A GRAMMAR
OF
COLLOQUIAL CHINESE,
AS EXHIBITED IN THE
SHANGHAI DIALECT
BY
J. EDKINS, B.A., Univ. Coll. Lond.
SECOND EDITION, CORRECTED.
SHANGHAI:
PRESBYTERIAN MISSION PRESS.
1868.
PREFACE,
TO FIRST EDITION 1853.
Among works on Chinese Grammar, that of Prémare, written a century
and a half ago, still stands preeminent. Besides a more extended
knowledge, he possessed a better appreciation of the peculiar
beauties of Chinese style, than any other writer on the subject. But
it has been justly remarked that his work, abounding in good
examples, is deficient in order, and the exhibition of principles.
Remusat, in his accurate and learned work, has made great use of
Prémare, but he has given less attention than his predecessor, to
those numerous groups, in which ideas or sounds are repeated, and he
says nothing on propositions. The deficiency that the reader of
these works feels in the treatment of groups of words, has been
pointed out by Bazin in his clever Essay on Colloquial Mandarin. He
quotes the section on words, in Gutzlaff’s Notices on Chinese
Grammar, containing a classification of compound words. Partly from
the suggestion of that work, and more from his own researches, he
has constructed a comprehensive system of grouped words (mots
composés).
The little work now in the hands of the reader, is an attempt to
elucidate colloquial Chinese, by taking a limited field of enquiry,
that of the dialect of a single district. By this means it has been
hoped, something might be done to help the causes of Chinese
philology, by collecting facts, which writers having a wider scope,
have overlooked.
There are aids for the study of the southern dialects of China, but
no one has yet written on the speech of the rich and populous
province of Kiáng-nán. On Missionary and Commercial grounds, it is
time that some attempt should be made to supply this want.
The mandarin student will meet with scarcely any new idioms here. Of
words, there are a few tens not used in the fashionable colloquial.
It is in sounds that the greatest variation exists, and an attempt
has therefore been made to form a correct nomenclature for tones,
and for the alphabetic elements of spoken words. For the latter, Sir
W. Jones’ system, as introduced by J. R. Morrison in the Chinese
Repository, has, with a few necessary modifications, been adopted as
by far the best.
For the tones, a new nomenclature is here proposed, based on their
real character, as distinct from the arbitrary names, which, though
they doubtless represented exactly the tones used by their author,
are not applicable, except for convenience sake, to those of other
dialects.
Upwards of twenty natural tones, from which each dialect chooses
its own set, varying from four to eight, are here described. The
early Roman Catholic Missionaries wrote much on this singular
characteristic of spoken Chinese, but Bayer in his abstract of
their system, in the Museum Sinicum, has not given a very
intelligible account of it.
Attention has been paid throughout to the mode of grouping words, as
a subject second to none in interest and importance. Some
similarity, though an independent one, will be found here to the
system adopted by M. Bazin.
The grammars of Morrison and Marshman, beside the excellent works
already alluded to, have been of occasional service, especially the
latter, which with all its diffuseness, is a useful and suggestive
book.
The assistance of friends has been kindly afforded. To Dr. Medhurst
special thanks are due, for revising the sheets as they passed
through the press, thus adding much to the correctness of the work;
and to Rev. T. M’Clatchie, for material assistance in regard to the
laws of Shanghai tones.
TABLE Of CONTENTS.
PART I.
ON SOUND, 1–57.
{Section} 1. Alphabet. Table of sounds. 1.
2. On the Chinese tones. Natural tones described.
Tones of several dialects. 6.
3. On Shanghai tones. Tones in state of transition.
Relation of tones to music and accents. 13.
4. Alphabetic elements of the sounds. The 36 initials
of the Dictionaries, Represent the sounds of the old
language, and are now a provincial pronunciation.
The Shanghai dialect, a branch of that system.
Finals. Comparative table of Shanghai and Mandarin
finals. The final consonants n, ng and k. 43.
PART II.
ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH, 58–162.
{Section} 1. Native divisions. Division proposed by a native
grammarian. 58.
2. Relation of the dialect to the written language,
and to other dialects. Primitive words exemplified.
Relation to the mandarin of the Historical Romances.
Compared with the dialect of Sú-cheú. 60.
3. On Substantives. 66.
4. On Numeral and Quantitative Auxiliary Substantives.
Distinctive Particles. Significant Particles.
Weights and measures. Collectives. 81.
5. On Adjectives. 89.
6. On Pronouns. 101.
7. On Verbs. Modes of grouping. Kinds of Verbs.
Mode. Tense. 111.
8. Propositions, and Postpositions. 134.
9. On Adverbs. 136.
10. On Conjunctions. 154.
11. On Expletives and Interjections. 160.
PART III.
ON SYNTAX, 163–214.
{Section} 1. On Government. 163.
2. Interchange of the Parts of Speech. Adjective
as Substantive. Verb as Substantive, and as
Adjective, &c. 164.
3. On Government of Words in Groups. 170.
4. On Repetition. 176.
5. On Order in Groups. 181.
6. On Simple Propositions. 187.
7. On Subordinate Sentences. 196.
8. On Coordinate Sentences. 205.
9. On Antithesis. 210.
10. On Rhythmus. 212.
Appendix I. On the 文理 or higher colloquial used by literary
men. 215.
II. On the Native Tables of Initials and Finals.
Imitated from the Sanscrit. Geographical outline of
the dialects that agree with the dictionary system. 216.
Addenda.
Errata.
RULES FOR USING THE ORTHOGRAPHY HERE ADOPTED.
1. The accent marks long vowels í, é, á, ó, ú, pronounced as the
vowel in feel, fail, father, foal, fool.
2. Vowels not accented are the five short vowels corresponding
to these; e.g. in fin, fen, fan, fop, fun.
3. The remaining vowels are ö, ü, au, û, eu, pronounced as in
könig, une, auburn, 書, 頭.
4. The initial consonants k, t, p, f, s, are pronounced high and
with the English and Scotch sound. When k, t, p, take an aspirate
as in the pronunciation of some parts of Ireland and the United
States, they are written k’, t’, p’. These with the vowels and h’ a
strong aspirate, constitute the upper series.
5. The initials g, d, b, y, z with ng, n, m, l, rh, a soft aspirate
{h}, and vowel initials form the lower series. The italic k, t, etc.,
are to be pronounced two full musical notes lower than the roman
k, t, etc., and are counted as the same with g, d, &c.
6. The nasals m, ng, n, without a vowel are italicised.
7. Final n when italicised is pronounced very indistinctly.
8. The superior commas on the left and right of a word, mark
the second and third tones. Final h, k and g, indicate the short
tone. Words not thus marked are all in the first tone.
The series is known by the initial as in the native mode of spelling,
反切, Fan-t’sih. The capital letters denote dialects as—
S. Shánghái sound.
M. Mandarin sound.
C. Colloquial sound.
R. Reading sound.
A GRAMMAR
OF THE
SHANGHAI DIALECT,
PART 1.
{ON SOUND}.
{Section} 1. {Alphabet}.
1. The alphabetical symbols we shall need to employ are the
following:—
----------------------------------------------------------------
Symbols. Pronunciation and Examples.
----------------------------------------------------------------
á as {a} in f{a}ther; 揩 k’á, wipe; 拜 pá‘, {worship}.
a as {a} in s{a}nd, or in h{a}t; 鉛 k’a{n}, {lead};
蠟 lah, {wax}.
au as in P{au}l, or as {a} in f{a}ll, or {o} in g{o}ne;
老 ’lau, {old}. Aú expresses the mandarin sound.
b or {p} as in 病 {p}ing‘, {sickness}; 生病 sáng bing‘, {to be
sick}.
d or {t} as in 道 {t}au‘, {doctrine}; 神道 zun dau‘, {men
canonized for their virtues}.
dz a compound of {d} and {z}; 盡 dzing‘, {exhaust}.
dzz do. as {dze} in a{dz}e. The second z marks a peculiar
vowel sound which is sometimes between {i}
and {e}, 辭 {dzz}, to {leave}.
é as {ai} in f{ai}l, or {a} in m{a}le; 來 lé, {come}.
e as {e} in l{e}d or l{e}t; 十 {s}eh, {ten}.
eu nearly as {ou} in c{ou}sin lengthened; 手 ’seu,
{hand}. Eú expresses the mandarin sound, as {ow} in
c{ow}.
f as in 夫 fú, or 轎夫 {k}iau‘ fû, {chair-bearer}.
g or {k} as in 其 {k}í, {he}, before {i}, {ü} often heard like
{ji}; 共衆 {k}óng‘ tsóng‘, {altogether}.
{h} a feeble aspirate, often lost; 合 {h}eh, {combine}; 皇
{h}wong, {emperor}. When quite lost, as in the
latter word, it will be omitted.
h and h’ a strong guttural aspirate, nearly equivalent to
{sh} when occurring before í and ü; 海 ’hé, {sea}; 喜
’h’í, {glad}. Before í and ü, the superior comma
will be used.
í as {i} in mar{i}ne; 西 sí, {west}.
i as {i} in s{i}ng or s{i}t; 心 s{i}ng, {heart}.
dj nearly as {j} in {J}une; 序 djü‘, {preface}. This
sound may also be read {z}. The natives use either.
k 古今 ’kú kiun, {ancient and modern}.
k’ a strongly aspirated sound 空 k’ung, {empty}. It
is often mistaken by foreign ears when occurring
before i and ü, for the aspirated c‘h but should be
separated from that sound in careful pronunciation;
去 k’í‘, {go}; usually heard chi‘ aspirated.[1]
l 禮 ’li, {propriety}.
m or {m} 米 ’mí, {rice}; 唔沒 {m} méh, {there is no more}.
n 女, ’nü, {woman}.
ng or {ng} a nasal consonant used at the beginning or close
of a syllable. When no distinct vowel sound
accompanies it, it is marked {ng}; 江 kong, {river};
我 ’ngú {I}; 五 ’{ng}, {five}
a{u}, e{n}, û{n} a slight nasal, best heard before another word;
但 {t}a{n}‘, {but}; 敢 ’ké{n}, {dare}; 幹 kû{n},
{dry}; 算 sû{n}‘, {count}; 搬轉 pè{n} ’tsé{n}, {to
whril round}.
ó as {o} in g{o}; 怕 p’ô‘, {fear}.
o as {o} in g{o}ng and g{o}t; 當 tong, {ought}, {bear};
落 loh, {fall}.
ö as ö in Göthe; 端 tö{n}, correct; 看 k’ön‘, {see}; 奪
{t}öh, {rob}.
p 比 pí, {compare}.
p’ as p with a strong aspirate; 譬 p’i‘, {like}.
rh a peculiar Chinese sound, the same as in mandarin;
而 rh, {and}.
s 所 ’sú, {which, therefore}.
sz a peculiar Chinese sibilant,[2] pronounced as in
mandarin, and nearly as {se} in ca{stle}, whi{stle},
t, l, being supposed omitted; 詩 sz, {poetry}.
t 多 tú, {many}.
t’ as t with a strong aspirate; 拖 t’ú {to draw}.
ts 做 tsú‘, {do}.
ts’ the last strongly aspirated; 秋 ts‘ieu, {Autumn}.
tsz a peculiar Chinese sibilant, pronounced as in
mandarin, as {ts} in ha{ts}; 子 ’tsz, {a son}; 知 tsz,
{know}.
ts’z the above with a strong aspirate 雌 ts’z, {female}.
ú as {u} in r{u}le; 素 sú‘, {common}, {plain}.
u as {u} in r{u}n; 門 mun, {door}; 等 ’tung, {wait}.
ü French u as in vert{u}; German ü as in Tübingen;
虛 hü {empty}.
û 處 ts’û‘ {place}. This vowel is between ó and ú.
v or {f} 佛 {f}eh, {Buddha}; 房 {f}ong, {house}. More of v
than f.
w 光 kwong, {light}; 王 {w}ong, {king}.
y 右 {y}eu‘, {right-hand}; 要 yau‘, {to want}.
z or {s} 象 {s}iáng‘, {elephant}; 坐 zú‘, {sit}.
An apostrophe ’ preceding the word, denotes the second tone.
A comma ‘ following the word, denotes the third tone.
The fourth tone will be written with {h}, {k} or {g} final.
Words left unmarked are in the first tone.[3]
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1. When a native is asked whether k‘i‘ or c‘hi‘ is the more
correct pronunciation of 去 he replies the former. Yet the
orthography by c‘hi‘ seems to the foreigner more like the true
sound. The fact is that the sound is in a state of transition
from k‘i to c‘hi.
2. This sound is better described as s and a peculiar vowel ï or
t, s, and ï. The mark ï denotes a vowel peculiar to China but
like e in {castle}.
3. The further subdivision into upper and lower tones needs no
mark, being indicated uniformly by the initial letter. Thus, b,
g, d, z, l, m, n, r, and any letters italicized are in the lower
tones; other initial letters denote upper tones. There are a few
exceptions which will be noted afterwards. A {final} italic
letter denotes a nasal.
-----------------------------------------------------------------
2. Mandarin pronunciation wants several of these sounds.
Among the vowels, the short a and e together with û are omitted,
and au, eu, are lengthened into aú, eú. Among the consonants, b,
d, g, dj, {m} {ng}, {n}, dz, dzz, v and z are wanting.
3. The Shánghái dialect is deficient in the sh, ch and soft j of
mandarin and of Sú-cheú pronunciation.
4. Of the above sounds, those foreign to the English, language, and
therefore needing particular attention, are the following:—
Of vowels, {eu} as in 口 ’k’eu, {mouth}; ö as in 安 ö{n}, {rest}. û
as in 鑽 tsûn, {to bore}. A final r should be carefully avoided
in these three sounds. Oe is not so common in this dialect
as in that of Sú-cheú, where it occurs in 船 jö{n}, {boat}, 滿
’mö{n}, {full}, etc., etc. The vowel ü, (French u), is often
convertible with û. Thus 書 sû, {book} is pronounced sü at Súng-kiáng
and to the east of the Hwáng-p’ú, while it becomes sz in Paú-shán
district.
Of consonants, note well the sibilants sz, tsz, dzz, with rh,
and the nasals {m}, {n}, {ng}, also the strong aspirate h’; also the
three aspirated mutes p’, k’, t’, and ng at the beginning of a
syllable.
5. The native arrangement of the alphabet, as found in the tables
prefixed to K’áng-hí’s Dictionary, is borrowed from the Sanscrit.[1]
The natural order of the letters as formed by the organs of speech,
is as far as possible preserved, and the system adopted contrasts
advantageously with the irregularity of the English and other
alphabets. The pronunciation there registered is what Chinese
authors call the 南音 Nán yin, {Southern pronunciation}, as it was
early in the Christian era. It probably agrees in the main with the
modern speech of Sú-cheú, Háng-chú and the surrounding cities. That
the pronunciation of Sháng-hiá is one of its dialects, appears from
the slightest examination of the tables in question. It is
characterized by the same division into Yin and Yáng, i.e. hard and
soft, or thin and broad consonants, which form the basis of
arrangement, in those tables, and agrees in many of the details.
Vide Appendix on K’áng-hí’s tables of Initials and Finals.
-----------------------------------------------------------------
1. Vide Preface to Morrison’s Dictionary, and Marshman’s Clavis
Sinica. None of the western alphabets appear to have been so
scientifically arranged as the Sanscrit.
