {in keeping the heart, a man
should keep it well}.
404. Many subordinate circumstantial clauses are introduced by verbs
and precede the principal proposition.
落大雨個辰光去者 loh dú‘ ’{ü} kú‘ zun kwong k’í‘ ’tsé,
{while it was raining heavily he went}.
照之我個想頭要換朝代者 tsau‘ tsz ’ngú kú‘ ’siáng deu, yau‘ {w}én‘ dzau dé‘
’tsé, {according to my idea, the dynasty needs to be changed}.
(or, {will be}, &c.,).
照之古聖王個話頭一心一德 tsau‘ tsz ’kú sung‘ wong kú‘ {w}ó‘ deu ih sing ih
tuh, {according to the words of the ancient king, “one in heart
and one in virtue.”}
讀之七年書咾考之秀才 {t}ók tsz t’sih níe{n} sû lau ’kau tsz sieu‘ zé,
{having studied seven years, he took his degree of Bachelor}.
囂之書開來咾讀之兩張者 h’iau tsz sû k’é lé lau {t}ók tsz ’liáng tsáng ’tsé,
{having opened the book, he read two sections}.
得勝之多囘咾末脚死拉戰塲上 tuh sung‘ tsz tá {w}é lau meh kiáh ’sí ’lá
tsé{n}‘ dzáng long‘, {after gaining many victories, he died at
last on the field of battle}.
Obs. i. Sometimes the verb of the subordinate clause is when preceded
by the negative particle, put at the end; e.g. 兵丁勿算武官死有五十干
ping ting veh sö{n}‘, ’vú kwé{n} ’sí ’{y}eu {ng} seh kû{n}, {without
counting the common soldiers, fifty military mandarins died}.
Obs. ii. Circumstantial subordinate propositions often come between
the subject and predicate, 貪官已經受之姓張箇銀子就拿姓李箇放拉監牢裏 t’é{n} kwé{n}
’í kiung ’zeu tsz sing‘ Tsáng kú‘ niung ’tsz dzieu‘ nó sing‘
’Lí kú‘ fong‘ ’lá ka{n} lau ’lí, {the avaricious mandarin having
received money from Mr. Cháng, will take Mr. Li and put him in prison};
好人做之將官總勿瞎殺一個人 ’hau niun tsú‘ tsz tsiáng‘ kwé{n} ’tsóng veh
hah sah ih kú‘ niun, {the good man on becoming a general, will not
kill a single man without reason}.
405. Many subordinate clauses are causal, and are connected with the
principal sentence by the particle 咾 lau, or they are inserted in the
principal clause with 因爲 yung {w}é‘ to introduce them.
做事體勿勸謹咾勿成功者 tsú‘ zz‘ ’t’í veh giun ’kiun lau veh zung kóng ’tsé,
{not being diligent in performing his duty, he did not succeed}.
家當敗完之咾做之窮人者 ká tong‘ bá‘ {w}é{n} tsz lau tsú‘ tsz giong niun
’tsé, {he wasted all his property and became poor}.
打傷之人咾帶之枷者 ’táng song tsz niun lau tá‘ tsz ká ’tsé, {for beating
and wounding a man, he was condemned to wear the cangue}.
衣裳摜拉石頭上碎完者 í zong gwá{n}‘ ’lá záh deu long sé‘ {w}é{n} ’tsé,
{the clothes from being beaten on stones are torn to pieces}.
總督嘸奈何咾服毒者 tsóng‘ tóh {m} ’né {ú} lau vóg dók ’tsé, {the viceroy
having no alternative, poisoned himself}.
上司參之伊咾革脱之官者, ’zong sz t’sé{n} tsz í lau kák t’eh tsz kwé{n}
’tsé, {his superior having reported him as culpable, he was
discharged}.
勿要因為事體多咾勿盡心 veh yau‘ yung {w}é‘ zz‘ ’t’í tú lau‘ veh zing‘
sing, {do not on the ground of having so much to do, pay no
attention}.
Obs. Conjunctions may be prefixed to the introductory clause. 因爲三
代前頭題過第個名字勿可再題 yung {w}é‘ sa{n} dé‘ zíe{n} deu {t}í kú‘ {t}í‘
kú‘ ming zz‘ veh ’k’ó tsé‘ dí, {because three generations ago this
name was used, it could not be employed again}.
406. Conditional introductory clauses are formed by means of
particles, or they are understood to be conditional from their
position, or from the nature of the sentence.
{a}. Examples of conditional clauses without particles.
勿敎訓個兒子伊總要入下流 veh kiau‘ h’iün‘ kú‘ ní ’tsz í ’tsóng yau‘ zeh
’{a}u lieu, {if you do not teach your son, he will certainly
fall to the lowest grade of character}.
勿呑金原要受皇帝個埋怨咾殺脱 veh tung kiun niö{n} yau‘ ’zeu {w}ong tí‘ kú‘
má yö{n}‘ lau sah t’eh, {if he does not take gold and commit
suicide, he must suffer the emperor’s displeasure and be put to
death}.
{b}. Examples with 末 meh, at the end of the conditional clause.
家裏窮末勿要怨恨爺娘勿發財 ká ’lí gióng meh veh yau‘ {y}ön‘ {h}ung‘ {y}á
niáng veh fah dzé, {if you belong to a poor family, you should
not be discontented that your parents are not rich}.
發財發福末勿要怠慢脫時落運個人 fah dzé fah fóh meh veh yau‘ {t}é‘ ma{n}‘
t’eh zz loh {y}ün‘ kú‘ niun, {if you grow rich, do not treat
superciliously those who are unfortunate}.
兒子話勿來末來巴勿得要伊會話 ní ’tsz {w}ó‘ veh lé meh, pó veh tuh yau‘ í
{w}é‘ {w}ó‘, {if their son cannot speak, they wish much that he
should be able}.
要做好官末, 只要念頭動, 舌頭動, 筆頭動, 造出多許善事體 yau‘ tsú‘ ’hau kwé{n}
meh, tseh yau‘ nía{n} deu ’{t}óng, zeh deu ’{t}óng, pih deu
’{t}óng, ’zau t’seh tú hau‘ ’zé{n} zz‘ ’t’í, {if you want to be
a good magistrate, you have only to move your thoughts, tongue
and pen, and you can do much good}.
{c}. Examples of the conditional clause as a case supposed, introduced
by conditional conjunctions.
若使考過秀才要伊去鄕試 zák sz‘ ’k’au kú‘ sieu‘ zé yau‘ í k’í‘ h’iáng sz‘,
{if he has taken his Bachelor’s degree, they wish him to go to
the examination for that of Master}.
若使勿高興讀書千方百計騙伊到學堂去 zák sz‘ veh kau hiung‘ dók sû, t’síe{n}
fong pák kí‘ p’íe{n}‘ í tau‘ {h}oh dong k’í‘, {if he is
unwilling to learn to read, they use a thousand arts to trick
him into going to school}.