-----------------------------------------------------------------
6. In the native system, while the consonants are accurately
distinguished, the initial vowels are placed together, under only
two heads. In this respect therefore, we depart from it in the
following table. The initials sh, zh, ch, f’, and some others are
also omitted as not applicable to our dialect. The imperfect nasal
consonants are inserted, though as local variations they have no
place in the native tables. In naming the classes, western terms
have been adopted.
{Tabular view of the alphabetic sounds of the Shánghái dialect}.
---------------------------------------------------------------
Fifteen vowels.
Quantity of syll.| Value.
------------------------------------------
long or short. | á f{a}ther
do. | a h{a}nd, b{a}ck
long | au P{au}l
do. | é M{ay}
short | e l{e}t
long | eu c{ou}sin
do. | í mar{i}ne
long or short | i s{i}ng
do. | ó g{o}
do. | o l{o}ng, l{o}ck
do. | ö Göthe
long | ú r{u}le
long or short | u s{u}n, s{u}ck
long | ü T{ü}bingen
do. | û as in 書 sû
Thirty three consonants.
| High. | Low.
|-------------------------------------------------
| Thin | Aspirated | Broad | Nasals & | Imperfect
| | | | Liquids | nasals
|-------------------------------------------------
Mutes | k | k’ | g | ng | {ng}
| t | t’ | d | n | {n}
| p | p’ | b | m | {m}
----------|-------------------------------------------------
| | | | |
Labio- | f | | v | |
dentals | | | | |
----------|-------------------------------------------------
Sibilants | s | | z | |
and | sz | | zz | |
aspirates | tz | ts’ | dz | |
| | | dj | ni |
| tsz | ts’z | dzz | |
| h’ | | {h} | |
----------|-------------------------------------------------
Semi- | | | | l |
vocals | | | | rh |
------------------------------------------------------------
If from these consonants, we subtract the combinations of t and d,
with s and z, the aspirated mutes, and ní, as capable of resolution,
there remain twenty three in all. Of those that are left, sz and zz
may also be supposed to be made up of s, z, and an indistinct vowel
ï, heard in English after the l of beetle, needle, etc.
{Section} 2. {On the Tones}.
7. In order to determine the position of the Shánghái {patois} among
the dialects of China, something must be said on tones generally.
Chinese pronunciation may for our present purpose, be considered in
three or more general divisions, according to the number of tones.
(1.) The first of these is the Northern mandarin. 北音 Pih yin, where
four or five tones are in use. It is the pronunciation of the
Emperor’s court, and professedly of the government officers
throughout the empire. It is also spoken in considerable purity in
the parts north of the Yáng tsz Kiáng (hence its name), and in the
provinces of Sz-ch’uen, Kwei-cheú, Yün-nán, and parts of Kwangsi and
Hunan.
(2.) The second in the Southern pronunciation, 南音 Nán yin, spoken
in the part of Kiáng-sú, that is south of the Yáng-tsz’-kiáng, in
Cheh-kiáng and part of Kiáng-sí. This is mainly the pronunciation
out of which the mandarin grew and which is followed in the
Dictionaries, from K’ang-hí upwards, nearly to the Hán dynasty.[1]
The tones are four in number, each subdivided into kaú and tí, upper
and lower, or as they are also denominated yin and yáng, feminine
and masculine. These upper and lower series of tones are also
distinguished, by different initial consonants, the one taking g, d,
b, v, z, etc., and the other k, t, p, f, s, etc. The variations that
exist even between contiguous districts, are very numerous, a
circumstance which furnishes a mark of distinction between this part
of China and the mandarin provinces, where orthographical
differences are few.
(3.) The pronunciation of the other provinces presents many
extensive departures from the true mandarin. The tones are seven or
eight in number, and are often found inverted in position, as well
as contradictory in nature to the names they bear. The Fúh-kien and
Canton dialects have long been the subject of foreign study, and
have received abundant illustration. Ngán-hwei and Kiangsi have also
many eccentricities of pronunciation.
-----------------------------------------------------------------
1. Vide in K’áng-hí, the Fán-ts’eih spelling, quoted from the
previously existing Dictionaries. In K’áng-hí’s table of sounds,
the former model is to some extent departed from, in favour of
the Northern mandarin. The terms 北音南音 are common both in
books, and in the conversation of the natives. Mandarin
pronunciation has also its dictionaries, such as 五方元音, but it
is the old tonic dictionaries and new works founded on them to
which reference is here made.
-----------------------------------------------------------------
8. The tones may be partially described according to their natural
character. In attempting this, we intentionally avoid for the
present, the usual Chinese terms 平上去入 {p}ing, {even}, záng,
{rising}, k’ü‘, {going}, zeh, {entering}, because, being the same in
all dialects, they do not in the majority of cases, represent the
actual effect of the sounds on the ear. When first adopted in the
reign of Liang wu ti, A.D. 402 to 450, they must have represented
the tones of the dialect, spoken by Shen yoh[1] the writer who
selected them a native of Hu cheu only 100 miles from Sháng-hái. But
when applied according to universal practice, to the sounds given to
the same characters in other parts of the empire, these four names
convey no idea of the actual pronunciation. The descriptions
given of the tones by native authors, are consequently often
incomprehensible.
A. {Upper acute tone}. We pronounce monosyllabic words, when
speaking with moderate emphasis, in a quick descending tone. It is
heard in commands as Gó, Fíre, Go at ônce. In naming any object,
English speakers usually adopt this intonation for a monosyllable,
or the penultimate of a dissyllable. It might be called the
affirmative tone. It represents the 上平 záng‘ bing, or upper first
tone at Sháng-hái and Sú-cheú, as 天 t’íe{n} {heaven}; while in the
dialect of Amoy, it is the second, and in the mandarin of Pe-king,
the first tone.
B. {Upper even tone}. This is a sound without deflection like a long
note in music, and is not so common in English conversation as the
former. When high in key, it is in Sháng-hái the upper second tone,
as in 水 sz; {water}; 火 hú, {fire}, 土 t’ú, {earth}. In Sz-ch’uen
mandarin, and in the Fúh-kien of Amoy, it is the upper first tone.
C. {Upper quick rising tone}. This is nearly like the {staccato} of
musical notation, and is usually heard in interjections of surprise
and indignation, and frequently in questions. If quick and high, it
is in Sháng-háe the upper third tone, as 信 sing, {a letter}, 菜
ts’é, {vegetables}. In Pe-king mandarin. It is the lower first tone.
D. {Upper slow rising tone}. This is a prolonged intonation rising
more slowly than the last, and is not needed for the Sháng-háe
dialect.
E. {Upper short tone}. This is the intonation of syllables short in
quantity. Long and short quantity may be predicated of vowels or of
syllables. In Latin, the short {ă} of {m-ă-gis}, becomes long by
position in {magnus}. The converse of this example takes place in
Sháng-hái pronunciation, where the long and short {a} and {o} are
all found in a short tone.[2] In such cases, we write them all with
a final {h}; the presence or absence of the accent marking the
quantity of the vowel, while that of {h} marks the quantity of the
syllable; as in 濕 sáh, {wet}; 薩 sah, in {P}ú sah, {disciple of
Buddha}; 哭 k’óh {weep}; 悪 oh, {wicked}. This tone might be divided
into two, as it ascends or descends; but as only the former occurs
in Sháng-hái sounds, we count but one of these, to avoid too great
subdivision.
F. {Lower acute tone}. In proceeding to tones in a lower pitch of
voice, we enumerate them in an order corresponding to that followed
above; thus the same natural description, except as regards key,
will readily apply to them. The lower acute tone is not needed for
the Shánghái sounds, except in cases of combination. In the Sú-cheú
dialect, it represents the lower second tone, while in Fúh-kien, if
set very low, it will be the upper third tone.
G. {Lower even tone}. A low musical sound without deflection. It is
the lower first tone at Sháng-hái, as in 能 nung, {can}. 埋, má,
{bury}. In the mandarin of Nán-king, it is the upper first tone,
while in the dialect of Amoy, it is the lower third tone.
H. {Lower quick rising tone}. This intonation is nearly that of any
common word, when spoken interrogatively, as I? Yes? Indeed? It is
the lower third tone of Sháng-hái, and the lower first of Nán-king
and Amoy.
I. {Lower slow rising tone}. This is the intonation of remonstrance
as in “Et tù Brute,” if {tù} were spoken in a deep and rather
lengthened tone. So in many antithetical sentences, as “We seek not
yoùrs but yoú,” the former accented word is in a low slow rising
tone, and the latter in a quick falling tone. Writers on Elocution
mark them with the grave and acute, accents respectively.
J. {Lower short tone}. The remarks appended to the corresponding
upper tone apply also to this. 學習 {h}oh dzih, {to learn and
practice}.
K. {Upper circumflex}. This is an intonation high in key and having
two deflections, apparently ascending and descending. It may be
quick or slow in time. It is not used in Sháng-hái pronunciation.
When slow it is the second tone of Nán-king.
L. {Lower circumflex}. This corresponds to the preceding in
character and time, but differs from it in key. When, quick, it is
the lower first tone of the district east of Sú-cheú.
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1. Shen yoh 沈約 was high in favour with the emperor Liang wu ti
whose capital was Nanking. Nan shï 南史 c. 57.
2. If different symbols were invented for the long and short
vowels, so that syllables only should be considered long and
short, this anomaly would disappear. All alphabets are deficient
in vowel marks.
-----------------------------------------------------------------
9. While selecting most of their tones from those thus described,
some dialects would require a more minute subdivision, and perhaps
two high and two low divisions of each series might be found
necessary. The preceding arrangement however, will be sufficient to
give some conception of the variety of tonic effects, whether
harmonious or discordant the listener must judge, existing in the
speech of China. If it be recollected that independently of these
differences in tones, there are also numberless variations in the
alphabetic form of the sounds, an accurate knowledge of so Protean a
language might seem unattainable, were it not that the characters
are everywhere the same. What one pronounces in a high shrill
accent, and another in a prolonged whine, and another in a low
musical intonation, they all write in the same form; and if asked
what is its tone, they give the same reply.
The Chinese have themselves described the tones according to their
natural character. We quote the following translation of some verses
in K’áng-hí’s Dictionary, from Medhurst’s Hok-kien Dictionary.
“The even tone travels on a level road, neither elevated nor
depressed.
“The high tone exclaims aloud, being fierce, violent, and strong.
“The departing tone is distinct and clear, gruffly travelling to a
distance.
“The entering tone is short and contracted, being hastily gathered
up.”[1]
This description must be taken as answering to the tones spoken by
the native writer from whom it is taken.
-----------------------------------------------------------------
1.
平聲平道莫低昂
上聲高呼猛烈强
去聲分明哀遠道
入聲短促急收藏
-----------------------------------------------------------------
10. The terms used by the Chinese to describe sounds in reference to
tones, are such as—
高 低, kau tí, {high} and {low} ({key of the tone}).
陰 陽, yun {y}áng, {high} and {low} ({key of the tone}).
緩 急, {w}én‘ kih, {slow} and {quick} ({time of the tone}).
平 仄 {p}ing tsáh, {even}, {deflected}. 仄 is further divided into
上 去 入 záng‘, k’ü‘, zeh, {rising}, {departing}, {entering}.
To these we add to express quantity apart from tone:—
長 短 dzáng, ’dö{n},[1] {long} and {short} ({time in reference to the
syllables}).
These terms include all the principles, on which our arrangement of
natural tones has been made: thus—
The first two pairs define the upper and lower tones.
The third pair embraces differences in time, the quick and slow tones.
The fourth pair includes even tones and those having deflections,
which may rise or fall, and be one or two in number.
The fifth pair distinguishes the three first tones from the fourth.
In an article in the Chinese Repository on the Birmese and Shán
languages (Vol. V. page 71), there are some facts respecting tones
as employed in those countries. The Sháns, inhabiting the country
that separates Birmah from China, have two deflected tones rising
and falling respectively, two tones short in quantity also rising
and falling, and a low even tone.
The Birmese have the two deflected tones, and one short tone.
The Shán language is fundamentally the same as the Siamese, which
also has tones.
-----------------------------------------------------------------
1. This is one of the words where d is heard in the upper series
instead of t. Other cases of departures from the usual law will
be subsequently pointed out.
-----------------------------------------------------------------
11. TABLE OF TONES IN SEVERAL DIALECTS.[1]
i. MANDARIN TONES. 北音
--------------------------------------------------------------
Tones |Nan-King|Pe-king |Hó-nan |Sz-ch’uen
| | |K‘ai-fung|
--------------------------------------------------------------
Upper First, 上平|l, e, |u, e, or |u, q, e, |u, e,
| |u, q, f, |
--------------------------------------------------------------
Second, 上|l, s, r,|l, q, r, |l, q, r, |q, f,
-----------------------------|---------------------------------
Third, 去|q, f, |l, q, f, |l, q, f, |l, s, r,
---------------------------------------------------------------
Fourth, 入|sh, |u, e, |u, q, e, |l, q, e, or
| |----------------------|l, q, f,
| |l, q, r, |l, q, r, |
| |------------| |
| |l, q, f, &c.|l, q, r, |
---------------------------------------------------------------
Lower first, 下平|l, q, r,|l, q, r, |u, q, r, |l, q, e, or
| | | |l, q, f
---------------------------------------------------------------
ii. KIANG-NAN AND CHEH-KIANG. 南音
---------------------------------------------------------------
|Tones |Sú-cheú |Sháng-hái |Ning-pó
---------------------------------------------------------------
Upper |First, 上平|u, q, f,|u, q, f, |u, q, f,
Series|Second, 上上|u, e |u, e, |u, s, r,
|Third, 上去|u, s, r,|u, q, r, |u, e,
|Fourth, 上入|u, sh, |u, sh, |u, sh,
------|------------|-------------------------------------------
Lower |First, 下平|l, q, r,|l, e, |l, s, c, q, f,
Series|Second, 下上|l, q, f,|l, s, r, |l, s, r,
|Third, 下去|l, s, r,|l, q, r, |l, s, r, or e,
|Fourth, 下入|l, sh, |l, sh, |l, sh,
---------------------------------------------------------------
iii. FUH-KIEN.
---------------------------------------------------------------
Tones |Amoy and Cháng-cheú
---------------------------------------------------------------
Upper first, |u, e,
do. second, |u, q, f,
do. third, |l, f,
do. fourth. |l, sh, f
Lower first, |l, q, r,
do. second, |u, q, f,
do. third, |l, e,
do. fourth. |u, sh, f
---------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------
1. u, upper. l, lower. r, rising. f, falling. q, quick. s, slow.
e, even. c, circumflex. sh, short.
-----------------------------------------------------------------
12. Nán-king is here placed among those that belong to the 北音 or
Northern Mandarin division. A native author[1] says, that this city
and two others 淮陽 Hwái {y}áng and 徐海 Sü hái use the northern
pronunciation.
The large Dictionaries are uniform in the adoption of the
pronunciation in our (ii.) division, as their basis of spelling.
They usually speak of only four tones, distinguishing the upper from
the lower by the initial letter. This is also the universal practice
among the educated class vivâ voce. They do not speak of 帝 ti‘
{emperor} and 地 di‘ {earth}, as different in tone, the one the upper
third tone, the other the lower, but as different in the
alphabetical form tí, dí.
The division into eight tones is preferable for a foreign reader,
because (1) there is a difference in elevation of voice, 帝 tí‘ being
at an interval of a fourth in the musical scale more or less, higher
than 地 dí‘. (2) Although the third and fourth tones, upper and
lower, are deflected at Sháng-hái in a similar way, so that they may
be regarded as the same tones, this is not the case with the first
and second, which differ decidedly in character.
The fourth tone in the 北音 Póh yun, class (i.) is in the Northern
provinces, long in quantity. The words included under it are
distributed among the other tones, and must be learnt separately, in
order that they may be correctly pronounced; e.g. of words written
{chúh}, some such as 竹, 竺, 燭 are at K’ai-fóng-fú in the upper first
tone, while 軸, 祝, 昨 are in the lower first tone.[2]
-----------------------------------------------------------------
1. Vide 李氐音鑑. The author was a native of Peking.
2. The analogy between the Chinese tones and the Greek accents
probably led the Catholic Missionaries to call the former
{accentus}. The distinction between accent and quantity which
existed in Greek, has been found also in Sanscrit in the Vedas.
(Vide Bopp’s Sanscrit Grammar, section 80.) In both, there were
three accents, acute, grave and circumflex. The grave is
described as the negation of the acute and to be understood
where that mark is not written. The acute was a rising in tone;
while the circumflex is said to have raised and depressed the
tone on the same syllable. (Vide Valpy’s, Greek Grammar.) Taking
accent and quantity together, we obtain four distinctions of
sound, which is the nominal number of tones in Chinese. The
fundamental difference in the structure of polysyllabic and
monosyllabic languages prevents the analogy from being carried
far; the tones in one case being fixed to syllables, and in the
other to words. But when it is remembered that those two
branches of the great Indo-European stem are among the most
ancient of languages, not much later in origin than the Chinese
itself, and one of them its geographical neighbour, the fact of
these delicate differences of sound existing till now in that
language, becomes interesting as throwing light on some of the
most precious remains of the literature of the past. Grammarians
would not speak with such hesitation, as they do, when
describing these peculiar intonations of the civilized races of
the old world, if they had heard and could discriminate the
Chinese tones. Late speculations on the change in
language-forming power that has taken place in modern times,
have referred to the gradual diminution of inflexions in new
languages, and to other circumstances, as instances of it. From
these has been argued the decay of a certain faculty once
possessed by the human race. The limited use of accents fixed to
words in newly-formed languages, may be viewed as another
illustration of it. Clearly-marked alphabetical differences, as
now preferred to those nicer distinctions of sounds, which
perhaps were familiar alike to the most cultivated branches of
the Great Arian family, and to the ancient and modern Chinese.
It may be added that the use of many of the Hebrew accents is
but imperfectly known in modern times.
-----------------------------------------------------------------
{Section} 3. {On the Shanghai Tones}.
13. We shall illustrate the tones one by one with numerous examples,
adding a translation for the use of those who wish to acquire at the
same time, a vocabulary of common phrases. We have hitherto regarded
tones as they are heard, when the sound is enunciated emphatically
and single. But there are certain changes which occur in
combinations of two or more words in rapid conversation, which can
be only explained by examples of such groups arranged in separate
columns. In the observations appended to each table, the more
prominent of these variations will be pointed out, and the place of
the accent determined.[1]
The vowel marks employed in this work are repeated here, that the
eye of the reader may be familiarized with them:—
Long vowels. | Short vowels. | Other vowels.
-------------------------------------------------
á r{a}ther. | a s{a}ng. | au Pa{u}l.
é r{ay}. | e s{e}t. | eu as in 頭 {t}eu.
í r{ea}d. | i s{i}ng. | ö Göthe.
ó r{o}ad. | o s{o}ng. | ü vert{u}.
ú r{ud}e. | u s{u}ng. | û as in 書 s{û}.
-------------------------------------------------
In writing mandarin, the following will also be used:—
aú {á}, {ú}, combined. Prolongation of au.
eú c{ow}. Prolongation of eu.
ei kine. The Greek, ei.
The accents denote long vowels, and a symbol is never used for more
than one sound. This is the principle of the orthography usually
called Sir W. Jones’ system. It was proposed by the Hon. J. R.
Morrison in 1836, in the Chinese Repository, (vol, 5, page 22), for
application to the Chinese language. For this part of China,
modifications are needed in the details, and hence the differences
in the system here adopted, from that described by the writer of
that article, and in Williams’ Chinese Vocabulary, etc.
The long vowels all have, what is called in England, the Italian
pronunciation.
The sound eu is something like the French {eu} in dou{leu}r, or the
common short English u as in b{u}n prolonged ’or the corresponding
mandarin sound eú as in 口 ’k’eú, Premare uses eou, and Klaproth eu;
from them we have borrowed it. In the lengthened form, it is a
diphthong eú or uú, as in English cl{ou}d. The shorter form eu has
no exact English equivalent.
-----------------------------------------------------------------
1. In an Essay on the Hok-kien tones by the Rev. S. Dyer of
Malacca, descriptions of them with a musical notation are given.
Tables of examples for groups of two like those we now give, but
without the Chinese characters, are annexed.
-----------------------------------------------------------------
14. {The upper first tone}. This is the common quick falling sound,
usually given in. English pronunciation, to any monosyllable when
standing alone, and spoken with emphasis.
瓜 kwó, {melon}. 鍾 tsúng, {bell}.
風 fóng, {wind}. 多 tú, {many}.
輕 k’iung, {light}. 飛 fí, {to fly}.
That it may be readily compared with the other tones, by such as
have a native assistant at hand, some examples are here given of the
same alphabetical sound, varied according to the four upper tones.
希喜戲歇 hí ’hí hí‘ hih
多覩妒篤 tú ’tú tú‘ tóh,
枯苦課哭 k’ú ’k’ú k’ú‘ k’óh,
In the fourth word of each series, the vowels change, í into i, and
ú into ó. The Chinese regard them as different only in tone; to a
foreign ear, the difference is one both of time, as the syllables
are long and short, and of vowels sound, as the long {i} becomes
short {i}, and long {u} becomes long {o}.
15. As examples of combination, take first those which have the
upper first tone in the penultimate, (p, s, k, j, in roman type,
represent the four upper tones in their order; in italic type, the
lower).
Tones. Place of the Accent.
p.p. 今朝 kiun tsau, {to-day}, ult.
相公 siáng kóng, {sir}, {husband}, „
工夫 kúng fú, {work}, pen.
當中 tong tsóng, {in the middle}, ult.
p.s. 天頂 t’íe{n} ting, {the zenith}, „
多少 tú sau, {how many?} „
恩主 un tsû, {benefactor}, „
p.k. 眞正 tsun tsung, {truly}, „
相信 siang sing, {believe}, {be fond of}, „
聲氣 sáng kí, (c’h) {sound of voice}, pen.
p.j. 中國 tsúng kóh, {China}, „
彎曲 wa{n} k’ióh, (c’h) {winding}, {crooked}, ult.
p.{p}. 中原 tsóng niö{n}, {China}, „
天堂 t’íe{n} dong, {heaven}, „
差人 ts’á niun, {a messenger}, pen.
p.{s}. 天理 t’íe{n} lí, {heavenly reason}, ult.
裝滿 tsong mé{n}, {to pack full}, „
新米 sing mí, {new rice}, pen.
p.{k}. 天地 t’íe{n} dí, {heaven and earth}, ult.
天亮 t’íe{n} liáng, {daybreak}, „
鄕下 h’iáng {a}u, i{n the country}, pen.
p.{j}. 風俗 fóng zóh, {custom}, ult.
新閘 sing zah, {village near Shanghai}, „
Obs. In this table, the tone preserves its natural character
throughout, but when followed by the quick rising tones, as in p, k,
and p, {k}, or by the short tones, or by a word hurried over without
emphasis on account of its unimportance, it is heard with a more
distinct accent than in other cases. When the accent is upon the
other word, this tone needs to have the voice rest upon it for a
time, to prevent its becoming the third tone.
The tone which is the same as this in the Amoy dialect, undergoes a
regular change, in combinations such as those in this table. When
standing first of two words, it becomes an upper quick rising tone.
Thus though a tone be identical when pronounced alone in two
dialects, it does not follow that its laws of combination are also
the same. For much important information on the Hok-kien tones, and
the laws of combination in that dialect, the writer is indebted to
Rev. J. Stronach of Amoy.
16. Examples of the upper first tone in the antepenultimate or when
first in a group of three.
Tones. Accent.
p.p.{p}. 蘇州人 Sú-tseu niun, {a Sú-cheú man}, ult.
p.s.{p}. 天主堂 t’íe{n}-tsû dong, {Roman Catholic Chapel}, „
p.k.k. 挑過去 t’iau kú-k’í, {carry it past}, ant.
p.j.{k}. 當得住 tong tuh-dzû, {able to stand against}, „
p.{p}.{p}. 朝辰頭 tsau-zun deu, {in the morning}, „
p.{s}.k. 千里鏡 ts’íe{n}-lí kiung, {telescope}, ult.
p.{k}.p. 三字經 sa{n}-zz’ kiung, {the Three Character Classic}, „
p.{j}.{k}. 追勿上 tsûi veh-zong, {cannot overtake him}, ant.
p.s.s. 多好狗 tú-hau keu, {a number of dogs}, „
Obs. i. In the example standing last but two, if 經 is accented, it
preserves its proper character, but if, as is often the case, 三 is
accented, 經 becomes even and falls in pitch.
Obs. ii. The accent often varies between the first and the last
syllable. In regard to position, it is the latter that should
receive it. But in reference to tone, that now under illustration
admitting emphasis freely, overbears the accent of position.
17. Examples of upper first tone standing last in a combination of
two or three.
Tones. Accent.
p.p. 當心 tong sing, {take care}, pen.
燒香 sau h’iáng, {burn incense}, ult.
s.p. 祖宗 tsú tsóng, {ancestors}, pen.
頂多 ting tú, {greatest number of}, „
講書 kong sû, {explain books}, „
水晶 sz tsing, {rock crystal}, ult.
k.p. 貴庚 kwé káng, {your honourable age?} „
放心 fong sing, {be content}, „
j.p. 插花 ts’ah hwó, {insert flowers}, „
忒多 t’uk tú, {too many}, „
{p}.p. 明朝 ming tsau, {to-morrow}, pen.
良心 liáng sing, {good heart}, {conscience}, „
k.{p}.p. 啥晨光 sá zun-kwong, {what time}, ant.
{s}.p. 母親 mú ts’ing, {mother}, ult.
老兄 lau hiúng, {venerated brother}, „
{k}.p. 地方 {t}í fong, {a place}, „
念經 nia{n} kiung, {chant sacred books}, „
{j}.p. 逆風 niuh fóng, {contrary wind}, „
Obs. In the groups p.p., s.p., and {p}.p. in this table, the tone of
the last word falls and becomes even. In such cases, the initial
consonants remain unaffected. Thus, 工夫 kúng fú cannot become kúng
vú, though, fú falls in key. The same change may sometimes be
observed after the third and fourth tones.
18. Examples of this tone, as the second in a group, of three.
Tones. Accent.
s.p.k. 小生意 siau sáng-í, {small retail trade}, pen.
k.p.{p}. 雇工人 kú-kóng niun, {workman}, „
j.p.k. 束腰帶 sóh-yan tá, {waist-band}, „
{p}.p.{k}. 文昌殿 vun-ts’áng díen, {temple of the patron of
Literature}, „
{s}.p.{p}. 軟心腸 niö{n} sing-dzáng, {merciful heart}, ult.
{k}.p.j. 大英國 {t}a-yung kóh, {England}, ant.
{j}.p.{p}. 讀書人 {t}ók-sû niun, {educated man}, ult.
Obs. i. There is a secondary accent on some other syllable in groups
of three, which sometimes predominates over the other. We have not
attempted to record more than one. E.g. 讀 the antepenultimate of the
last example is often heard with a decided accent.
Obs. ii. An inspection of these tables will shew that the first tone
attracts the accent to itself in many instances, and that through
rapidity of pronunciation, or from the accent being placed on the
word before, it tends to fall in key and become even.
Obs. iii. In regard to position the accent prefers the last syllable.
19. {The upper second tone}. It is a high even tone without
deflection, and forms a principal element in producing that curious
singing effect in many dialects, which the foreigner notices in
first listening to Chinese pronunciation.
Ex.
水 sz, {water}. 好 hau, {good}.
火 hú, {fire}. 討 t’au, {beg}.
許 hé, {promise}. 點 tíe{n}, {point} (verb or subs.)
20. Examples of the upper second tone standing last in a group of
two or three.
Tones. Accent.
p.s. 恩典 un tíe{n}, {favour}, pen.
酗酒 h’iúng tsieu, {intoxicated}, „
s.s. 滾水 kwun sz, {boiling water}, pen.
頂好 ting hau, {the best possible}, „
k.s. 救火 kieú hú, {save from fire}, ult.
要緊 yau kiun, {important}, „
j.s. 作主 tsok tsû, {to be master}, „
出首 ts’eh seu, {accuser}, „
{p}.s. 門口 mun k’eu, {door-way}, „
財主 dzé tsû, {rich man}, „
{s}.s. 勉强 míe{n} k’iáng, {by compulsion}, (c‘h) „
耳𦖋 ní tú, {ears}, „
{k}.s. 面孔 míe{n} k’óng, {face}, „
{j}.s. 折手 zeh seu, {maimed hand}, „
曆本 lih pun, {almanac}, „
p.{j}.s. 燒熱水 sau nyih sz, {prepare hot water}, „
{p}.k.s. 唔要緊 {m} yau kiun, {not important}, ant.
{j}.j.s. 勿缺少 veh k’iöh sau, {not deficient}, (c‘h) ult.
{j}.j.s. 實骨子 {s}eh kweh tsz, {in reality}, pen.
Obs. i. The last syllable, when preceded by a word in the upper
first tone, is usually heard to fall in key, as in the first two of
the above examples.
Obs. ii. In some examples, the tone under illustration often changes
into a quick falling tone, as in 救火 kieu‘ ’hú, pronounced kieu‘ hú,
and 勉强 pronounced míe{n}‘ k’iáng.
21. Examples of the upper second tone in the antepenultimate.
Tones. Accent.
s.p.p. 請先生 ts’ing síe{n}-sáng, {engage a teacher}, ant.
s.s.{p}. 考舉人 k’au kü-niun, {be examined for Master of Arts
decree}, pen.
s.s.{k}. 手低下 seu tí-{a}u, {under (my) control}, ant.
s.j.k. 打磕瞌 táng k’eh-ts’óng, {nod the head when sleeping}, ult.
s.{p}.{p}. 火輪船 hú-lun zé{n}, steamer, „
s.{k}.{k}. 土地廟 t’ú-dí miau, {temple of the Lares arvales}, „
s.{j}.s. 考勿起 k’au-veh-k’í, {cannot venture to be examined}, „
Obs. For purposes of accentuation 下, 打, and 勿 in the above examples
may be called {enclitics} or {proclitics}. As such they leave the
emphasis to rest on the {significant} words.
22. Examples of the second tone in the penultimate of a group of two.
Tones. Accent.
s.p. 小干 siau kû{n}, {a boy}, ult.
喜歡 h’í hwé{n}, {glad}, „
{j}.s.s. 白滾水 {p}áh kwun-sz, {simply boiling water}
(weak tea), „
打窵 táng tiau, {shoot birds}, „
水手 sz seu, {sailors}, „
s.k. 寶貝 pau pé, {precious}, „
請教 ts’ing kiau, {will you inform me?} „
小菜 siau ts’é, {vegetables}, „
s.j. 可惜 k’ó sih, {alas!} pen.