若然勿聽好說話必定敗家蕩產 záh zé{n} veh t’ing ’hau seh {w}ó‘ pih ding‘ bá‘
ká dong‘ ’t’sa{n}, {if you are unwilling to listen to good
advice, you will certainly ruin your family and lose your
property}.
倘有婚喪喜慶應該請伊吃酒 ’t’ong ’{y}eu hwun song ’h’í k’iung‘, yung ké
’t’sing í k’iuk ’tsieu, {if there be marriages, funerals and
rejoicing days, you ought to invite them to a feast}.
{d}. Examples of the conditional clause as a fact introduced by 旣然
kí‘ zé{n}, or 末 meh.
旣然望雨落勿要惹厭日頭 kí‘ zé{n} mong‘ ’{ü} loh, veh yau‘ ’zá {í}e{n}‘
nyih deu, {if you long for rain, still you should not murmur at
sun-shine}.
旣然嘸末勿要昨日話有 kí‘ zé{n} {m} meh veh yau‘ zóh nyih {w}ó‘ ’{y}eu,
{there being none, you need not have said yesterday that there
was any}.
旣然要末再去買末者 kí‘ zé{n} yau‘ meh tsé‘ kí‘ ’má meh ’tsé, {since you
want it, go again and buy it}.
{e}. Examples of conditional clauses introduced into the midst of the
principal clause.
但是娘子雖然聰明勿好撥伊辦外頭個事務 {t}an‘ ’zz niáng ’tsz sûe zé{n} t’sóng
ming veh ’hau peh í {p}a{n}‘ ngá‘ deu kú‘ zz‘ vú‘, {but your
wife, although she be clever, you should not allow to act in
matters beyond her sphere}.
Obs. Several illustrations have occurred in the preceding pages of the
fact that the laws of position often render particles superfluous.
Thus, in adverbial phrases of succession, {and}, {by}, etc. are
omitted in 一個一個 ih kú‘ ih kú‘ {one by one}; 一日大一日 ih nyih dú‘ ih
nyih, {greater and greater every day}. So, prepositions are usually
omitted in subordinate clauses of cause, manner, agent, etc. because
they precede their subject and are readily understood. The omission of
the conjunction, for the same reason does not affect conditional
clauses (a).
407. If the verb and adjective groups with 得, 勿, 來 are rightly
considered as originally forming independent propositions, including
in themselves a subject and its predicate, they must be regarded in
many instances as subordinate clauses.
{a}. One of these groups may form an adjective clause, or a
predicate to a subject.
做勿來個事體多 tsú‘ veh lé kú‘ zz‘ ’t’í tú, {things that cannot be done
are many}.
禮體好得極 ’lí ’t’í ’hau tuh giuh, {the system of observances is
excellent}.
{b}. A group may form the explanatory clause to the verb of a
preceding sentence.
勿好話弄勿來 veh ’hau {w}ó‘ lóng‘ veh lé, {you must not say that you
cannot do it}.
408. There are some fragmentary clauses placed at the end of a
proposition that need especial notice.
{a}. 罷 {p}á‘ {to end}, or {then there is no more to be said}.
小銅錢換之末就罷哉 ’siau dóng díe{n} {w}é{n}‘ tsz meh dzieu‘ bá‘ ’tsé,
{as to the small cash, you have but to change them, that is
all}.
身邊勿帶就罷 sun píe{n} veh tá‘ dzieu‘ bá‘, {if you have none, that is
enough}.
現在話明白就是哉 {h}íe{n}‘ ’dzé {w}ó‘ ming báh dzieu‘ ’zz ’tsé, {you
have now made it all clear, and that is enough}.
勿肯末罷哉 veh ’k’ung meh bá‘ ’tsé, {if you will not, there is an end
of it}.
{b}. Several adverbial clauses used with adverbs of similarity.
皇帝如同父母一般 {w}ong tí‘ zû dóng ’vú ’mú ih pé{n}, {the emperor is
just like one’s parents}.
兄第忒我一樣 h’iúng dí‘ t’eh ’ngú ih {y}áng‘, {my brother is just as I
am}.
恰像我能 hah ziáng‘ ’ngú nung, {like me}.
{c}. Some words with the negative.
苦惱勿堪, ’k’ú ’nau veh k’é{n}, {intolerably wretched}.
路上爛來勿堪 lú‘ long‘ la{n}‘ lé veh k’é{n}, {the road is exceedingly
dirty}.
{d}. After substantives needing to be spoken of in the dual number 兩個
’liáng kú‘, or 兩個字 liáng kú‘ zz‘ are appended; the former is applied
to living agents, and the latter to {characters} as representatives of
abstract nouns.
吾你弟兄兩個勿好爭論 ngú ’ní dí‘ h’iung ’liáng kú‘ veh ’hau tsáng lun‘,
{we are brothers and ought not to quarrel}.
善咾惡兩個字本來對面個 ’zé{n} lau oh ’liáng kú‘ zz‘ ’pun lé té‘ míe{n}‘
kú‘, {virtue and vice are originally opposite terms}.
{e}. Prepositions of motion take after the nouns they govern, the
fragments 兩 ’liáng, 一淘 ih dau, separately or together.
我忒儂出外兩日咾再來 ’ngú t’eh nóng‘ t’seh ngá‘ ’liáng nyih lau tsé‘ lé,
{you and I will go out for two days and return}.
伊忒我一淘牽兩隻牛睏拉水裏 í t’eh ’ngú ih dau k’íe{n} ’liáng tsáh nieu
k’wun‘ ’lá ’sz ’lí, {he and I together led two oxen to lie down
in the water} (or 一氣).
Obs. These are perhaps fragments of propositions, of which only the
predicate remains.
{Section} 8. {Coordinate Sentences}.
409. In further illustration of the connection of groups and
propositions, it may be observed, that coordinate sentences often
occur in juxtaposition without any particle.
{a}. There may be several subjects to one predicate.
文武百官鄕紳士庶禿出求雨 vun ’vú puh kwé{n}, h’iáng sun ’zz sû‘ t’ók
t’seh lé gieu ’{ü}, {the civil and military mandarins, the
gentry and common people are all come out to pray for rain}.
按察司布政司撫臺各省有個 ö{n}‘ t’sah sz‘, pú‘ tsung‘ sz‘, ’fú dé, kok
’sáng ’{y}eu kú‘, {a judge, treasurer and lieutenant-governor
belong to each province}.
{b}. There may be several predicates to one subject, or several
explanatory clauses to one proposition.
多請朋友勿兔浪用錢財廢事失業 tú ’t’sing {p}áng ’{y}eu veh ’míe{n} long‘
{y}úng‘ zíe{n} zé fí‘ zz‘ seh nyih, {if you invite friends much,
you will not avoid wasting money and expending property}.
風水兩個字池湖末水龍氣末風 fóng ’sz ’liáng kú‘ zz‘, dzz {ú} meh ’sz, lóng
k’í‘ meh fóng, {in the phrase wind and water, the pond
represents the water, and the winding path} ({dragon vapour})
{the wind}.