曉得 h’iau tuh, {understand}, „
打鐵 táng t’ih, {work in iron}, ult.
s.{p}. 水牛 sz nieu, {water buffalo}, „
保全 pau dzíe{n}, {preserve}, „
水桐 sz dóng, {water bucket}, „
s.{s}. 苦惱 k’ú nau, {unfortunate}, „
倒滿 tau mé{n}, {pour full}, „
s.{k}. 胆大 tan dú, {courageous}, „
體面 t’í míe{n}, respectable, „
請坐 ts’ing zú, {please sit down}, „
s.{j}. 搶奪 ts’iáng döh, {rob and plunder}, „
寶石 pau záh, {precious stone}, „
Obs. The accent is usually on the last word, and it is especially
marked when that word is in the first or third tone. When the
penultimate assumes the accent, it frequently changes to the upper
rising tone, but this is apparently nothing more than an occasional
irregularity, produced by rapid pronunciation. Native assistants
generally deny the existence of these and all such changes; but on
having their attention drawn more closely to the subject, they admit
that there are exceptional cases.
23. Examples of the same tone standing second in a group of three.
Tones. Accent.
p.s.p. 齊祖宗 tsá tsú-tsóng, {sacrifice to ancestors}, ult.
s.s.k. 比比看 pí-pí k’ö{n}, {compare them}, „
k.s.{j}. 做好日 tsú hau-nyih, {keep a wedding}, pen.
j.s.{p}. 一本頭 ih-pun deu, {just one volume}, ult.
{p}.s.{p}. 秦如皇 dzing sz {w}ong, {the emperor who
burnt the books}, „
{k}.s.{j}. 字紙簏 zz-tsz lóh, {written-paper basket}, „
{j}.s.{p}. 踛起來 lók k’í-lé, {stand up}, „
Obs. i. The penultimate is heard higher in key than the others. The
last falls, but retains the principal accent more or less distinctly.
Obs. ii. The secondary accent is usually on the first word, except
in the example 做好日, where the penultimate word changes into an
upper rising tone, and receives the accent.
24. {The upper third tone}. This tone being both high in key and
deflected upwards, is difficult to imitate correctly.
Ex.
葬 tsong, {bury}. 變 píe{n}, {change}. 四 sz, {four}.
寸 ts’un, {inch}. 姓 sing, {family name}. 店 tíe{n}, {shop}.
Examples of this tone in the penultimate of a combination of two.
Tones. Accent.
k. p. 意思 í sz, {object, idea}, pen.
看書 k’ö{n} sû, {to read}, ult.
種花 tsóng hwó, {plant cotton or flowers}, „
k.s. 放火 fong hú, {set on fire}, pen.
禁止 kiung tsz, {forbid}, „
k.k. 富貴 fú kwé, {rich and honourable}, ult.
教訓 kiau h’iün, {instruct}, „
k.j. 愛惜 é sih, {love and pity}, „
過歇 kú h’ih, {at present}, „
k.{p}. 算盤 sûn bén, {Chinese abacus}, „
教門 kiau mun, {form of instruction}, „
k.{s}. 怕冷 p’ó láng, {afraid of cold}, „
快馬 k’wá mó, {a swift horse}, „
k.{k}. 對面 dé míe{n}, {the opposite}, ult.
算命 sû{n} ming, {to calculate destiny}, „
k.{j}. 氣力 k’í lih, {strength}, pen.
做賊 tsú zuh, {be a thief}, ult.
Obs. i. It may be useful as an aid to memory, to notice that verbs
are very numerous in this tone. The majority of the above examples
will illustrate this remark.
Obs. ii. In the first example 意 í is irregular, and is pronounced in
the first tone.
Obs. iii. When the accent is decidedly on the last word, as in most
of the examples, the penultimate is very short and pronounced with
the least possible emphasis.
Obs. iv. In the examples, k, k, penultimate word is in rapid
pronunciation, heard even, like the second tone. Thus 照‘ 應‘ is
pronounced ’tsau yung‘.
25. Examples of the same tone, as the antepenultimate of three words.
Tones. Accent.
k.p.s. 照規矩 tsau kwé-kü, {follow the custom}, pen.
k.s.k. 種小菜 tsóng siau-ts’é, {plant vegetables}, „
k.k.{k}. 世界上 sz-ká long, {in the world}, ult.
k.j.{p}. 派出來 p’á ts’eh-lé, {place in divisions}, ant.
k.{p}.{k}. 啥時候 sá zz-{e}u, {what time?}, „
k.{p}.p. 做成功 tsú zung-kóng, {to complete}, ult.
k.{s}.{s} 敬父母 kiung ’vú-mú, {reverence parents}, „
k.{j}.{k}. 帶勿動 tá veh-dóng, {cannot carry}, ant.
Obs. To keep the first word short in time, and deflected upwards, is
the chief requisite in examples of this kind, If the voice were
allowed to rest on it, it would necessarily become the first or
second tone.
26. Examples of the upper third tone standing last of two or three
words.
Tones. Accent.
p.k. 生意 sáng í, {trade}, pen.
東喊 tóng ha{n}, {eastwards}, „
爽快 song k’wá, {in good health}, „
s.k. 寫信 siá sing, {write a letter}, ult.
打算 táng sûh, {consider, plan}, pen.
k.k. 正派 tsung p’á, {correct conduct}, ult.
做戲 tsú h’í, {act a play}, „
j.k. 得意 tuh í, {obtain one’s wishes}, „
失信 seh sing, {be unfaithful}, „
{p}.k. 皇帝 {w}ong tí, {emperor}, „
回信 {w}é sing, {letter in answer}, „
{s}.k. 禮拜 lí pá, {worship}, „
馬掛 mo kwó {jacket}, „
{k}.k. 造化 ’zau hwó, {fortunately, to create}, „
地界 {t}í ká, {boundary of land}, „
罪過 zé kú, {sin, an impropriety}, pen.
k.{j}.k 看勿見 k’ö{n} veh-kíe{n}, {do not see}, ant.
{p.j.}k. 搖勿過 {y}au veh-kú, {cannot row past}, „
{j}.k.k. 勿要怕 veh-yau p’ó, {do not fear}, pen.
{j}.j.k. 勿適意 veh suh-í, {not in health}, ult.
{s}.s.k 冷小菜 láng siau ts’é, {cold vegetables}, „
Obs. i. The almost unbroken regularity of the accent in these
examples, arises partly from the last word being the proper place
for it, and partly from the tone under illustration being naturally
adapted to receive it.
Obs. ii. In the examples p, k, the last word falls in key, and its
upward deflection and initial consonant remain unaffected.
Obs. iii. The examples k, k, follow the same law as in Art. 24.
Obs. iv. In 打算 the former word being merely an auxiliary particle,
is short in time as if it were táng‘.
27. Examples of the upper third tone as the penultimate in a group
of three.
Tones. Accent.
p.k.{p}. 担過來 ta{n} kú-lé, {bring it over}, ant.
s.k.k. 寫信去 siá-sing k’í, {send a letter}, „
k.k.{s}. 細細哩 sí-sí lí, {accurately}, „
j.k.{k}. 忒過分 t’uk kú-vun, {excessive}, ult.
{p}.k.j. 難過歇 na{n} kú-h’ih, {at present}, „
{s}.k.{k}. 理性上 lí-sing long, {according to reason}, ant.
{k}.k.{p}. 右半爿 yeu pé{n} ba{n}, {right-hand side}, ult.
{j}.k.j. 勿見得 veh kíe{n} tuh, {it is not likely}, pen.
Obs. i. The middle word is always carefully shortened in tone.
Obs. ii. When the last word is one of less significance than the
others, it frequently loses the accent.
28. {The upper fourth tone}. This tone is a short syllable, high and
bent upwards. It has k final after the vowels á, ó, o, u, after
other vowels k is not heard.
Ex. 角 kok, {horn}; 刻 k’uk, {quarter of an hour}; 法 fah, {method}.
Examples in which it is the first of a group of two.
Tones. Accent.
j.p. 出身 ts’eh sun, {rank or profession}, ult.
發風 fah fóng, {wind rising}, „
j.s. 爀顯 hok h’íe{n}, {lightning}, „
出產 ts’eh ts’a{n}, {field productions}, „
j.k. 百姓 pák sing, {people} (hundred names,) „
j.j. 法則 fah tsuh, {method}, „
j.{p}. 出門 ts’eh mun, {to go from home}, „
客人 k’áh niun, {stranger, guest}, pen.
磕頭 k’eh deu, {to make a prostration}, ult.
j.{s}. 瞎眼 hah nga{n}, {blind eyes}, „
j.{k}. 識字 suh zz, {able to read}, „
質地 tseh dí, {natural powers}, „
k.{j}. 濶狹 k’weh {a}h, {width}, (broad, narrow,) pen.
骨肉 kweh nióh, {blood relations}, „
Words of the fourth tone naturally short, are here in a position
unfavourable for the accent. Even the few cases of exception marked,
do not take it exclusively on the penultimate.
29. Examples of the same tone in the antepenultimate.
Tones. Accent.
j.p.{s}. 忒伊兩 t’eh-í liáng, {with him}, ult.
j.s.{p}. 縮轉來 sók tsé{n}-lé, {return}, „
j.k.j. 撥過歇 peh-kú-h’ih, {given}, ant.
j.{k.p.} 跌下來 tih ’{a}u-lé, {fall down}, ult.
j.{p}.p. 織成功 tsuh zung-kóng, {completely woven}, ult.
j.{s}.j. 搨顔色 t’ah gna{n} suh, {paint on colours}, pen.
j.{j.p.} 角落頭 koh-loh deu, {corner}, ult.
The secondary accent is on the first syllable in these examples.
30. Examples of this tone standing last of two or three words.
Tones. Accent.
p.j. 天色 t’íen suh, {weather}, pen.
分別 fun pih, {difference}, „
s.j. 手筆 seu pih, {hand-writing}, ult.
寶塔 pau t’ah, {pagoda}, „
k.j. 算法 sûn fah, {method of calculation}, „
j.j. 吃粥 k’íuk tsóh, {eat rice water}, „
{p}.j. 頭髮 {t}eu fah, {hair}, pen.
沉殺 dzun sah, {be drowned}, „
{s}.j. 顔色 gna{n} suh, {colour}, „
五十 {ng} seh,[1] {fifty}, „
{k}.j. 二十 ní seh {twenty}, „
吝嗇 ling sih {parsimonious}, „
{j}.j. 沒殺 meh sah {be drowned}, ult.
立刻 lih k’uh {immediately}, „
p.{p}.j. 骷髏骨 kú leu kweh {scull}, „
{p}.p.j. 龍華塔 lúng hwó t’ah {Lúng-hwá pagoda}, „
In the first two examples, the penultimate being in the upper first
tone, the last word may be heard to fall in key.
In those marked {k}, j, the first word is lengthened in pronunciation,
and thus passes into the lower second tone.
-----------------------------------------------------------------
1. The character 十 is read zeh The sound seh as heard in
conversation is irregular.
-----------------------------------------------------------------
31. Examples of the upper fourth tone standing second in a group of
three.
Tones. Accent.
p.j.{p}. 推出來 t’é t’seh-lé, {investigate}, ult.
s.j.p. 保國家 pau kók-kiá, {defend one’s country}, „
k.j.j. 背脊骨 pé-tsih kweh, {back-bone}, „
j.j.{p}. 脚節頭 kiák tsih-deu, {toes}, „
{p}.j.k. 跑得動 {p}au tuh-dóng, {able to walk}, ant.
{k}.j.s. 話得好 {w}ó tuh-hau, {well spoken}, „
{j}.j.p. 額角頭 ngák koh-deu, {forehead}, ult.
The secondary accent may often be distinctly heard on the first word
in these examples.
32. A few examples of large groups are here appended.
Tones.
p.p.s.s. 清清爽爽 ts’ing-ts’ing song-song, {distinct},
p.k.j.{k}. 忠孝節義 tsóng-hiau tsih ní, {fidelity, filial piety,
chastity and uprightness},
j.k.j.k. 各到落處 kok-tau-lok-ts’û, {everywhere},
s.s.p.p. 喜喜歡歡 h’í-h’í hwé{n}-hwé{n}, {glad},
k.k.k.k. 正正派派 tsung-tsung p’á-p’á, {good conduct},
j.j.j.j. 瞎七瞎八 hah-t’sih hah-pah, {all in confusion},
j.j.j.{s}. 七曲八裊 ts’ih-k’ióh pah-niau, {winding about},
p.{j}.s.s.s. 金木水火土 kiun mók sûi hú t’ú, {metal, wood, water,
fire and earth},
k.k.j.k.s. 看過歇個者 k’ön-kú-h’ih-k’ú-tsé, {have seen it},
p.{p}.j.j.{j}. 青黃赤黑白 t’sing {w}ong t’suh huh {p}ah, {blue,
yellow, red, black, and white},
p.p.{p}.j.p. 東西南北中 tung sí né{n} póh tsóng, {east, west,
south, north and middle},
p.k.j.{s}.s. 聽過歇拉者 t’ing-kú-h’ih-lá-tsé, {I have heard it},
For analysing such groups as these, all that would seem to be
necessary, is to divide them into smaller combinations. Dissyllables
and trisyllables may thus be formed, and linked together by the
hyphen as above. They then fall under the same laws as preceding
examples, and the accent of position will be usually on the last word.
When a number of particles are collected, as in k’ön‘-kú‘-h‘ih-kú-’tsé,
they are heard like a word of five syllables with an accent in the
first and last syllables. The English words {acceptableness},
{peremptorily}, {necessarily}, may be compared with examples of
this kind; without the last two words, the accent would be on the
first and third.
In the last example, the first accent is on 聽 t’ing, the second on
拉 lá, which being in a long tone, attracts it.
When there is a string of substantives together, as in enumerating
the five colours, the five elements, the five constant virtues, etc.
more time is allowed for the pronunciation of each. The hyphen has
therefore been omitted in such cases.
33. Collecting these results, the following general remarks may be
made on the upper tones.
I. The principal accent prefers the last syllable, but enclitic
particles often reject it, while it is attracted most readily by the
first and third tones.
The reverse of this is true at Ch’á-p’ú and Hái-ning to the
South-west of Sháng-hái, where the penultimate takes the accent.
II. A secondary accent occurs in groups of three, which rests on the
most significant word, or on the tones naturally requiring most
stress of voice, the first and third.
III. An interchange takes places between the second and third tones,
when either of them stands before a word which is the same in tone.
IV. The first tone becomes the lower first, i e. even, low and
rising at the end, when standing last, if the word preceding takes
the accent. After the third tone, upper and lower, it does not vary.
V. The first tone is lengthened in time in the penultimate, when the
stress of the voice is on the last word, and the third, when in that
position, shortened.
VI. The upper tones tend to fall in key, where they come after the
first tone, and when they do so, always preserve their initial
consonants. After any other tone, they usually keep their proper
elevation.
34. In entering on the lower tones we meet with new consonants, G,
D, B, NG, N, M, L, R. The exceptions will be found noticed in Art. 56.
{Lower first tone}. This is a long low tone deflected upwards at the
end. East of the Hwáng-p’ú river and in the city of Sháng-hái, this
tone is as here described. But to the westward of that river, the
quick low circumflex very soon takes its place, and is met with to
the immediate neighbourhood of Sú-cheú and Háng-cheú. It appears to
consist of a quick rising and quick falling tone pronounced rapidly
together.
Ex. 篷 {p}óng, {sail}; 龍 lóng, {dragon}; 門 mun, {door}.
35. Examples of this tone in the penultimate of a combination of two.
Tones. Accent.
{p}.p. 唐詩 {t}óng sz’, {poetry of Táng dynasty}, pen.
文章 vun tsáng, {essays composed by rule}, „
{p}.s. 牙齒 ngá ts’z, {teeth}, „
常久 dzáng kieu, {long time}, „
{p}.k. 憑據 {p}íng kü, {evidence}, ult.
同姓 {t}óng síng, {of the same name}, „
{p}.j. 頭髮 {t}eu fah, {hair}, „
{p.p.} 停船 {t}ing zé{n}, {stop a boat}, „
{p.p.} 窮人 {k}ióng niun, {poor man}, pen.
{p.s.} 文禮 vun lí, {elegance in style}, „
騎馬 {k}í mó, {to ride}, ult.
{p}.k. 和尙 {u} zong, {priest}, „
强盜 {k}iáng dau, {robber}, „
{p.j.} 題目 {t}í móh, {a theme}, pen.
牛肉 nieu nióh, {beef}, „
Obs. i. The accent is predominantly on the penultimate word, and the
lower first tone is thus seen to be one of those, that attracts to
itself the stress of the voice. In this combination the penultimate
is always carefully enunciated in a low key.
Obs. ii. Where we have written {t, k, p}, the corresponding soft
consonants d, g, b, if the ear only were consulted, might sometime
be employed; but an orthography ought to be consistent, and it
appears to us that the best imitation on the whole of the native
sounds, will be secured by writing the latter symbols in the last
word of a combination, and the former in the penultimate. The only
case it is believed, where this method does not fully represent the
true pronunciation, is in such words as 窮, 强, {k}ióng, {k}iáng, and
others whose initial is in mandarin k’ and which are in the lower
first tone. There could be no objection to the use of g in those
cases, except the want of uniformity among the mute consonants;
keeping the letter {k}, it will be enough to inform the reader, that
there is a peculiar thickness of sound, and a consonant difficult to
write with any of our alphabetic symbols.
36. Examples of the lower first tone, as the antepenultimate in a
group of three.
Tones. Accent.
{p}.p.p. 黃昏星 {w}ong-hwun sing, {evening star}, ult.
{p}.s.{p}. 神主牌 zun-tsû bá, {ancestral table}, „
{p}.k.p. 前世寃 dzíe{n}-sz’ yön, {enemy of a former
life}, „
{p}.p.j. 磨刀石 mu tau záh, {grinding hone}, „
{p.p.j.} 如來佛 zû-lé veh, {title of Buddha}, „
{p.s.j.} 前兩日 zíe{n} liáng-nyih, {two days ago}, ant.
{p.k.}p. 堂弟兄 {d}ong {t}í-hiúng, {cousin on father’s
side}, „
{p.j.p.} 擡勿來 dé veh-lé, {cannot carry it}, ult.
Obs. The first word in this table, as in the preceding, needs to be
studiously kept low, even, and undeflected.
37. Examples of the lower first tone standing last in a group of two
or three.
Tones. Accent.
p.{p}. 京城 kiung zung, {metropolis}, ult.
功勞 kúng lau, {merit}, „
s.{p}. 賞頭 song deu, {reward}, „
k.{p}. 進城 tsing dzung, {enter the city}, „
性情 sing dzing, {disposition}, „
j.{p}. 北門 póh mun, {north gate}, „
{p.p.} 城頭 dzung deu, {city wall}, „
衙門 ngá mun, {mandarin’s office}, „
{s.p.} 老爺 lau yá, {a title of respect}, „
{k.p.} 養牛 yáng nieu, {keep buffaloes}, „
樹皮 zû bí, {bark of trees}, ult.
{j.p.} 月牙 niöh ngá, {moon’s horns}, „
木頭 móh deu, {wood}, „
j.p.{p}. 黑心人 huh-sing niun, {black-hearted man}, ant.
k.{k.p.} 蓋地皮 ké {t}í-bí, {possess land}, ult.
k.p.{p}. 算希奇 sû{n} hí-gí, {regard as remarkable}, „
{j.p.p.} 木頭人 móh-deu niun, {wooden image}, ant.
{k.j.p.} 舊木頭 {k}ieu móh-deu, {old wood}, ult.
Obs. In the groups not marked p, {p}, and {p, p,} the last word
changes to the upper quick falling tone. In the remaining instances
it preserves its even character. The way is prepared for reciprocal
changes between the upper and lower series, by the initial
consonants being different. The alphabetical distinction prevents
the confusion, that would arise from this intermingling of sounds.
38. Examples of the lower first tone, as the penultimate of three.
Tones. Accent.
p.{p}.s. 新房子 sing vong-tsz, {a new house}, pen.
s.{p}.p. 主人家 tsû niun-ká, {master of family}, ult.
k.{p}.p. 做人家 tsú niun ká, {to be economical}, „
k.{p.p.} 要銅錢 yau dóng-die{n}, {he wants money}, ant.
{s.p.}p. 老人家 lau niun-ká, {an old man}, ult.
{s.p.}p. 洞庭山 {t}óng-ding sa{n}, {island in the Great Lake}, „
{j.p.k.} 十王殿 seh-{w}ong die{n}, {temple of the ten kings}. „
Obs. After the deep deflected tone preceding it in {s}, {p}, p, the
penultimate in these examples is usually raised to the upper falling
tone.
39. {Lower second tone}. This tone properly a low protracted tone
rising at its close, contains in it a number of words whose
pronunciation is not fixed. These words, sometimes counted in this
tone, and at other times in the next in order, are in other parts of
China in the third tone. It will be better to consider them under
the heading to which they belong in other dialects, and present here
such examples as are free from this uncertainty in tone.
Ex. 有 yeu, {have}; 五 {ng}, {five}; 里 lí, {Chinese mile}.
40. Examples of the lower second tone in the penultimate of two words.
Tones. Accent.
{s}.p. 眼睛 nga{n} tsing, {eyes}, ult.
老君 lau kiün, {founder of Taúism}, „
{s}.s. 冷水 láng sz, {cold water}, pen.
鈕子 nieu tsz, {button}, „
{s}.k. 理性 lí sing, {reason}, ult.
買處 má ts’û, {means of buying}, „
{s}.j. 免脫 míe{n} t’eh, {forgive}, „
{s.p.} 領頭 ling deu, {neckband}, „
女人 nü niun, {woman}, „
{s.s.} 永遠 {y}úng {y}ö{n}, {very long time}, „
{s.k.} 引誘 {y}un {y}eu‘, {to tempt}, „
領路 ling lú, {lead the way}, „
{s.j.} 擄掠 lú liáh, {rob}, „
Obs. i. The tone under illustration, keeps its natural character
throughout. No initial letters occur but l, m, ng, n, r, and the
vowels. Words beginning with mutes and sibilants that were
originally in this tone, are in course of transition to the lower
third tone. V from w in mandarin, remains in the second tone.
Obs. ii. The low deflected tone in the penultimate of {s.p.} and
{s}.s. so affects the last words, that they are heard in the quick
falling tone.
Obs. iii. This tone is difficult to describe as distinct from the
preceding, from the fact that both tend upwards; the former deviates
slightly, after beginning even; the latter begins low and ascends
through its whole time. The first is in its general character even,
but when compared with the pure monotone in the Amoy dialect, to
which it is most nearly allied, there is a difference perceptible
that needs to be specified. It is heard we believe with this
peculiarity when pronounced alone, and when standing last in a
binary combination, if it does not then change to the upper first
tone. When first in order, it is even. It was before observed, that
the first upper tone, when last in order, changes to the first
lower. In the sound then heard, when enunciated with the true native
drawl, the same may be noticed.
Obs. iv. There is nothing even in the second tone when alone, except
when enunciated in a high key. When last in order it often rises to
the upper second tone, and is then heard even.
For ready comparison of the sounds, a few examples of words in the
lower tones are here appended:—
良, 兩, 亮, liáng, in the tones {p.s.k.}
埋, 買, 賣, má, „
泥, 你, 義, ní, „
人, 忍, 認, niun, (R. zun), „
油, 有, 佑, yeu, „
題, 弟, 地, dí, „
隨, 罪, 睿, zûe, „
The last two words here marked as in the second tone will be shewn
immediately to be so for this district.
41. Examples of the same tone as the antepenultimate in a group of
three.
Tones. Accent.
{s}.p.j. 冷天色 láng t’íe{n}-suh, {cold weather}, ult.
{s}.s.s. 耳𦖋管 ní-tú kwé{n}, {ear cavity}, „
{s}.k.{p}. 老太婆 lau t’á bú, {aged dame}, „
{s}.k.{p}. 買進來 má tsing-lé, {to buy}, „
{s.k.}s. 武藝子 vú-ní tsz, {capacity for an art or
business}, pen.
{s.k.}p. 領事官 ling-zz kwé{n}, {foreign consul}, ult.
42. Examples of this tone as the last in a group of two or three
words.
Tones. Accent.
p.{s}. 杴米 k’íe{n} mí, {grind rice}, ult.
s.{s}. 小雨 siau {ü}, {small rain}, „
k.{s}. 囥籠 k’ong lóng, {to hide}, „
j.{s}. 搭鈕 tah nieu, {an iron hook}, „
j.{s}. 瞎眼 hah nga{n}, {blind}, „
{p.s.} 情理 dzing lí, {reasonable, reason}, „
{s.s.} 美女 mé n{ü}, {beautiful woman}, „
{k.s.} 盡禮 dzing lí, {do everything properly}, „
{j.s.} 落雨 loh {ü}, {it rains}, „
着冷 dzáh láng {catch cold}, „
p.p.{s}. 珍珠米 tsun-tsû mí, {Indian corn}, „
k.s.{s}. 最苦惱 tsûe k’ú nau, {very miserable}, „
{s.k.s.} 有道理 {y}eu ’dau-lí, {virtue}, ant.
{j.j.s.} 勿勒裡 veh leh-lí, {not at home}, „
{k.j.s.} 話勿理 {w}ó veh-lí, {will not listen}, „
Obs. In 情理 and 盡禮 where a difference of accent might have been
expected, the distinction is kept in the native pronunciation,
entirely by means of the tones. In many of these cases, the last
word rises and becomes even, i.e. passes into the upper second tone.
Thus, 眼 nga{n} and 理 lí, become high and even.
43. Examples of the same tone, as the penultimate in a group of three.
Tones. Accent.
p.{s}.p. 裝滿之 tsong-mén tsz, {having packed full}, ant.
k.{s}.k. 看冷破 k’ö{n} láng p’ú, {despise others}, pen.
{p.s.}s. 情理點 dzing-lí tíe{n}, {be more reasonable}, ant.
{k.s.s.} 廿五里 nia{n}-{ng} lí, {twenty-five Chinese miles.}, „
{j.s.k.} 洛眼淚 loh nga{n}-lí, {to weep}, ult.
{s.s.k.} 五里路 {ng}-lí lú, {five Chinese miles}, „
44. Before proceeding to those words whose tone is undecided, it may
be first observed, that in the Tonic Dictionaries,[1] there is a
large class of characters ranged under the second tone, not found
there, either in the dialects of the Southern provinces, or in the
Northern mandarin as registered by Prémare. These words have for
their initials, only the sibilant and mute consonants z, dz, zh, b,
d, g, with the vowels, and v from f. In the modern pronunciation of
Háng-cheú and Sú-cheú, they are also found as in other parts of the
empire in the third tone. It follows that they must have made the
transition, since the Dictionary system was completed. The earliest
works containing it, quoted in K’áng-hí, are said in the preface to
have been written in the Liáng and Táng dynasties,[2] and must
consequently be regarded as the tradition of at least a thousand
years. While this change has taken place in the sound of a large
class of very common words, through the greater part of China, it is
curious to notice, that the older pronunciation still lingers in the
colloquial practice of one part at least of central China.
Even if the inventors of the syllabic spelling confined themselves
in the first instance to the usage of the Kiáng provinces, whik
north and south of them a different pronunciation prevailed, still
this change has taken place in the large cities of Cheh-kiáng and
Kiáng-nán, which are now one with their neighbours. In our own
dialect it has not yet been completed. After a sufficient time
perhaps, this anomaly will have its term, and the boundaries of the
tones be as sharply defined, as according to the laws of Chinese
pronunciation they ought to be. There are moreover other
illustrations that may be drawn from the Dictionaries, of secular
changes (to adopt the phraseology employed in sciences of higher
mark) occurring in the tones of China.
-----------------------------------------------------------------
1. The names of some of the most commonly used are 詩韻集成, 詩韻含英.
2. 自說文以後, 字書善者, 於粱則玉篇, 於唐則廣韻. “From the Shwóh-wun
downward, the best Dictionaries, were Yúh-p’ien in the Liáng,
and Kwáng Yün in the Táng dynasties,” etc. Liáng A.D. 502 to
560, T’áng 617 to 917.
-----------------------------------------------------------------
45. {Lower third tone}. The words that were primarily in this tone,
are always heard with the quick rising pronunciation that properly
belongs to it. It is like “the tone given to some words, when spoken
ironically, or to the word ‘indeed!’ when used as an exclamation.”
(Medhurst’s Hok-kien Dictionary.)
The words referred to in the last article, are placed here rather
than in the second tone, because the other dialects are unanimous in
doing so. In fact, however, they are in Sháng-hái usage more in the
last tone than in this. The following words for example, when
pronounced alone, have the long sound.
後 ’{h}eu, 上 ’záng, 動 ’{t}óng, 奉 ’vóng, 坐 ’zú, 部 ’{p}ú,
禍 ’{h}ú, 是 ’zz, 弟 ’{t}í, 父 ’vú, 罪 dzûi, 緩 ’{h}wé{n},
倖 ’{h}yung, 市 ’zz, 道 ’{t}au, 婦 ’vú, 造 ’zau, 罷 ’{p}ó,
跪 ’{k}wé 緒 ’dzü, 蕩 ’{t}ong, 犯 ’va{n}, 重 ’dzóng, 下 ’{h}iá,
近 ’{k}iun, 善 ’zé{n}, 丈 ’dzáng, 在 ’dzé
⁂ In the department of 嘉興 Ka-hiung, occupying the space between
those of Háng-cheú and Súng-kiáng, these words are never in the third
tone.
Any of these words that occasionally become verbs in the books, being
commonly in other parts of speech, are in that case always marked as
belonging to the third tone in good editions of native works.
E.e. 上꜄ 下꜄ 善꜄ 弟꜄ 後꜄ when they become verbs, change from the second
to the third tone and are so marked. All the authorities are uniform
in these matters; and the Dictionaries specify the tones by name,
assigning the primary sense to the second tone, and the secondary
sense, in all these cases a verb, to the third tone.
46. These words though when standing isolated, they keep the old
dictionary tone, are liable to such frequent changes in combination,
that teachers who have not studied the subject, are at a loss to
affix their true tone. In the following examples, these variations
will be indicated as they occur, by the apostrophe on the left, and
inverted comma on the right, for the second and third tones
respectively.
Tones. Accent.
{k.k.} 坐坐 ’zú zú‘, {sit down}, ult.
s.{k}. 請坐 ts’ing ’zú, {please sit down}, pen.
{k.p.} 上頭 ’zong deu, {above}, ult.
{p.k.} 皇上 {w}ong záng‘, {emperor}, „
p.{k}. 兄弟 h’iúng dí‘, {younger brother}, pen.
{k}.p. 弟兄 ’tí h’iúng, {brothers}, ult.
{k.k.} 味道 mí dau‘, {taste}, „
{k.p.} 道臺 ’{t}au dé, {Revenue Commissioner}, „
{k.p.} 道爺 {t}au‘ yá, „ „
{k.k.} 罪過 zé‘ kú, {sin}, pen.