松江提督手下有前營後營左營右營中營一府裏五營 Súng kong dí toh ’seu ’{a}u
’{y}eu dzíe{n} {y}ung ’{h}eu {y}ung tsú‘ {y}ung {y}eu‘ {y}ung
tsóng {y}ung ih ’fú ’lí ’{ng} {y}ung, {the general at Súng-kiáng
as under him, the front, hind, left, right and central
divisions, in all five for the whole prefecture}.
410. The connective 咾 lau is very frequently introduced between
groups; and the constituents of any group of coordinate words may be
broken up into separate subjects, or predicates or objects by the
insertion of this particle.
墳墓週圍種個樹木咾築個籬笆 vun mú‘ tseu {w}é tsóng‘ kú‘ zú‘ móh lau tsók
kú‘ lí pó, {round the grave are planted trees, and a hurdle
hedge is erected}.
一家裏向有爺咾娘咾小囝咾差囝咾丫頭 ih ká ’lí h’iáng ’{y}eu {y}á lau niáng
lau ’siau nö{n} lau t’sá nö{n} lau au deu, {in one family there
are the father and mother, children, men and women servants}.
知縣要管個一縣裏個漕白犯法咾咾詞訟咾騐屍個事體 tsz {y}ö{n}‘ yau‘ ’kwé{n} kú‘
ih {y}ö{n}‘ ’lí kú‘ zau báh ’va{n} fah lau lau zz zóng‘ lau
níe{n}‘ sz kú‘ zz‘ t’i‘, {the city magistrate presides over the
revenue, crimes, lawsuits and inquests of his district}.
關稅咾兵丁咾啥是道臺管拉個 kwa{n} súe‘ lau ping ting lau sá‘ ’zz ’{t}au dé
’kwé{n} ’lá kú‘, {the customs and army matters are superintended
by the Intendent of Circuit}.
Obs. It has been shewn in section 7, that 咾 lau also frequently
terminates causal subordinate sentences.
411. When there are two coordinate ideas to be expressed connectedly,
as with {both}—{and}—而且, 也 and 又 are employed.
又是長又是闊 {í}‘ ’zz dzáng, {í}‘ ’zz k’weh, {it is both long and broad}.
也要加長也要加闊 ’{á} yau‘ ká dzáng, ’{á} yau‘ ká k’weh, {you must make
it both longer and broader}.
Obs. i. {Even} as an initiatory particle is expressed by 就是.
就是生意淸也勿要甩脱工夫 dzieu‘ ’zz sáng í‘ tsing ’{á} veh yau‘ hwah t’eh
kúng fú, {even if trade is slack, you must not waste time}.
Obs. ii. 也 is also used when no sentence precedes, as in 外國米也有否
ngá‘ kóh ’mí ’{á} ’{y}eu ’vá, {is there rice in foreign countries?}
Obs. iii. When the clauses are negative, the negative particle is
inserted after the conjunction, 也勿會開口也勿會動身 ’{á} veh {w}é‘ k’é
’k’eu, ’{á} veh {w}é‘ ’dóng sun, {he can neither speak nor move}.
412. When two objects are compared, they stand as coordinate clauses
with the verb 比 ’pí between them, and the attribute of comparison at
the end.
生果子勿此熟果子甜個 sáng ’kú ’tsz veh ’pí zóh ’kú ’tsz díe{n} kú‘,
{unripe fruit cannot be compared to ripe fruit in sweetness}.
做生意勿此念書個好 tsú‘ sáng í‘ veh ’pí nia{n}‘ sû kú‘ ’hau, {to engage
in trade is not so good as studying books}.
儂比之我年紀大 nóng‘ ’pí tsz ’ngú níe{n} ’kí dú‘, {you are older than I}.
Obs. i. 又 {í}‘ is sometimes prefixed to the attribute; e.g. 伊比我又好
í ’pi ngú‘ {í}‘ hau, {he is still better than I}.
Obs. ii. 又 {í}‘ with the negative is thus seen to have the force of a
separative particle, while in the examples of the preceding article it
is clearly connective ({both—and—}) in one case, and separative in
the other ({neither—nor—}).
413. Propositions introduced by the adversative particles {only},
{but}, {yet}, etc. (v. Art. 310), form another class of coordinate
sentences.
小道理聖人賢人勿屑為但是平常人全要曉得個 ’siau ’dau ’lí sung‘ niun {h}íen
niun veh sih {w}é {t}a{n}‘ ’zz bing dzáng niun zé{n} yau‘ ’h’iau
tuh kú‘, {small matters are not attended to by the wise and
learned, but ordinary people must know them}.
好人該當親近個倒要遠開伊 ’hau niun ké tong t’sing ’giun kú‘ ’tau yau‘
{y}ö{n} k’é í, {you ought to attach yourself to good men, but on
the contrary you avoid them}.
爺娘個棺材勿可以常停拉家裏恐防火燒 {y}á niáng kú‘ kwé{n} zé‘ veh ’k’ó ’í
dzáng ö{n} ’lá ká ’lí ’k’óng bong ’hú sau, {your parents coffins
must not be long retained in the house, lest a fire should break
out}.
414. Illative and causal sentences form another class of coordinate
sentences.
故此嘸沒出頭個日子 kú‘ ’t’sz {m} meh t’seh deu kú‘ nyih ’tsz, {therefore
there is no day of escape}.
半個身體三個時辰浸拉水裏所以怪勿得有點勿自在 pé{n}‘ kú‘ sun ’t’í sa{n} kú‘ zz
zun tsing ’lá ’sz ’lí ’sú ’í kwá‘ veh tuh ’{y}eu ’tíe{n} veh zz‘
’zé, {his body was up to the waist in water for 6 hours, and
therefore it is not to be wondered at that he feels a little
uncomfortable}.
415. In causal sentences, the causal conjunctions are used, or the
word for “cause” at the end of the sentence; sometimes both are
employed.
勿能得勝兵丁勿好個緣故 veh nung tuk sung‘, ping ting veh ’hau ku‘ yö{n}
kú‘, {he cannot conquer, because the soldiers are bad}.
文理爲哈勿好因爲讀書少 vun ’lí {w}é‘ sá‘ veh ’hau yung {w}é‘ dók sû ’sau,
{why is his style of writing bad? because he has read but
little}.
Obs. The answer to a question requiring “because,” is very often ended
with 咾 lau, which then takes that sense. But this is an irregular
colloquialism, since {lau} as connective conjunction ought to be
followed by another clause. 船吹壞脫哉風大咾 zé{n} t’sz {w}á‘ t’eh ’tsé
fóng dú‘ lau, {the boat was broken to pieces, the wind being high}.
416. Conjunctions forming pairs of sentences, have already been
partially illustrated in Arts, 322–330. It may in addition be
observed, that short phrases sometimes take the place of conjunctions.
{a}. Thus for, {not only—even—}, we have 勿要話 veh yau‘ {w}ó‘ and
就是 dzieu‘ zz in the supplemental sentence.