{k.k.} 定罪 {t}ing ’dzûe, {to condemn}, „
{k}.k. 是個 zz‘ kú, {it is so}, „
{j.k.} 勿是 veh ’zz, {it is not so}, ult.
{j.k.} 活動 {w}eh ’dóng, {living and moving}, „
{k}.p. 動身 ’{t}óng sun, {move one’s-self}, „
s.{k}. 寡婦 kwó ’vú, {a widow}, pen.
p.{k}. 夫婦 fu vú‘, {husband and wife}, ult.
{p.k.} 爲善 {w}é ’zé{n}, {be virtuous}, pen.
{k}.k. 善報 ’zé{n} pau, {reward of virtue}, ult.
{p}.p.k.{k}. 明知過犯 ming tsz kú ’va{n}, {wilfully transgress}, „
{k}.j. 犯法 va{n}‘ fah, {break the law}, „
{k.j.k.} 是勿是 zz‘ veh zz, {is it so or not?} „
{k.j.k.} 並勿是 {p}ing veh zz, {certainly not}, ant.
{k}.j. 造屋 ’zau óh, {build a house}, ult.
{k.p.}s. 造完者 zau‘ wén tsé, {finished building}, pen.
p.{k}.p.{k}. 街市頭上 ká ’zz deu long, {in the streets}, ult.
{k.p.} 市頭 zz‘ deu, {the street}, „
{k.s.k.} 動咾動 ’{t}óng lau dóng’, {moving}, „
{k.p.}s. 重來死 dzóng‘ lé sí, {very heavy}, „
k.{k}. 看重 k’ö{n} ’dzóng, {value highly}, „
Obs. It will be seen that among these examples, there are nearly as
many of the quick or third tone, as of the longer one. Taking the
usage all in all, the balance in cases of grouping is however, in
favour of the quicker form. When alone the original tone is used
almost exclusively. In reading there is about the same amount of
variation as in colloquial usage. The quicker tone usually, but not
exclusively, prefers to stand last, leaving the penultimate of a
combination to the longer tone.
47. In regard to the words that have always been in the lower third
tone, there is as much regularity of pronunciation as in any other
tone.
Ex. 病 {p}ing, {disease}; 話 {w}ó, {words, to speak}; 大 {t}ú, {great}.
The following are examples where this tone occurs in the penultimate
of a group of two.
Tones. Accent.
{k}.p. 順風 zun fóng, {fair wind}, ult.
{k}.s. 硯子 níe{n} tsz, {ink stone}, pen.
{k}.k. 定當 {t}ing tong, {to fix}, ult.
{k}.j. 外國 ngá kóh, {foreign state}, „
賣脫 má teh, {to sell off}, pen.
{k.p.} 浪頭 long deu, {waves}, ult.
{k.k.} 面貌 míe{n} mau, {countenance}, „
{k.k.} 謝謝 {s}iá ziá, {I thank you}, „
{k.j.} 念佛 nia{n} veh, {chant Buddhist classics}, „
48. Examples of this tone in the antepenultimate of three.
Tones. Accent.
{k}.p.{p}. 硬心腸 ngáng sing-dzáng, {hard heart}, ult.
{k}.j.{p}. 外國人 ngá-koh niun, {foreigner}, ant.
{k}.j.j. 靜出出 zing’ t‘seh t‘seh, {quiet and empty}, „
{k.p.}j. 硬如鐵 ngáng zû t’ih, {hard as iron}, ult.
{k.p.}s. 大娘子 {t}ú niáng-tsz, {wife}, pen.
{k.j.}j. 飯粒屑 vau{n} lih-sih, {rice crumbs}, ant.
Obs. In the fourth example 子 being an enclitic, throws back the
accent on the penultimate. In the last, the accent is on the first
word for a similar reason.
49. Examples of the lower third tone standing last in a group of two
or three.
Tones. Accent.
p.{k}. 街上 ká long, {in the streets}, pen.
多謝 tú ziá, {many thanks}, ult.
燒飯 sau va{n}, {cook rice}, „
s.{k}. 响亮 h’iáng liáng, {distinct in sound}, „
k.{k}. 頂大 ting dú, {the greatest}, „
性命 sing ming, {life} „
j.{k}. 看病 k’ö{n} bing, {cure diseases}, „
{p.k.} 國度 kóh dú, {a kingdom}, „
城外 dzung ’ngá, {outside the city wall}, „
{s.k.} 隨便 dzûe bie{n}, {as you please}, „
{k.k.} 忍耐 zun (or niun) né, {patient}, „
話壊 {w}ó {w}á, {speak ill of}, „
命令 ming ling, {a command}, „
{j.k.} 月亮 niöh liáng, {moonlight}, „
s.s.{k}. 果子樹 kú tsz zû, {fruit-bearing tree}, „
k.p.{k}. 送羮飯 sóng káng va{n}, {give away food}, pen.
{j}.s.{k}. 瘧子病 ngok (R. niák) tsz bing, {fever and ague}, ult.
In the first example, {long} is always in the third tone. With 街上
ká long or 山上 sa{n} long, compare the English {convict, wisdom,
darkness}. If the last words however, were not a mere enclitic, the
comparison of pronunciation would fail, the accent being on the
ultimate.
50. Examples of the same tone in the penultimate of a group of three.
Tones. Accent.
p.{k.s.} 虛字眼 h’ü-zz nga{n}, {particles}, ant.
p.{k.k.} 多謝儂 tú ziá nóng, {many thanks to you}, „
j.{k}.p. 執定之 tseh-ding tsz, {obstinate}, „
{p.k.p.} 城外頭 dzung ngá-deu, {outside the city}, ult.
{s.k.}k. 兩樣個 liáng-yáng kú, {different}, pen.
{k.k.}k. 念念看 ’nia{n}-nia{n} k’ö{n}, {read a little aloud}, ant.
{j.k.}k 勿碍啥 veh-ngé sá, {no matter}, pen.
{p.k.p.} 嘸用人 {m}-yúng niun, {a useless man}, „
Obs. When an enclitic stands last, as in the 3rd, 5th, and 7th
examples, the lower third tone preceding it takes the accent.
51. {Lower fourth tone}. While this may be described as the lower
short rising tone, and represented as short in {quantity}, it should
be observed, that two long vowels, and several diphthongs are also
admitted to it. The same is true of the short tone in the upper
scale. These vowels and diphthongs are á, ó, (vide art. 6,), and
iák, iah, iók, iöh, iuk, wák, wah, weh, wok.
Ex. 賊 zuk, {thief}; 挾 {k}áh, {to press}; 掘 {k}iöh, {to dig}.
52. Examples of this tone when standing last of two words.
Tones. Accent.
p.{j}. 遮沒 tsó meh, {cover over}, ult.
s.{j}. 土白 t’ú báh, {local dialect}, „
k.{j}. 對敵 dé dih, {oppose enemies}, „
j.{j}. 覺着 koh (g) záh, {become aware of}, pen.
出力 t’seh lih (liuk), {exert strength}, „
{p.j.} 明白 ming báh, {clear, to understand}, ult.
重疊 dzóng deh, {tautology}, „
{s.j.} 煖熱 nö{n} nyih, {warm}, „
{k.j.} 樹木 zû móh, {trees}, „
{j.j.} 毒藥 {t}óh (g) yáh, {poison}, pen.
Obs. The long tones preserve their character before the short tone
with great accuracy.
53. Examples of this tone in the penultimate of two words.
Tones. Accent.
{j}.p. 陌生 mák sáng, {strange, unknown}, ult.
{j.p.} 畧些 liák sü, {a little}, ult.
{j}.s. 落水 lok sz, {ebb tide}, „
{j}.k. 孛相 {p}eh siáng, {amusement, do nothing}, „
{j}.j. 狭窄 {h}ah tsah, {narrow-minded}, „
落脫 lok t’eh, {let fall}, pen.
{j.p.} 別人 {p}ih niun, {another man}, ult.
{j.k.} 實在 {s}eh zé, {truly}, „
{j.j.} 目錄 móh (g) lóh, {table of contents}, „
Obs. The terminating consonants of the fourth tone, in some dialects
are three, k, t, p, corresponding to the final ng, n, m, of words in
the other tones. Only the first of these is audible in Shánghái
pronunciation. It occurs after á, ó, o, u. It is heard k before
consonants of the upper series, particularly s, t; and g before
those of the lower series, particularly z, d. Both will be found
exemplified in these two tables.
54. Examples of combinations of three.
Tones. Accent.
{j}.p.s. 學生子 {h}ok-sáng tsz, {scholar}, pen.
{j}.j.{k}. 勿一定 veh ih ding, {not necessarily}, ant.
j.{k.p.} 落下來 loh ’{a}u-lé, {fall down}, „
{j.k.j.} 白話脫 {p}áh (g) {w}ó-t’eh, {speak to no purpose}, pen.
{p.j.}s. 担勿起 ta{n} veh-k’í, {cannot lift}, ant.
{p.j.j.} 尋勿着 dzing-veh-dzáh, {cannot find}, ult.
Obs. The first of these may be compared to a trissyllable with an
accent on the penultimate, as “convicted,” i.e. if 生 sáng be
pronounced high. The syllables adjacent to the accent in English are
so contracted in time as to sound more like words in short tones or
enclitics, than in long tones. Should 生 fall to the lower first tone
as it often does, the similarity would not hold.
55. Examples of larger groups in the lower tones.
男男女女 né{n}-né{n} ’nü-’nü, {men and women}.
明明白白 ming-ming báh-báh, {perfectly clear}.
綾羅緞疋 ling-lú dön‘ p’ih, {silks and satins}.
風調雨順 fóng diau ’{ü} zun‘, {wind and rain favourable}.
日月星辰 zeh, {y}öh, sing, dzun, {sun, moon, and stars}.
仁義禮智 zun ní‘ ’lí tsz‘ sing‘, {five cardinal virtues}.
天地萬物 t’íe{n}-dí‘ va{n}‘-veh, {heaven and earth and all things}.
書裡有黃金 sû-’lí {y}eu-{w}ong-kiun, {there is gold in books}.
家常白話 ká-dzáng {p}áh-{w}ó‘, {household words}.
一眼大一眼 ih-’nga{n}-dú ih-’nga{n}, {increase little by little}.
謀衣謀食 meu-í meu-zuh, {seek food and clothing}.
56. General remarks on the lower tones.
I. The initial consonant is a test for any word being in the upper
or lower series. Thus, all the broad mutes and sibilants, the weak
aspirate, with the liquids and nasals are in the lower tones. The
other consonants with the strong aspirate are in the upper series.
The following in the higher tones are exceptions.
Ex. 端, 短, 斷, 對, 答, 鬥, 躭, dön, ’dön, dön‘, dé‘, deh, deu‘, dé{n}.
拉, 咯, lá, lóh. Yet 對 is heard té‘ in té‘ deu, {adversary}. This is
caused by the accent falling on 頭 deu.
This furnishes the principle of the orthography adopted in the
present work. The initial letter being an index to the tone, it is
needless to employ distinct tonal marks for the upper and lower
series. In the same way, the Fan t‘sieh or native syllabic spelling
marks the series by the first word, and the particular tone by the
sound. Thus 夫 fú is spelt with 方徒 fang dú. The initial F of the
first word combined with the U final of the second, gives the sound
fu in the first tone. We add an example or two from K’áng-hí:—
正 is spelt with 章並 cháng {p}ing‘, giving ching‘.
學 „ „ 行酌 {h}ing chóh, „ {h}ióh.
The first word tells us, whether the sound required is high or low,
and the second to which of the four tones it belongs. The
pronunciation of the words borrowed for this purpose is supposed
known.
II. The orthography is in many instances not fixed. Words sometimes
heard g, d, b, are at other times heard {k}, {t}, {p}. The sounds g,
d, b, occur after a word in combination; while {k}, {t}, {p} occur
when no word precedes. To indicate that they are always low in
pitch, they are printed in italics. V, z, come partially under the
same rule. The rest dz, dzz, are scarcely heard in the thin form at
all, and are therefore spelt with d in this work. Another
peculiarity is that z and dz are interchangeable. Z is more common
in conversation; dz in reading.
III. There are many words having sibilants or mutes, or the weak
aspirate for their initial consonants, of which the tone is
uncertain, being sometimes in the second, and at other times in the
third. The liquids and vowels have not this peculiarity, and it only
belongs to words that were originally in the second tone.
IV. The first tone, when last in a binary combination, rises to the
upper first, except when preceded by the first tone, upper or lower.
The initial consonant remains broad as in other cases.
V. The other tones also frequently rise to the upper series when
standing last, each to its corresponding tone, and the initial
consonant is unaffected.
VI. The laws of accent are the same as in the upper tones. The last
word of a combination being usually accented, affords the best
opportunity for the discrimination of the tones.
57. {Relation of Tones to Music}. It is only when they are even,
that a musical notation can fully and correctly represent the tones.
For deflection, so essential to the latter, is not allowed in music,
being destructive of harmony. The short and quick tones may however
be described as {staccato} notes, and the violin may be made in
passing from one note to another, to produce a continuous sound,
which has been adduced in “The Chinese as they are,” to illustrate
the deflections. In regard to time, so minutely subdivided in music,
there do not appear be more than two classes of tones, the quick and
the slow. Kircher supposed that the five tones were the first five
notes in an octave do, re, mi, fa, sol; but in reality, differences
of elevation are usually not more than two for one dialect. The
interval between the two series varies, it being greater for
example, in some parts of the north of China, than in Kiáng-nán,
where it is about half an octave.
58. {Relation of Tones to Accents in other languages}. So far as
accent only means the distinction of loud and soft, there seems no
analogy. For the Chinese tones may be pronounced as gently or
sonorously as the speaker pleases, and loudness in this language
also constitutes accent as distinct from tone. In the common accents
of English conversation however, there is usually a difference in
deflection, or as it is called by some writers, modulation. There is
one tone (1) for assertion and determination, and another (2) for
asking questions; and these differ not in time, or in loudness, but
in the fact that they are deflected downwards and upwards
respectively. Again, the tone of interrogation (2) is commonly
quick, while that of sarcasm (3) is often slow. Those who read
aloud, too often confine themselves almost exclusively to the
monotone, a fourth variation (4). Now it is these very distinctions
of deflection and time that form the essence of the Chinese tones,
and they are in daily use in our own language, as aids in expressing
the feelings, as marks of emphasis, and as a means of relieving the
voice by interchange. All that a foreigner has to do then in
imitating the Chinese tones is to apply forms of utterance, to which
he is already accustomed, to those words in which the Chinese employ
them, and to treat the tone thus individualized, whichever it may
be, as a part of the word, to be learned contemporaneously with the
vowels and consonants. With regard to the doubly deflected tones,
and those that are less familiar to us, the ancient Greeks would
have had an advantage we do not possess. Their circumflex was made
up of two tones, the acute and grave combined. (Buttman Gr. Gram.
Sect. 9.) Every syllable had a tone, and the tones were placed on
either long or short vowels. There seem also to have been dialectic
and secular varieties. These four facts are all suggestive of a
similarity in their enunciation to that of China. Mr. Lay in the
work alluded to above, has pointed out to what tones the Greek
accents appeared to him to correspond. But our data are so scanty on
the subject of classical pronunciation, that nothing certain can be
said, when we attempt to detail their individual differences.
59. Examples are here annexed of words, which differing slightly, as
in a tone or an aspirate, may be mistaken for each other if
mispronounced.
鏡子 kiung‘ ’tsz, {a mirror}.
景致 ’kiung tsz‘, {beautiful scenery}.
浪頭 long‘ deu, {waves}.
榔頭 ’long deu, {a hammer}.
此地 ’t’sz dí‘, {here}.
次第 t’sz‘ dí‘, {regularity}.
進教 tsing‘ kiau‘, {enter a religious order}.
請教 ’t’sing kiau‘, {please inform me}.
第頭 {t}í‘ deu, {here}.
剃頭 t’í‘ deu, {shave}.
最多 tsûe‘ tú, {very many}.
最大 tsûe‘ dú‘, {very great}.
第八 {t}í‘ pah, {the eighth}.
提拔 {t}í bah, {to save}.
大細 {t}ú‘ sí‘, {young son}.
圖死 {t}ú ’sí, {wish to die}.
勿通 veh t’óng, {without reason or proof}.
勿懂 veh ’tóng, {not to understand}.
勿同 veh dóng, {not the same}.
勿動 veh ’dóng, {not moving}.
Note. For some words of constant occurrence, the following
contractions will in future be used. C. or S.C. Shánghái, colloquial
form. M. Northern mandarin pronunciation, R. or S.R. Shánghái
reading sound.
{Section} 4. {Alphabetical form of the Shánghái sounds}.
i. {Initials}.
60. In grammatical works on other languages, more or less is said on
orthography, or orthography according as the alphabetical symbols
are controlled by more or fewer laws. The Chinese sounds are few,
and regulated by laws which are easily laid down. A section
therefore may properly be devoted to the romanized form of the sounds.
From the time that the Buddhist priests introduced the Sanscrit
system, and the initials and finals, the Chinese have had an
imperfect method of spelling words. The division of each sound into
two parts, represented by two characters, the initial 毋 ’mú, and the
final 韻 yün‘, constitutes the method.
The 字彙 zz‘ {w}e‘, a Dictionary of the Ming dynasty, says 韻學自沈
約始, 而釋神琪, 繼以等韻, 列爲三十六毋, 分爲平仄四聲, yün‘ {y}áh, zz‘ sun‘ {y}ah
’sz, rh suh zun kóng, kí ’í ’tung yün‘, lih {w}é sa{n} {s}eh
lóh ’mú’, fun {w}é {p}ing tsuh sz‘ sung. “{The doctrine of arranging
sounds by their rhymes began with Shin-yoh, and the Buddhist priests
Shin-k’ong continued it, forming the rhymes into classes, and the
initials into thirty six divisions, and placing them all under the
four tones.}”
61. From the sixth century of our era, the system whose origin is
thus recorded, has been preserved in the Dictionaries successively
made, with apparently few variations. The thirty six initials
referred to are contained in the following table:—
{Native table of Initials.}
k 見 kíen
k’ 溪 k’í
g 郡 giun
ng 疑 ngi
t 端 twan
t’ 透 t’eú
d 定 ding’
n 泥 ní
ch 知 ch
ch’ 徹 ch’eh
j 澄 jing
ni 娘 niáng
p 幫 páng
p’ 滂 p’áng
b 並 bing
m 明 ming
f 非 fí
f’ 敷 f’ú
v 奉 vóng
w 微 ví
ts 精 tsing
ts’ 淸 ts’ing
dz 從 dzóng
s 心 sin
z 邪 zié
tsh 照 tshaú
t’sh 穿 t’shuen
dj 狀 jwang
sh 審 shin
zh 禪 zhen
y 影 ying
h 曉 hiáu
{y} 喩 {y}ü
{h} 匣 {h}iáh
l 來 lái
rh 日 jih
62. From the table it will be seen, that the division into an upper
and lower series of initial consonants, the one embracing thin and
clear sounds, with strong aspirates, the other including the broader
consonants with the liquids and nasals, meets us not only in the
study of the tones of a dialect as shewn in the former section, but
in the accredited Dictionaries of the general language. This may be
readily accounted for from the Kiáng provinces having been the chief
seat of literature and political power, when the sounds of the
language were first represented by double characters. Since the
growth of the modern pronunciation there has been no attempt in any
imperial work to form a new system of spelling.[1] The difference of
the old system and the new will be understood if it be mentioned
that 魚 ü, is spelt ngü, and that 外, 月, wái‘, yöh, are also in the
column headed NG. More details on this subject will be found in the
appendix. In the 五方元音 a small portable Dictionary on the
alphabetic plan, and containing about 10,000 characters, the modern
mandarin is followed in the initials and finals.
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1. In Káng-hí’s Dictionary many words in the lower first tone,
formerly in the g, d, b, columns, have been transferred to the
aspirate column, to be in conformity with northern
pronunciation. Words in the short tone having k, t, p, as finals
in the old system, have also been classed as terminating in
{vowels}, for the same reason. These changes however are only
found in Káng-hí’s {second} table, and the older classification,
denoted by a circle round the examples placed where they
formerly stood, is retained with the new.
-----------------------------------------------------------------
63. In eight of the nine divisions above, the second initial is the
strong aspirate either alone or following, the letters k, t, ch, p,
f, ts and tsh. Of these the palatal ch, and sibilant tsh, are not
needed in Shánghái pronunciation. Ts takes their place. In double
initials the aspirate is between t and s, or t and sh.
(ch) 知道 M. ch táú‘ S. tsz dau‘, {to know}.
(tsh) 出來 M. ch’uh lái S. ts’eh lé, {come out}.
F‘ is the same as f. In other instances the aspirate is always
preserved.
吹進吹出 t’sz tsing‘ t’sz t’séh, {blow in and out}.
看歇戲否 k’ö{n}‘ h’ih h’í‘ ’vá, {have you seen the play}?
開口 k’é ’k’eu, {begin speaking}.
In other cases, all these letters with and without aspirates, are
the same with mandarin.
64. The third initial of the same eight divisions is wanting for
Shánghái, only in the case of those headed ch and tsh. Their place
is supplied by z. 形狀 {y}uug zong‘, {visible form}. Sh and zh in the
seventh, are replaced by s and z.
一隻手 M. ih chih ’sheú S. ih tsáh ’seu, {one hand}.
時物 M. sh wúh S. zz veh, {things in season}.
扇子 M. shen‘ tsz S. sé{n}‘ tsz, {fan}.
受領 M. sheú ling S. ’zeu ’ling, {receive}.
65. The h of mandarin is never heard before w or y in the lower
tones:—
三魂六魄 sa{n} {w}ung lóh p’áh, {three mental, and six physical
principles of human life}.
無形無像 vú {y}ung vú ziáng‘, {invisible}.
縣分꜄ {y}ö{n}‘ vun‘, {what belongs to a district city}.
效法別人 {y}iau‘ fah {p}ih niun, {imitate others}.
In other examples among the lower tones, a slight aspirate is retained
for the strong hissing sound of mandarin.
紅格紙頭, {h}óng kák ’tsz deu, {red ruled paper}.
閒書 {h}a{n} sû, {light reading}, 鞋子 {h}á ’tsz, {shoes}.
This slight aspirate is lost in a word standing last in a combination.
那能修行 ’ná nung sieu {a}ng? {how shall I grow virtuous?}
幾許闊狹 ’kí hau‘ kweh {a}h? {how wide?}
The English aspirate is between the two aspirates here distinguished,
and is the same as that of Fúh-kien. We have no parallel in our
pronunciation, to that hissing guttural sound, which in the mandarin
provinces, belongs to all the five tones, and in Kiáng-nán to the
upper series. Hence Morrison speaks of it as SH. Nor can the weak
aspirate of the Kiáng-nán lower series, disappearing as it does so
frequently, be regarded an equivalent to the English H.
66. With regard to the thick mutes and sibilants (g, d, b, v, z,) in
the lower tones, it may be remarked generally, that foreigners in
learning colloquial phrases, usually acquire the habit of
pronouncing these consonants thin, when first in a combination, and
broad, when some word precedes. This is so frequently true, that no
further proof is needed of the pronunciation being variable.
第個 {t}í‘ kú‘, {this}.
次第 t’sz‘ dí‘, {good order}.
提拔 {t}í bah, {rescue}.
拔草 {p}ah ’ts’au, {to weed}.
罷勿得 {p}á‘ veh tuh, {indispensable}.
勿罷拉 veh ’bá ’lá, {more than that}.
大同小異 {t}á‘ dóng ’siau {í}, {differing but little}
勿大好 veh dá‘ ’hau, {not good}.
For {t} and {p}, there is no difficulty in spelling as is here done,
but {k}, {s}, {f}, are not so easily disposed of. The initial {k} or
g is enunciated thickly before the vowels i and ü, though according to
the system of the Dictionaries, the initial is the same in all cases.
Some foreign students regard it as an aspirated consonant. Others
write it dj or d. This anomaly of pronunciation, so difficult to
express, does not occur before w, a and é. Limited thus to í and ü, it
is thought preferable not to depart from the analogy, by inventing a
new symbol for the few words in use that contain this unmanageable
consonant.
插旗 t’sah gí, {set up a flag}. 顯轎 ’h’ie{n} giau‘, {mountain chair}.
葵花 {k}wé hwó, {sunflower}. 求告 {k}ieu kau‘, {pray}.
67. The lower f and s, are often heard v, z, even without a word
preceding. Thus the actual pronunciation cannot be fairly
represented by the law that answers for the other letters, and the
only resource is to follow the natives in each case. This v, as well
as that from w (M.) are pronounced w on the eastern side of the
Hwáng-p’ú.
服事 {f}oh zz‘, {to serve}.
牢實 lau zeh, {honesty}.
謝謝 {s}iá‘ ziá‘, {I thank you}.
俗字眼 {s}óh zz‘ nga{n}, {colloquial expressions}.
尙書 zong‘ sû, {the Historical Classic}.
飯吃曼 va{n}‘ k’iuh ma{n}‘, {have you dined?}
邪派 siá p’á‘, {depraved customs}.
罰咒 vah tseu‘, {to swear}.
實在 {s}eh zé‘, {truly}.
68. The initials z and dz correspond, though somewhat irregularly,
to the tabular initials z, zh, and j, dz, dj.
樹丫枝 zû‘ au tsz, {branches of trees}.
若使 zák sz‘, {if}.
炰茶 p’au‘ dzó {make tea}.
傳下來 dzé{n} ’{a}u lé, {deliver down}.
聚攏來 dzü‘ ’lóng lé, {collect}.
The d is often dropped, both, in reading and in the conversational
form.
勿會寫字 veh {w}é‘ siá zz‘, {cannot write} (M. tsz‘).
擺渡船 ’pá dú‘ zé{n},[1] {ferry-boat} (M. ch’uen).
養蠶 yáng‘ zé{n}, {keep silkworms}, (M. t‘sán).
The d is in some words retained in reading, when dropped in the
colloquial form.
豺狼虎豹 zá (R. dzé) long ’hu pau‘, {wolves and tigers}.
稻柴 {t}au zá (C.) {rice straw}.
柴門 dzé (R.) mun, {wooden gate}.
造完 ’zau (R. dzau) wé{n}, {finish building}.
-----------------------------------------------------------------
1. 船 The Dictionary pronunciation is 食川切 zhuen.
-----------------------------------------------------------------
69. Words beginning with a vowel, belong to the thirty-first or
thirty-third initials (y, {y},) according as they are high or low in
tone. In giving the romanized form, a more extended subdivision of
the vowels must of necessity be adopted. In the present work, the
initial vowel is italicized, when its word belongs to the lower
series.
遠來死 ’{y}ö{n} lé ’sí, {very far off}.
寃枉 yö{n} ’wong, {falsely accuse}.
Those words in the dialect that begin with n, m, v, while in northern
mandarin they have only a vowel as their initial, are placed in the
Dictionary system under those consonants, and they are all in the
lower tones.
原是 ’niö{n} ’zz, {well then it is}—
千山萬水 t’síe{n} sa{n} va{n}‘ ’ss, {a long distance}
一百萬 ih páh ma{n}‘, {a million}.
Words in the upper series beginning with a vowel, which in northern
mandarin take the sound {ng} before them, never have it in the
Shánghái dialect, nor in the Dictionary system. E.g.[1] 愛 ngái‘,
惡 ngóh,[2] are pronounced é‘ and oh.
愛伊樣物事 é‘ í {y}áng‘ meh zz‘, {love that thing}.
In the lower tones the initial ng is always preserved.
勿碍啥 veh ngé‘ sá‘, {no matter}.
一眼勿硬 ih ’nga{n} veh ngáng‘, {not in the least hard}.
咬牙切齒 ’ngaú ngá t’sih ’t’sz, {grind teeth with rage}.
我勿餓 ’ngú veh ngú‘ {I am not hungry}.
-----------------------------------------------------------------
1. 安 M. ngan, S. ö{n}, 恩 ngun, S. un, 哀 ngai, S. é, 暗 ngán‘,
S. én‘. The true sound as heard in the provinces where mandarin
is spoken, is a guttural to which the English alphabet has no
equivalent. NG is employed for want of a better symbol.
2. In the mandarin Dictionary 五方元音, the initial NG is placed
with U and A under W; I is placed with ǔ under Y.
-----------------------------------------------------------------
70. The remaining initials are ng, n, ni, m, v, l, and j. They
belong with few exceptions to the lower tones.
NG, I. Many words classed in the Dictionaries under this initial are
pronounced differently in this dialect. Thus 堯 {y}au, 言 {í}en, have
no initial consonant, 疑 ní, 爾 ’nü, 義 ní‘, belong to the tooth nasal
(N), 午五魚 are read {ü}, ú, but spoken {ng}. Ng precedes a, e, o, ö,
u, but not i, ü.
II. Other words as 月 niöh, 牛 nieu, 願 niö{n}, belong more properly
to the class headed ni, or the Spanish circumflexed n. The Sú-cheú
dialect agrees better with the Dictionaries in this class of words,
than that of Shánghái.
III. All the words in Morrison with the initial G belong to this
class, except such as are in the upper tones. Such words as he
writes aou, ae, yae, follow the same rule.
71. N, NI. These though distinguished in some alphabets as in
Sanscrit and Spanish, may be for our purpose more usefully regarded
as identical, the i being considered to belong to the final.
Accordingly such words as 女 ’nü 你 ’né, 鈕 nieu, though placed under
the palatal nasal NI in the native system, will be regarded as
belonging to the tooth nasal N, and the remainder of the sound
reckoned as the final. Even in the tables, these two consonants are
in intentional juxtaposition. The consonants T, CH, to which they
respectively belong are also naturally allied, as may be illustrated
from our dialect, where CH becomes TS.
Many words written by Morrison yǔh, yin, yen, ying, yŏ, yu, yuen,
yuĕ, take this initial, when they are in the lower tones. N, when
thus prefixed, precedes no vowel but i, ü. The following are
examples:—
玉 niók, 硯 níe{n}‘, 獄 niók, 源 niö{n},
銀 niun, 騐 nie{n}‘, 語 ’nü, 願 niön‘,
諺 níe{n}‘, 迎 niung, 愚 nü, 月 niöh, R. yöh.
72. M. V. The class headed M includes not only the mandarin words in
m, but some that in mandarin begin with W. They are therefore placed
together in the Dictionary system. Words thus transformed have V in
reading as an intermediate sound, and often retain that form in the
colloquial. If they are not words in very common use, they do not
assume M as their initial. The following are examples:—
夫 mí and ví, C. ví, R. 襪 mah, 蚊 mun, C. and R.
萬 ma{n}‘ and va{n}‘, C. va{n}‘, R. 文, 武 vun, ’vú, C. and R.
Also 問忘網望味物 are spoken mun‘, &c., and read vun‘, etc. In early
Chinese these words all began with b.