勿要話爺娘敎訓伊勿轉, 勿要話親友勸戒伊勿轉, 就是菩薩也點化伊勿轉 veh yau‘ {w}ó‘
{y}á niáng kiau‘ h’iün‘ í veh ’tsé{n}, veh yau‘ {w}ó‘ t’sing
’{y}eu k’iö{n}‘ ká‘ í veh ’tsé{n}, dzieu‘ ’zz {p}ú sah ’{á}
’tíe{n} hwó‘ í veh ’tsé{n}, {do not say that his parents were
unable to influence him by instruction, and his friends by
exhortations; supernatural beings even could not reclaim him by
their warnings}.
{b}. English initiatory phrases, such as {I suppose that}, {probably},
are represented by 只怕, 恐怕 tseh p’ó‘, ’k’ung p’ó‘, or by 我想 ’ngú
’siáng, {it appears to me that}.
打殺之雄窵雌窵獨干子躱拉恐怕要氣殺 ’táng sah tsz {y}ióng ’tiau t’sz ’tiau
{t}ók kû{n} ’tsz ’tú ’lá ’k’úng p’ó‘ yau‘ k’í‘ sah, {if the male
bird were killed, the female from being solitary, would probably
die of grief}.
Obs. i. {On the one side—on the other side—}are represented by the
common substantive for {side} with—ih {one} in both clauses. The
preposition and article are rejected as unnecessary, cf. Art. 328.
Obs. ii. Although is sometimes expressed by a verb, in the sense
{let it be that}, 憑儂地獄拉前面, 伊也勿肯囘心改念 bing nóng‘ {t}í‘ niók
’lá zie{n} míe{n}‘, í ’{á} veh ’k’ung {w}é sing ’ké nía{n}‘, {granting
you that hell were in sights, he would still be unwilling to repent}.
隨儂 sûe nóng‘, 但憑儂 ’{t}a{n} bing nóng‘, are also used in the same
sense.
417. Comparisons are introduced by several compounds of 如 zû, and some
fragmentary sentences, as 比方, ’pí fong, {for example}.
病好爺娘十分快活猶如尋着之寶貝一般 {p}ing‘ ’hau ’{y}á niáng zeh fun k’á‘
{w}eh {y}eu zû zing zák tsz ’pau pé‘ ih pé{n}, {when they
recover from sickness, the parents are delighted just as if
they had found a treasure}.
如同樹木個根 zû dóng zû‘ móh kú kun, {it is like the root of a tree}.
假如見之꜂長輩勿要忽畧伊 ’kiá zû kíe{n}‘ tsz ’tsáng pé‘ veh yau‘ hweh liáh í,
{suppose that you see your elders, you must not treat them
disrespectfully}.
比如担別人家個祖宗認做自家個祖宗有第個道理否 ’pí zú ta{n} bih niun ká kú‘
’tsú tsóng, niun tsú‘ zz‘ ká kú‘ ’tsú tsóng, ’{y}eu {t}í‘ kú‘
’{t}au ’lí ’vá, {if for example you take the ancestors of
others, and recognize them as your own, could this be right?}
{Section} 9. {On Antithesis}.
418. Of antithesis there are three kinds; (a) that of words in the
formation of groups; (b) that which gives an interrogative force by
the juxtaposition of positive and negative clauses, (c) That of
sentences contrasted in sound or sense.
Obs. The first of these should be placed with the sections on groups,
but the other kinds (b) and (c) are naturally discussed after
propositions, and therefore they are all placed together here.
419. Substantives that are opposite in sense, when they combine into
groups are treated just as other coordinate words.
晝夜 tseu‘ {y}a‘, {day and night}.
山海 sa{n} ’hé, {land} (hills) {and sea}.
420. Adjectives and verbs when they form antithetic groups often lose
their proper character as attributives, and become substantives.
斬絞流徒 ’tsan kau lieu dú, {beheading, strangling and banishment}.
酸甜苦鹹 sû{n} díe{n} ’k’ú han, {sour, sweet, bitter, salt}.
第條路多少遠近 {t}í‘ diau lú‘ tú ’sau ’{y}ön ’giun, {how far is it by
this road?}
421. Antithesis in the formation of interrogatives has an important
grammatical use. Thus, a verb with or without its object expressed
successively in the affirmative and negative form, asks a question.
去過勿曾去過 k’í kú‘ veh zung k’í‘ kú‘, {have you gone or not?}
Obs. The subject is prefixed and is not repeated; e.g. 遭蹋字紙㑚
想罪過勿罪過 tsau t’ah zz‘ ’tsz ná‘ ’siáng zé‘ kú‘ veh zé‘ kú‘, {do you
think the misuse of written-paper is a sin or not?}
422. Among instances of the antithesis of propositions, many consist
simply of a tautology of ideas by introducing opposite qualities or
actions with the negative particle.
有銅錢就做, 嘸沒銅錢勿要做 ’{y}eu dóng díe{n} dzieu‘ tsú‘, {m} meh dóng
díe{n} veh yau‘ tsú‘, {if you have money do it, if not you need
not do it}.
各人要心平勿要做怨恨 koh niun yau‘ sing bing veh yau‘ tsú‘ yö{n}‘ {h}ung‘,
{every one ought to be contented, and not dissatisfied}.
Obs. This figure of speech would in many of its examples be
intolerable in English, but the brevity and rhythmical structure of
Chinese sentences make it agreeable. It gives an air of simplicity to
conversation, and allows the speaker time to prepare his next idea,
without forcing his thinking faculties to a too rapid productiveness.
The same advantage is obtained by the use of a long group, where in
English, one or two of its constituent words would be sufficient.
423. Of antithetical propositions some of the most ornamental are
those that consist of the words of a common group lengthened into
clauses.
上有天理下合人情 ’záng ’{y}eu t’íe{n} ’lí, ’{h}au {h}eh niun zing, {it
coincides with the law of heaven on one hand, and the natural
sentiments of mankind on the other}.
先有風後有雨 síe{n} ’{y}eu fóng ’{h}eu ’{y}eu ’{ü}, {wind comes first and
rain after}.
明醫家會救人, 笨醫家會殺人 ming í ká {w}é‘ kieu‘ niun, {p}un‘ í ká {w}é‘ sah
niun, {a good physician can cure men, while an incompetent one
can kill them}.
遠水救勿得近火 ’{y}ön ’sz kieu‘ veh tuh ’giun ’hú, {distant water cannot
save from a fire that is near}.
前世無讐今世無寃 zíe{n} sz‘ vú zeu kiun sz‘ vú yö{n}, {if in a former life
you were the enemy of no one, you will have no enemy in this}.
東耳𦕰進西耳𦕰出 tóng ’ní ’tú tsing‘ sí ’ní ’tú t’seh, {enter by the left
ear and disappear by the right}.
推勿轉頭挬勿轉腦 t’é veh ’tsé{n} deu peh veh ’tsé{n} ’nau, {he cannot be
brought to change for the better}.