73. L. J. The former of these, as used in our dialect, agrees with
the native system, and with the northern mandarin, and calls for no
remark except that a very few words as before noted belong to the
upper series. See Art. 56.
Under the initial j, are found all the Shánghái words in ni (C), and
z (R), which are j, in Mandarin. E.g. 譆饒熱染日忍軟閏絨認撚 are spoken
niáng, &c., and read záng, &c.
Thus,
人 niun, C. zun, R. jin, M. {a man}.
肉 nióh, C. zóh, R. júh, M. {flesh}.
Words that are {semi-colloquial}, or only used in combination
retain z. E.g. 惹仁仍弱乳 are read and spoken ’zá, zun, etc.
Thus,
自然 zz‘ zé{n}, C. and R. tsz‘ jen, M.
⁂ Words in z from sh, or s in mandarin, never change into ni. Thus,
the natural separation between distinct classes of words is
maintained, when their reading sounds are identical.
74. This class also includes R.H. The native tables make no
difference between J and RH, and in some parts of China the initial
J is in jih, {sun}, and some other words pronounced like R.
而且 rh ’t’siá, {perhaps}.
When thoroughly colloquialized, however, these words pass into ní,
and must be placed under n or ng.
二 ní‘, C. rh‘ R. {two}.
兒子 ní ’tsz, or {ng} ’tsz, C. rh, R. {son}.
耳朶 ’ní ’tú, C. rh tó, R. {ears}.
ii. {Finals}.
75. The Shánghái finals are about 60 in number. According to the
native system, the whole of a word except the initial letter and the
aspirate if there be one, is included in the final. In the
Dictionaries, the finals, which unlike the initials differ but
slightly from modern mandarin pronunciation, are less numerous. The
字彙 tsz‘ hwei‘ has 44. The short tones which should be considered
independent rhymes are counted with the corresponding long ones, and
thus the number is diminished. The first table in K’áng-hí
has sixteen, and the second, twelve. Under each are several
subdivisions. Another small and very convenient Dictionary, the
五方元音 ’Wú fáng yuen yin, taking the five tone mandarin dialect for
its guide both in initials and finals, adopts twenty of the one, and
twelve of the other, and arranges them under five tones. In reducing
them to this small number, some violence is done to the sounds. All
words beginning with a vowel, or NG are arranged under W and Y. In
the finals, expedients are also employed to diminish the number of
headings.
76. In the finals, the departures from the mandarin type are
numerous, but they are according to system, and the knowledge of one
variation is usually a key to the pronunciation of many tens of
other words. The variations are usually the same for one long tone
as for all.
In the following table which consists of words without a diphthong,
the first column contains the final according to Shánghái
pronunciation; the second, all the examples of it having different
rhymes in mandarin; the third, the mandarin spelling; and the
fourth, the Shánghái reading sound.
P. I. S. IV. TABLE OF FINALS.
Finals. Shánghái colloquial. Mandarin. Shánghái reading sound.
-----------------------------------------------------------------
á 拉 lá (upper series) lá
拜 pá‘ pái pé
家 ká kiá kiá
解 ’ká kiái, kiè kiá
快 k’á k‘wai k‘wé
惹 ’zá jé
ah 法 fah fáh, fá
瞎 hah hiáh, hiá
隔 kah kuh, kó kuh
ák 百 pák puh, ’pá puh
若 zák jóh, jó‘
目 mák, mok múh, mú‘ mok
石 zák shǐh,[1] sh
a{n} 但 {t}an‘ tán
簡 ’ka{n} kian kíe{n}
áng 張 tsáng cháng
生 sáng sung sung
宕 {t}áng‘ táng {t}ong
行 {h}áng, {y}ung hing, háng
au 好 ’hau háú
下 ’{h}au, {h}ó hiá‘ {y}á
呌 kau‘ kiáú kiau
é 海 ’hé hái
雷 lé lei, lui
衰 sé shwái
倍 {p}é‘ pei
eh 雜 dzeh tsáh, [1]tsá
實 zeh shih, [1]sh
沒 meh múh, [1]mú
說 seh shwoh söh
活 {w}eh hwóh, [1]hwó
é{n} 半 pé{n}‘ pwán
船 zé{n} ch’uen
善 ’zé{n} shen
eu 溝 keu keú
í 理 ’lí lí
非 fí fei
去 k’í‘ k’ü k’ü
死 ’si sz sz
些 sí sie
ih 立 lih lih, lí‘
切 ts’ih ts’ieh, t’sié
雪 sih siöh, ’sió
恤 sih siuh, sió
ing 循 dzing siün
心 sing sin
信 sing‘ sing
ó 怕 p’ó‘ p’á
遮 tsó ché tsó
赦 só‘ shé sé
öh 奪 {t}öh tóh, [1]tó
ók 獨 {t}óh túh, [1]tú
木 móh, mok múh, mú
國 kóh, kweh kwóh, [1]kwó
ok 薄 {p}ók, {p}ok póh,[1] pó
樂 lok lóh, ló‘
角 kok, kók kióh, chió kiák
ö{n} 端 dö{n} (upper series) twán
岸 ngö{n}‘ ngán
óng 松 sóng, súng sóng, súng
ong 喪 song sáng
雙 song shwáng
夢 mong‘ móng, múng móng
紅 ’kong kiáng kiáng
ú 所 ’sú só
大 {t}ú‘ tá {t}á
古 ’kú kú
ü 句 kü‘ kü
歸 kü kwei kwé
û (ü) 主 ’tsû tsü chú
uk 直 dzuk chih, [1]ch
ûe (üe) 雖 sûe (ü) súi
un (ng) 根 kun (g) kun
身 sun (g) shin (un)
尊 tsun (g) tsün
û{n} 杆 kû{n} kán
算 sû{n}‘ swán
óng (ú) 龍 lóng (ú) lóng (ú)
ung 亨 hung hung
門 mung (n) mun
{m} 無 vú, {m} wú vú
{ng} 恒 {h}ng hung
rh 而 rh rh
sz 思 詩 sz sz, sh and shí
鼠 ’sz shú sû
水 ’sz shúi sûe
-----------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------
1. When there are two modes of spelling in the column of
mandarin pronunciation, the second is taken from the work
小氏音鑑 which contains the Peking pronunciation of words in the
short tone, spelled according to the syllabic system. Those to
which on asterisk is prefixed are all in the lower first tone.
-----------------------------------------------------------------
76. The intermediate vowel i forms the following finals:—
--------------------------------------------------------
iá 邪 {s}iá sié {s}ié
iah 甲 kah kiáh, kiá kiah
iák 畧 liah lióh, liáú‘
ia{n} 念 nian‘ nien
iau 教 kiau‘ kiáu
iáng 强 ’k’iang k’iáng
ié 且 ’t’siá t’sié t’síe
íe{n} 選 síe{n} siuen
田 {t}íe{n} t’ien
全 dze{n} t’siuen dzíe{n}
ieu 求 {k}ieu k‘ieú
宿 sieu süh
iih 熱 nyih jeh zeh
ióh 曲 k’óh k’iúh, ’k’ü
iöh 月 niöh yueh yöh
iö{n} 權 {k}iö{n} k’iuen
ióng 窮 {k}ióng k’iong (ú)
官 kióng kúng kóng
iú 靴 hiú hiö
iuk 逆 niuk nih
iun (ng) 勤 {k}iun (ng) k’in
iung (n) 今 kiung (n) kin
京 kiung king
iúng 兄 h’iúng h’iung
iün 訓 h’iün‘ h’iün
--------------------------------------------------------
77. The other intermediate vowels u, occurring only after k, g,
forms the following finals:—
--------------------------------------------------------
uá 乖 kwá kwái kwé
uah 括 kwah kwáh
na{n} 關 kwa{n} kwán
wé{n} 官 kwé{n} kwán
wó 瓜 kwó kwá
wok 槨 kwok kwóh, ’kwó
wong 光 kwong kwáng
wun (ng) 滾 kwun (ng) kwun
--------------------------------------------------------
Obs. i. For {óng} and {úng}, Morrison writes úng; Prémare óng. It
will be seen that in our dialect they are both in use. When a word
is pronounced alone, or when last in order, ó is more common,
while ú prefers the first place in combination; 松紅 Súng-kong,
{Súng-kiáng}; 吳淞 {Ng sóng, Wú-súng}; 中國人 tsúng kóh niun,
{Chinaman}; 勿拉當中 veh ’lá tong tsóng, {not in the centre}.
Obs. ii. Words in é from M. ái have two sounds. Some employ the
Scotch {ae} in {sae}, {nae}, etc. nearly like e before r in the
English words {there}, {where}. Others pronounce the English {a} in
{cake}, {same}, i.e. in our orthography é. Ex. 來海 lé, ’hé, are
constantly heard with both these sounds.
Obs. iii. Words in é{n}, beyond 黃渡 {W}ong dú‘, and 朱家閣 Tsû ká
koh, 25 and 30 miles to the west of Shánghái, change into ö{n}.
Obs. iv. On {án}, {wán}. The second of these mandarin finals passes
into é{n} or ö{n}. The former retains a for á. Ex. 滿洲 Mé{n} tseu,
{Manchu}; 五六萬 ’{ng} lóh ma{n}, 50,000 or 60,000.
78. If the old native tables of finals could be reduced to a fixed
Roman orthography, our dialect would be found to bear more
similarity to that pronunciation as its maternal stem, than to its
northern relative the modern mandarin. The final k in the short tone
was recognized, and many sub-divisions of a final into two or more
branches agree with our usage; i.e. kwán into kwön and kwan. Some
southern dialects preserve some parts and some others parts of this
traditional pronunciation. The work before referred to, Lé‘ sh‘ yin
kíen‘ says, in the 凡例 Fán lieh, {Introductory Notes}, 南音於剜彎,
官關, 般班, 分之甚細。 北或合面爲一, Né{n} yun ü wé{n} wa{n}, kwé{n} kwa{n}
pé{n} pa{n}, fun tsz zun‘ sí‘. Poh {w}óh {h}eh rh wé ih. “In
the south (Kiáng-nán. etc.), the pronunciation of the words pé{n}
pa{n}, etc. is carefully separated, while in the north, they combine
in one (á) sound.”
Another instance there given, of difference between the north and
south in the final, is in such words as 銀盈, 勤檠, 神繩, 林靈, 貧平,
金京, M. yin ying, k’in k’ing, shin shing, lin ling, p’in p’ing, kin
king. These the author says, are carefully distinguished in the
north, while in the south they are identical in sound.
The rule of Shánghái pronunciation is this. Those words that end in
NG in mandarin keep it. Those words that end in UN change N into NG,
while such as terminate in UN take N or NG indifferently. Thus the
above examples are read niun (g) yung, {k}iun (g) {k}iung, zun (g)
zung, ling ling, {p}ing {p}ing, kiun (g) kiung.
Both of this writer’s observations are exemplified in the table. It
is there shewn how far precisely this coalescing and subdividing of
rhymes extends. One rhyme in either of the dialects, may branch off
in the other into four or even six independent finals.
79. The most curious fact deducible from the table is, the affinity
of certain vowels for the terminating consonant k (g before words in
the lower tones) found in the short tone; a peculiarity which
disappears a little south-west of Shánghái, and is not noticed at
Ningpo.
The principal forms of words in the short tone in mandarin,
according to different systems of orthography in common use are as
follow:—
---------------------------------------------------
Morrison & Medhurst ă ĕ eĕ eǐh ih uĕ ǐh ǔh ŏ
Prémare ă ĕ iĕ ĭ uĕ ĕ ǔh ŏ
Williams áh eh ieh ih ueh eh uh óh
This work áh eh ieh ih iöh uh úh óh
---------------------------------------------------
Most words in the short tone ending in k, are of the last three of
these finals u, ú, ó. Of the others, those in ih if they take k
often insert a short u. E.g. 力 is heard lik or liuk. Similarly when
words in úh and óh do not take k, they change úh and óh into eh.
Thus, 末 móh becomes meh, Many words in conformity with this law,
change their places among the finals, and the collocation of a and
e, with k is carefully avoided, while u, ú, ó, retain it with equal
consistency.[1] It should be observed however, that the á of
mandarin becomes a in the short tone, and the longer a is only used
as the colloquialized form of u. E.g. 百 C. pák, R. puk. Thus in
Shánghái usage, á, u, ó, o take k in the short tone, a, e, ö, admit
m terminating consonant, while i remains common.
This law is much simpler than that of the Fúh-kien and other
dialects of the south of China. But while in those dialects, there
are found as in the dictionaries three terminating consonants, k, t,
p, similar affinities to vowels are traceable. In Fúh-kien with the
exception of á, which, all three share between them, k usually
prefers one set of vowels, and t and p another.
The native rule in the southern dialects, that k, t, p, are merely
the form assumed by the final letters ng, n, m, in the short tone,
is inapplicable to dialects, so far north as this. In the native
system of finals, this limitation is found indeed, but is not
rigidly adhered to. Some words in t are placed under ng as well as
n. Others in k occur under vowel finals. The cases of conformity
however, are so much more numerous than the exceptions, that the
rule is indubitable. Since here only k is in use, the modern seat of
the old pronunciation of the dictionaries must lie in part farther
south. It embraces indeed the seaboard provinces, from Shánghái to
Canton with parts of Kiang-si and Hu-nan.
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1. Words in k frequently interchange. Uk and ák do so
throughout, while ók, ok are often both in use for the same words.
Ex. 木行 moh {h}ong or móh {h}ong, {a timber yard}.
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80. The letter n is also affected by the preceding vowel.
After a, e, ö, û, it is almost unheard when no word follows,
and though a well-defined consonant in the next word brings
it into notice, it is still only audible as a slight nasal sound.
The vowels i, o, refuse to be associated with it, and when u
precedes, it only holds its position in common with ng. After ü
it is as in mandarin.
81. Out of 63 finals, there are twenty that vary their sound in
reading. In all these, there is an approach to the mandarin
pronunciation, and they are therefore employed, by those born within
the limits of the dialect, when they wish to make themselves
intelligible to strangers. In such cases, they are usually under the
delusive impression that it is mandarin they speak. Such is the
advantage of the alphabetic system, with its all-versatile and
exhaustive applicability, that a foreigner can pass from one dialect
to another so far as sound is concerned, with much greater quickness
than a native. The latter has no ready method of writing new sounds
down, nor is he practised in the art of separating them into their
alphabetical elements. No thing but a long residence in the region
of another pronunciation, and some natural flexibility of organs,
can give him a different set of tones, and a new arrangement of
vowels and consonants. The sight of a character suggests to him the
sound, that he learnt in his childhood, and having always regarded
each, sound as a unity not separable into alphabetic parts, any
variation is too confusing and difficult of appreciation to be
readily adopted.
The total number of sounds in our dialect independent of tones, is
about 570. Morrison counts those of mandarin at 411, The difference
is due to the broad initials B, G, D, V, Z.
82. {Irregularities of Pronunciation}. Words that do not conform in
sound to the rules given in this section are few.
十五 só‘ ’{ng}, (for seh ng), {fifteen}.
錢 dzíe{n}, R. is pronounced díe{n}‘, C.
逐軸 dióh, R. They should be dzóh.
打 ’tá, to {strike}, in reading and colloquial is ’táng.[1]
那 R. ná, C. {á} in {á lí}, {where.}
所在 R. ’sú ’dzé, C. ’sû zé, {a house}.
To these may be added the tendency of the initial K to be
pronounced, when standing before I, like T in the upper series,
and like D or DJ in the lower.
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1. The sound tang is the older. The phonetic 丁 ting points to a
final ng as having formerly existed,
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