Obs. This is a principal means of decorating the 文章 vun tsáng, the
literary compositions on which the educated class expend so much time
and effort. With the classics before them, and ten or twenty thousand
words at command, there is a wide field for variety. In addition to
the care required in the general structure of the essay, that all its
parts may be conformed to rule, the separate sentences must be framed
in obedience to the laws of grouping and antithesis, so that there may
be no infringement of the order of the words, as they stand in the
ancient books.
424. Another class of antithetical propositions consists of such as
correspond word for word with each other in structure and relative
meaning. Many proverbs are of this kind.
債有生寃有頭 tsá‘ ’{y}eu ’tsû {y}ön ’{yeu} deu, {to every debt there is a
creditor, and to every enemy a foe}.
Obs. Prémare has a large collection of such proverbs, to which the
reader is referred.
{Section} 10. {On Rhythmus}.
425. Chinese sentences spoken or written are symmetrically arranged.
The same rhythmus that pleases and aids the reader, in such works as
the Historical Novels exists in a less elaborated form in the
colloquial medium of daily life. In the style of a fluent Chinese
speaker, clauses of four words each, will be found to occur more
frequently than of any other length. This measure may be called for
the Shánghái dialect the Double Iambus, the accent being on the last
syllable of a group of two words; e.g. 財主人家有喪事要請和尚道士做做攻德
ze-tsú-niun-ká ’{y}eu song zz‘ yau‘ ’t’sing {h}ú-zong‘-’{t}au-’zz
tsú‘-tsú‘ kúng-tuh, {rich men at a funeral will invite Buddhist and
Taúist priests, to perform a religious service}. Here there are 3
groups of four.
Obs. i. Chinese colloquial syntax might be divided into two heads,
treating of grammatical (or syntactical), and prosodial (or
rhythmical) relations respectively. Under the former might be placed,
government, propositions, and a part of the system of groups. Under
the latter would be properly found repetition, antithesis, and the
remainder of the system of grouping. The latter might be called
prosody, but that word is more properly applied to the laws of poetry.
In the present work it has been thought more convenient to mix these
divisions under a common heading.
Obs. ii. Words in the fourth tone are just as important in the groups
as other words, unless they happen to be enclitics; e.g. 大關節目 {t}á‘
kwa{n} tsih móh, {the general object}. The last two words have no less
emphasis of voice than the former, and 目 móh is distinctly accented.
Obs. iii. In dialects where the accent is on the penultimate syllable,
the four-word measure might be called a Double Trochee. These
classical names of feet are not strictly applicable, descriptive as
they are of the long and short syllables of poetry. They are here used
for want of better terms, just as is done by writers on English
versification, to express the pronunciation of words as accented or
not accented. At Súng-kiáng the fú city to which Shánghái belongs, the
accent changes to the penultimate.
Obs. iv. In 讀起來看 {read}, and {t}ók ’k’í lé k’ö{n}‘, {read it and
try}, the accent is on the first and last words of both these
sentences, the middle words being enclitic.
426. The three-word foot may be called, if it consists of two
unaccented, and one accented syllable, an {anapaest}; e.g. 壁立直 pih
lih dzuh, {exactly straight}; 敲敲鼓 k’au k’au ’kú, {to beat a drum};
梁惠王 liáng {w}é‘ {w}ong, {a king in Mencius}. If the accent is on the
first word of three, the foot might be called a {dactyl}; e.g. 做末者
tsú‘ meh ’tsé, {do it}. Instances of such dactyls are rare and are
chiefly confined to sentences containing enclitics, which reject the
accent. In some cases, the accent is on the middle word as in 放颻子
fong‘ yau‘ ’tsz, {to fly a kite}; 子 ’tsz as an enclitic throws back
the accent on the preceding word.
427. The number two occurs in innumerable combination, which may be
called iambs; i.e. 上山 ’zong sa{n}, {ascend a hill}.
428. Common recognized groups numbering more than four coordinate
words are not very numerous. They may be readily resolved into smaller
feet of two, three, or four words, by attending to the {cæsura}, which
will be always found in them; e.g. 喜怒哀懼愛惡欲 ’h’í nú‘ é gü‘ é‘ ú‘
{y}óh, {joy, anger, grief, fear, love, hatred, desire}. That mark of
division occurs after the fourth word for groups of seven, and after
the second for groups of five; others may be divided into groups of
two or three words each.
Obs. i. The cæsura of seven word and five word versification in good
poetry, and in street ballads, is generally after the fourth and
second words, but variations occur according to the taste of the
writer, and the exigencies of composition.
Obs. ii. By marking the cæsura, groups of four words may be divided
into smaller divisions of two, and those of three words into parts of
one and two words. Thus the secondary accent heard in the first part
of the group, and referred to in the sections on tones may be
accounted for, as properly belonging to the smaller groups, or single
word, to which it is affixed.
Obs. iii. The accent here spoken of is, that which is understood by
the word in English and French, viz. that emphasis which is
predominantly on the penultimate or antepenultimate in the former, and
on the last syllable in the latter language. It is one simply of
position, and is so far independent of tones on the one hand, and of
the quantity of vowels as long or short, on the other. English
versification is entirely regulated by the accent of position, and not
by the consideration of vowels and syllables being long and short.
Thus in the line “our voices keep tune, and our oars keep time,” the
quantity of “keep,” and “our” is long, yet they stand as short
syllables. Chinese poetry is like that of England in possessing
rhymes, and instead of a rhythmus of long and short vowel quantities,
such as formed the framework of Greek and Latin versification, it has
one of even and uneven tones.
Obs. iv. In some groups of four, the accent is on the first and fourth
words; e.g. 鄕下百姓 h’iáng ’{a}u pák sing‘, {country people}. But it
is most frequently on the 2nd and 4th, e.g. 富貴貧賤 fú‘ kwé‘ bing
dzíe{n}‘, {rich and poor}; 去邪歸正 k’í‘ ziá kwé tsung‘, {to abandon vice
and reform}. When it passes to the first or third, it is because the
word on which it should be is an enclitic or has a weak tone. Cf.
Part 1. section 3. for remarks on the accent of three-word groups.
429. From this analysis it may be concluded, that much of Chinese
prose falls spontaneously into groups of two, three and four words,
with an accent of position to mark them; enclitics do not usually take
the accent and are very often not to be counted as independent members
of the groups to which they are attached.
Obs. i. It has been already shown that the tones of a dialect are
affected by the rhythmus. This happens for example, in the Amoy
dialect particularly in the penultimate, where the second and seventh
tones change into the high quick rising, and high quick falling
respectively. In Chinese prose compositions, it is usual to end
sentences with a word in the first tone, and one of the three other
tones alternately. In their versification, words that rhyme have their
alphabetical sound, and their tones in harmony. For an account of the
use of tones in poetry, see Remusat’s grammar.
Obs. ii. The tendency of words as thus illustrated, to agglutinate
into groups numerically conditioned, is made the basis of all new
sentences, and insensibly regulates the composition of the native
speaker. He would be quite as likely to transgress the laws of
intergovernment among the parts of speech, as to overlook the rhythmus
of his words.
APPENDIX I.
ON THE HIGHER COLLOQUIAL, CALLED VUN ’LI ’T’U BAH,
文理土白.
Occasionally in the preceding pages, examples have been introduced,
from the style of conversation prevailing among literary men. A common
knowledge of the books, and the existence of a universal mandarin
colloquial, have given rise to an enlarged vocabulary of phrases
bearing this name. The consideration of their etymological and
syntactical peculiarities belong to the grammar of the books and of
mandarin, the two sources from whence they are derived.
An example or two will be given. Among the verbs, the auxiliary of
destruction 脱 t’eh, is replaced by 掉 {t}iau‘. 殺掉 sah diau‘, {to
kill}; 滅掉 mih diau‘ {destroy}. Many new groups are also employed,
whose meaning would not be understood by the common people. 燈燭煇煌
tung tsóh hwé {w}ong, {the brightness of the candle in its lanthorn};
衣冠楚楚 í kwé ’t’sú ’t’sú, {his dress and hat look neat}.
In carrying on conversation with the educated, it is necessary to know
these phrases when they occur, and it is a great advantage to be able
to use them, but in an elementary work like the present, it is enough
to say that the path to that knowledge lies in the study of the books,
and of the general language. This part of the colloquial medium is
common ground to all dialects, where no distinction remains, but that
of pronunciation. In many cases, however, phrases not used in the
every-day dialect of this district, and which therefore, are
considered 文理 vun ’lí, are found in the colloquial of other parts of
China, much farther removed from mandarin.
APPENDIX II.
ON THE NATIVE TABLES OF INITIALS AND FINALS.
Marshman long ago made a study of these tables, for which he was
peculiarly fitted from his knowledge of Sanscrit. On comparing the
alphabetic system of that language with the Chinese tables, now to be
considered, he at once pronounced them identical in principle. This
conclusion is fully confirmed by what Chinese authors say. The
explanation in K’áng-hí’s Dictionary of “the method of separating a
word into its component sounds,” (切字樣法） says, “now tabulated rhymes
are in the Sanscrit called 夫等韻者梵語悉曇. “Here we speak of mother
characters, the sounds from which all words originate,” 此云字母
乃是一切文字之母. “That which in Sanscrit is called p’í-k’á-lah is
here called the division of sounds, which constitutes the foundation
of the science of words,” 梵語毘佉囉此云切韻一切文字之根本 Remusat long since
pointed out that the language meant by the word 梵 Fan, is Sanscrit.
He says in his Life of the Grand Lama, Pa-sz-pa, translated
from the Chinese History of the Mongols in Remusat’s Melanges
Asiatiques, Vol. II. 145, “Ce sont les religieux Indiens qui l’ont
(the 36 initials) fait connaítre á notre empire.” “Nos prêtres chinais
ont retenu cet usage qu’ils avaient pris des Indiens.”[1]
The accompanying table is taken from Bopp’s Sanscrit grammar, the
characters of the Chinese tables being placed instead of the Sanscrit
characters.
Gutturals, 見 ká, 溪 khá, 郡 gá, ghá, 疑 ngá.
Palatals, 知 chá, 徹 ch’á, 澄 djá, d’zá, 娘 niá.
Linguals, 端 ta, 透 t’á, 定 dá, dh’á, 泥 ná.
Dental, tá, thá, dá, dhá, ná.
Labials, 幫 pá, 滂 phá, 並 bá, bhá, 明 má.
Semivocals, 影 já (y) 日 rá, 來 lá, wá (v.)
Sibilants, sá(s’), 審 shá(s’), 心 sá(s), 曉 há.
Marshman possessed a genuine philological spirit, which often appears
in the midst of the somewhat extravagant theories in which he
frequently indulged. He saw in the present instance, that in the
Chinese spoken language, the consonants g, d, b, etc. should each
commence a series of words, and this led him to the remark “that a
further investigation of the Chinese pronunciation, would probably
discover some vestige of this existing at the present day.” Diss,
p. 37.
The passage cited in page 43, also ascribes the arrangement of these
tables to a Buddhist priest; he improved upon the system of finals
invented By Shin-yoh, who wrote one of the {twenty one histories},
viz. that of the northern Sóng dynasty.
It will now be shown that in a great part of central China such a
system prevails. Before attempting to sketch the boundaries of that
tract of country, a brief statement will be given of what conditions
must be fulfilled, in order to identify an existing pronunciation with
these relics of the Buddhist industry of former days.
By referring to the table in page 44, it will be seen that there are
in all 36 initials including, beside those whose Sanscrit equivalents
are now given, f, f’, v, w, z, zh, a lower h and y, and the compounds
of t and d, with s, z, sh and zh.
The required dialect should have therefore an extensive system of
initials, and as the modern tonic Dictionaries of Canton and
Cháng-cheú, very accurately represent the dialects of those places, it
may be assumed of the Dictionary tables, that they are no less careful
in exhibiting the pronunciation of their time.
Among the finals, ng, n and m, terminate words in the three long
tones, and the corresponding mutes k, t, p, are recognized as the
terminations of words in the short tone, few of them having a vowel
ending.
This is very clearly perceptible in the tables of the 字彙 a
Dictionary, which was published many years before that of K’áng-hí,
and in those of the Dictionary called 洪武正韻 {h}óng ’wú chung‘ {y}ün‘.
In the latter for example words in the short tone ending in k, are
classed under 屋, 藥, 陌. Those in t are found under 質, 曷, 轄, 屑.
Those in p are under 緝 合 葉 pron. tsip, etc.
The same careful separation of the finals ng, n and m is also found in
these Dictionaries. The modern mandarin sound kíen, is found
subdivided into the four words kíen, kiem, kan, kam; e.g. the 字彙
classes words in íen under the headings, 堅, 廉, 艱, 監. Mandarin words
in óng are found under two heads, 公 kóng and 弓 kióng respectively.
While the first medial i is thus affected, the other medial u is found
as it is in modern mandarin spelling, except that 戈 is spelt kwo, and
heads a class distinct from another which is ranged under 歌.[2]
The number of classes into which the finals are divided varies in
different Dictionaries. That of the 字彙, perhaps the must convenient
arrangement, consists of 44, This includes the 入聲 finals k, t, p, as
the same in sound with ng, n, m. The difference between these two sets
of letters, is supposed to be due only to rapid pronunciation
occasioned by the tone. In that work, the finals are as follow:—
l. Kóng 公, kí 基, kung 庚, kin 巾, kiün 鈞, kwáng 光, kwei 規, kwái 乖,
kwá 瓜, kié 迦, k{ó} 歌, kán 干, kwán 關 kiem 監, keú 鉤.
2. Káng 岡, kü 居, kun 根, kim 金, king 扃, kwung 觥, kú 姑, kái 該, kiá
嘉, k’iö 㵃, kwön 官, kíen 堅, kán 艱, kaú 高, kieú 鳩.
3. Kiaú 驅, kióng 弓, king 京, tshim 簪, kwun 裩, kiáng 江, tsz 貲, kiái
皆, ná 拿, kwó 戈, kiuen 絹, kiem 兼, kam 甘, kiaú 交.
The remaining principal element of these tables is their arrangement
according to tones; which are neither five, seven, nor eight, but
always four. Thus, 東, 通, 同 are all in the first tone 平聲, under the
initials t, t’, d. So also 兵評平明 are all in the first tone 平聲, under
the initials p, p’, b, m.
Among the words registered in the second tone, are many that are in
modern Chinese in the third tone. Such are—
後上動奉坐部禍倖跪近是市緖善弟道父婦犯罪造重在緩罷下丈蕩牝舅社單被倍似曙柱拒忿殍抱竪
下 being in the second tone, we see the probable reason why it was not
chosen for the name of the third tone. The character 去 was preferred,
because it exemplified the tone of which it was the name.
The tables thus described are employed, to spell words throughout the
Chinese dictionaries from K’áng-hí and the 正字通, upwards to the T’áng
dynasty and even earlier. There is but one system and one set of
tones, the tone is included in the final, or second word in the 反切,
Fan t’sih while the first gives the initial, and both are in constant
accordance with the tables. The characters 犯 and 下 for example are
always given in the 上聲 second tone, but the latter is as a verb also
given in the 去聲 third tone. Different dictionaries choose different
words to spell with, but the system is one; e.g. 動 is spelt with 徒 dú
and 樬 ’tsóng, making ’dóng. It is added 𠀤同上聲, it is the same as
dóng read in the second tone.
In considering to which system of pronunciation now existing these
characteristics best apply, there occur several objections to the
modern mandarin.
The mandarin of Nán-king and Yáng-cheú in Kiáng-nan, of Ngán-k’ing in
Ngán-hwei, and of Ch’áng-shá in Hú-nan has five tones, viz. 上平, 下平,
上聲, 去聲, 入聲. In the northern parts of Kiáng-nan another system
begins. Words in the 入聲 júh shing become distributed among the other
four tones, and this peculiarity extends over the northern provinces
including the metropolitan city. The 上平 and 下平 differ as much from
each other, as they both do from the other tones, so that the
nomenclature of tones, when first invented, could not have referred to
the Nanking or Peking mandarin, as they are at present. Evidently the
literati speaking those dialects have taken their names of tones from
the dictionary system, and not vice versâ. Nor have these two modes of
pronunciation since the Yuen dynasty any such finals as {m} among the
long tones, or k, t, p in the júh shing. Not to insist on the
differences in the medial vowel i, the want of the initials g, d, b,
is another reason for our seeking elsewhere for the prototype of the
dictionary system. The western provinces of China are the same in
principle as to their pronunciation. Like the mandarin of northern
China, they always admit the aspirate after k, t, p, in the 下平, and
reject it, except in irregular instances, in all words that are in the
southern and eastern provinces in the 下上, 下去, and 下入.
Further, the irregularities of the initial consonants found in the
mandarin provinces, are not taken into account in the native tables.
Such are the changes of {ki} into {chi} at Peking; {l} into {n}, and
{n} into {l} in many dialects; the coalescing of ki and tsi in others.
The 下平 aspirates, and some other changes are included in the second
table formed to accompany K’áng-hí’s dictionary; yet that table is but
a modern and incomplete revision of the older system.
If any one desires native tables of the mandarin pronunciation, he
must look for them in the 五方元音 and such works, which give them with
great accuracy; though of course their authority is not equal to that
of the celebrated dictionaries already cited.
For investigating the sounds of Canton and Fúh-kien, every facility is
afforded by the careful dictionaries of those systems of pronunciation
that have been prepared by native authors. The Cháng-cheú dialect with
its fifteen initials, and its want of a lower 上聲 is definitely
marked. Although like the Canton pronunciation it contains the finals
m, p, t, k, admits a medial {i} in words such as 弓, and rejects it in
艱, thus agreeing with the tables in some of their peculiarities, it
can only be regarded so far as the tables are concerned, as an
isolated, out-lying member of the general system of dialects. The
finals, m, t, p, k, disappear on the Fúh-kíen coast at Hing-hwá.
The Canton dialect possesses very regular tones, none of them being
inverted in pitch as in Fúh-kíen and Kiáng-sí, and it has among them
the lower 上聲, or as it is usually called, the sixth tone. In this
tone are found perhaps half of the words, having the dictionary
initials, g, d, b, zh, z, some of which are given in page 218. But
they are pronounced k, t, p, etc. E.g. 似, 倍, 柱, 重, 婦, 牝. These
words with many others are in the Canton 分韻. marked lower 上聲. In
mandarin they are 去聲.
Nowhere do we find such an accurate general correspondence with the
tables, as in the pronunciation of the central parts of China. The
tones are such, that the dictionary system is seen at once on
examination to apply to them with accuracy. The alphabetical
peculiarities of the native tables are found with one or two doubtful
exceptions, to be embraced in a tract of country, which will now be
roughly indicated.
In the north, the thick series of consonants, g, z, etc. marking the
lower series, i.e. in southern China words in tones 5–8, makes its
appearance in 南通州 Nán T’óng-cheú, a prefecture lying along the
northern bank of the Yáng-tsz-kiáng, where it enters the ocean. The
transition from d, etc. where the region of the northern mandarin is
approached, is marked by the introduction of the aspirate.
Thus, 地 dí‘ becomes t’í‘, before it becomes tí‘. The two
pronunciations are mixed in Chun-kiáng fú 鎭江, There the mandarin
system of five tones crosses the river to the south and extends to
Nanking. All round Háng-cheú bay, the two correlate series of
consonants, and the four-tone system mark the colloquial dialect.
Chu-san and Ningpo, Shaú-hing and Hang-cheú, on the south, are at one
with Sú-cheú, Ch’áng-cheú and Súng-kiáng, on the north. Perhaps the
whole of Cheh-kiáng province has substantially the same spoken medium.
Passing the point where the three provinces Cheh-kiáng, Fúh-kíen and
Kiáng-sí meet, the thick consonants are still found partially
prevailing in the two prefectures of the latter province Kwáng-sin and
Kíen-cháng, lying to the west of the Wú-í hills. But at 撫州 Fú-cheú, a
little farther westward they have entirely disappeared, and are
replaced by aspirates. Instead of dí‘ {earth}, they there say t’í, for
bing {sickness}, p’ing, and so through all words beginning with k, t,
p, in the lower series. The same peculiarity marks the Hakka dialect
and that of Kiá-ying cheú 嘉應侧, in the eastern part of Canton
province. Nothing can be said in the present notice of the southern
parts of Kiáng-sí, but Nán-ch’áng the provincial capital has the
aspirates only in the fifth tone where they should properly be, and in
the other lower tones has k, t, etc. distinguished from words in the
upper series, simply by difference in tone. Immediately north of this
city, on both sides of the Pó-yáng lake, the broad consonants occur
again. It might be expected that through Ngan-hwei, a connecting
chain of dialects should link the broad pronunciation of this region,
including the Potteries 景德鎮, and 南康府 on the other side of the lake,
with the similar system extending over Cheh-kiáng, and a great part of
Kiáng-sú. This line exists and extends through Ning-kwóh fú, but it is
so narrow that it does not reach the great river on the north, nor the
city of Hwei-cheú on the south. The last mentioned place has two
dialects within its walls, in one of which two sets of tones exist,
the tones of conversation being quite distinct from those of reading.
This is independent of the alphabetical differences of the reading and
the spoken sounds, which also here appear to reach their maximum. Near
this city, the pronunciation varies so fast that three dialects are
found in one {híen}. The belt of country across Ngan-hwei, where the
lower series of consonants is in use, is bordered on the north by
dialects containing the aspirates, that so frequently form the medium
of transition to the thin consonants and fewer tones of mandarin.
Beyond the Pô-yáng lake westward, are also found the g, d, lb,
initials on the banks of the 洞庭湖 Tóng t’ing hú, in Hú-nán. Boatmen
from the district of 安化, on the south of that celebrated lake, may be
readily conversed with by using the thick consonants in all words in
the lower series of tones. Round these two lakes, the favourite resort
of the Chinese muse, and from the natural beauty of which Lí Tái-puh
drew the inspiration of his poetry, the same system of pronunciation
with that of Háng-cheú and Sú-cheú, the most polished cities in China,
is found to exist. This consideration with the extent of the territory
thus delineated, may help to remove any strangeness in the assertion,
that the native tables of sounds made in the Liáng dynasty, and copied
into K’áng-Hí’s dictionary are not at all founded on the modern
mandarin pronunciation, but on what is now a provincial system.
In the territory thus delineated, there is not the same uniformity in
final that exists in initials. Of the three terminating consonants is
the 入聲 {k} only is developed at Shánghái, and even this is wanting in
all the large cities near, including those in the northern part of
Cheh-kiáng. N is not as a final in the long tones, clearly separated
from NG, and there is no representation of M.
On the other hand {t} and {p}, with their correlates {n} and {m} are
found at Fú-cheú fú, 撫州府 in Kiáng-sí but {k} does not appear. At
南康府 Nán-káng fú, at the western extremity of the same province, {p}
and {m} are distinctly represented, but there is no {k} or {t}, and
{ng} is confounded with {n}. {Kien} and {kan} are distinguished at
Shánghái, and in these more southerly cities. {Kóng} 公 is separated
from 弓 {kióng} at Fú-cheú fú.
In dialects farther south, while the initials differ from those of the
dictionaries, the consonantal terminations of the short tone are all
clearly marked, and are in harmony with the ancient system. Thus we
are led to the conclusion, that in regard to initials, the Kiáng-nan
and Cheh-kiáng pronunciation agrees best with the written
pronunciations as given in the native tables. But in reference to
finals, Kiáng-sí and the southern provinces best represent them.
Kiáng-sí appears to be the province that contains within its limits,
the greatest number of the peculiarities in question.
In K’áng-hí’s second table, the distinction between the finals, m and
n is neglected; e.g. 三 is spelt not {sam} but {san}. Further all words
in the short tone are spelt with vowel finals; k, t, p, not being
recognized, except as secondary forms retained out of respect to the
old system. They are cut in small circles. No change is made in the
tones or initials, except that words in 下平 are many of them placed in
the aspirate column.
The spelling of many words in W with an initial V, and of others in Y
with NG or N, will be found explained in Part I. section IV. With
respect to the two columns headed CH and TSH, which are the same to
our ears, it may be observed, that at Sú-cheú words under the former
heading are pronounced CH, and under the latter TS, indicating a
natural separation between the two columns.
The resumé of this appendix, and of what was said on the Dictionary
tables in the sections on the sounds at the commencement of the
present work may be stated thus:—
1. The peculiarities of the tabulated initials, finals and tones are
all explained, by bringing the different dialects of the three Kiáng
provinces together; the aspirated f column being the only prominent
anomaly that has not been illustrated.
2. The peculiarities of mandarin pronunciation, such as the
interchange of some initial consonants, the prefixing of NG to many
words in the upper tones (v. page 51), the coalescing of the upper and
lower tones in all cases except that of the {p’ing shung}, the uniform
occurrence of the aspirate after k, t, p, in the hiá‘ p’ing, and the
loss of the short tone in the northern provinces, are all unnoticed in
the old tables, while they are all recognized in modern works on
sounds.
It may be remarked generally on the two systems that the tendency of
words in mandarin is to coalesce in sound, while in the other system,
the tendency is to more minute subdivision. The mandarin is the most
widely spread, embracing two thirds of the 18 provinces.
It appears plain from the Corean and Japanese transcriptions of
Chinese sounds made contemporaneous with the dictionaries, that the
north of China must then have had the same dialect as that now
prevailing in the kiang provinces.
A. The circumflex tones in page 9, may be further divided. The bend of
the voice may be upward or downward. Perhaps the Sháng-hái fifth tone
may be best described, as sometimes a low slow falling circumflex,
(l.s.f.c.) and at other times as a low even tone (l.s.e.). There would
with this extension of the natural tones mentioned in section 2. be
seven starting from the same key, viz. The even, rising, falling,
rising circumflex, falling circumflex, rising short, and falling short
tones. If subdivided into an upper and lower key, they become
fourteen, and if considered according to their time as quick or slow,
we have in all (the short tones not admitting of this subdivision) 24
natural tones.
B. If Roman numerals i to viii be used for the eight tones, the
changes of tone occurring in combination in our dialect may be
represented as follows:—In the groups v—i, and viii—i, i become v. In
ii—ii; ii—vi, vi—vi and vi—ii, the last tone often becomes i, or else
former becomes iii or vii. In iii—iii, iii—vii, the former becomes ii.
In v—v, iv—v, v does not change, but in other cases v becomes i.
-----------------------------------------------------------------
1. In Julien’s “Methode pour transcrire les noms Sanscrits dans
les livres Chinois,” p. 2; he states that Remusat first
published this discovery in 1811.
2. For a general view of the changes undergone in vowels since
the tables of sounds were made, for example changes from u to ú,
o to ia, chi to ch, sí to sz, ui to ei, ü to ú, é to í, á to ó,
ó to á, etc. v. Grammar of Mandarin Dialect, ch. 8, § 5.
-----------------------------------------------------------------
Transcriber’s Notes:
* Footnotes have been renumbered and placed at the end of the
associated grammar article.
* Obvious typographical errors have been corrected in this text.
* Hyphenation variations are unchanged.
* This book contains some rarely used forms of Chinese characters.
Any eReader should contain as full a set of fonts as possible.
* In the text version only, italicized letters are contained
within braces {}.
* Depending on available fonts, some tables may not line up
vertically.
* The original book is available at the HathiTrust Digital Library.