SOURCES OF INCOME AND MEANS OF LIVING. THE ROMAN'S DAY
§403. It is evident from what has been said that abundant means were
necessary to support the state in which every Roman of position lived.
It will be of interest to see how the great mass of the people also
earned the scantier living with which they were forced to be content.
For the sake of this inquiry it will be convenient, if not very
accurate, to divide the people of Rome into the three great classes of
nobles, knights, and commons, into which political history has
distributed them. At the same time it must be remembered that there
was no hard and fixed line drawn between any two of these classes; a
noble might if he pleased associate himself with the knights, provided
only that he possessed the required sum of $20,000, and any freeborn
citizen might aspire to the highest offices of the state, however mean
the circumstances of his birth, however poor in pocket or in talent he
might be.
§404. Careers of the Nobles.--The nobles inherited certain of the
aristocratic notions of the old patriciate, which limited their
business activities and had much to do with the corruption of public
life in the last century of the Republic. Men in their position were
held to be above all manner of work, with the hands or with the head,
for the sake of sordid gain. Agriculture alone was free from debasing
associations, as it has been in England within our own time, and
statecraft and war were the only careers fit to engage their energies.
Even as statesmen and generals, too, they served their fellow citizens
without material reward, for no salaries were drawn by the senators,
none were attached to the magistracies or to positions of military
command. This theory had worked well enough in the time before the
Punic wars, when every Roman was a farmer, when the farm produced all
that he needed for his simple wants, when he left it only to serve as
a soldier in his young manhood or as a senator in his old age, and
returned to his fields, like Cincinnatus, when his services were no
longer required by his country. Under the aristocracy that supplanted
the pure democracy of the earlier time, it subverted every aim that it
was intended to secure.
§405. Agriculture.--The farm life that Cicero has described so
eloquently and praised so enthusiastically in his _Catō Māior_ would
have scarcely been recognized by Cato himself and had become a memory
or a dream long before Cicero wrote. The farmer no longer tilled his
fields, even with the help of his slaves. The yeoman class had
practically disappeared from Italy. The small holdings had been
absorbed in the vast estates of the wealthy landowners, and the aims
and methods of farming had wholly changed. Something has been said of
this already (§146 f.), and it will be sufficient here to recall the
fact that grain was no longer raised for the market in Italy, simply
because the market could be supplied more cheaply from over seas. The
grape and the olive had become the chief sources of wealth, and for
them Sallust and Horace complain that less and less space was being
left by the parks and pleasure grounds (§145). Still, the making of
wine and oil under the direction of a careful steward (§148) must have
been very profitable in Italy and many of the nobles had plantations
in the provinces as well, the revenues of which helped to maintain
their state at Rome.
§406. Political Office.--Politics must have been profitable for those
only who played the game to the end. No salaries were attached to the
offices, and the indirect gains from one of the lower would hardly pay
the expenses necessary to secure the next in order. The gain came
always through positions in the provinces. The quaestorship might be
spent in one, the praetorship and the consulship were sure to be
followed by a year abroad. To honest men the places gave the
opportunity to learn of profitable investments, and a good governor
was often selected by a community to look after its interests in the
capital, and this meant an honorarium in the form of valuable presents
from time to time. Cicero's justice and moderation as quaestor in
Sicily earned him a rich reward when he came to prosecute Verres for
plundering that same province, and when he was in charge of the grain
supply during his aedileship. To corrupt officials the provinces were
gold mines. Every sort of robbery and extortion was practiced, and the
governor was expected to enrich not merely himself but also the
_cohors_ (§118) that had accompanied him. Catullus bitterly complains
of the selfishness of Memmius, who had kept for himself all the
plunder of Bithynia. The story of Verres may be read in any history of
Rome; it differs from that of the average governor only in the fate
that overtook the offender.
§407. The Law.--Closely connected with the political career then as
now was that of the law, but Rome knew of no class of professional
advocates practicing for fees and living upon their practice. And
there were no conditions imposed for practicing in the courts, not
even the good moral character which is insisted upon in Indiana.
Anyone could bring suit against anyone else on any charge that he
pleased, and it was no uncommon thing for a young politician to use
this license for the purpose of gaining notoriety, even when he knew
there were no grounds for the charges he brought. On the other hand
the lawyer was forbidden to accept pay for his services. In olden
times the client had of his right gone to his patron for legal advice
(§179), and the lawyer of later times was theoretically at least at
the service of all who applied to him. Men of the highest character
made it a point of honor to put their technical knowledge freely at
the disposal of their fellow citizens. At the same time the statutes
against fees were easily evaded. Grateful clients could not be
prevented from making valuable presents, and it was a very common
thing for generous legacies to be left to successful advocates. Cicero
had no other source of income, so far as we know, but while he was
never a rich man, he owned a house on the Palatine (§221, note) and
half a dozen country seats, lived well, and spent money lavishly on
works of art (§227) that appealed to his tastes, and on books (§402).
Corrupt judges (_praetōrēs_) could find other sources of income then
as now, of course, but we hear more of this in relation to the jurors
(_iudicēs_) than the judges, probably because with a province before
him the _praetor_ did not think it fitting to stoop to petty
bribetaking.
§408. The Army.--The spoils of war went nominally into the treasury of
the state. Practically they passed first through the hands of the
commanding general, who kept what he pleased for himself, his staff
(§118), and his soldiers and sent the rest to Rome. The opportunities
were magnificent, and the Roman general understood how to use them
all. Some of them were legitimate enough according to the usages of
the time, the plunder of the towns and cities that were taken, the
ransom exacted from those that were spared, the sale of captives as
slaves (§134). Entirely illegitimate, of course, were the fortunes
made by furnishing supplies to the army at extravagant prices or
diverting these supplies to private uses. The reconstruction of the
conquered territory brought in returns equally rich; it is safe to say
that the Aedui paid Caesar well for the supremacy in central Gaul that
he assured them after his defeat of the Helvetii. The civil wars that
cost the best blood of Italy made the victors immensely rich. Besides
the looting of the public treasury, the estates of men in the opposing
party were confiscated and sold to the highest bidder. The proceeds
went nominally to the treasury of the new government, but the proceeds
were infinitesimal in comparison with the profits. After Sulla had
established himself in Rome the names of friends and foes alike were
put on the proscription lists, and if powerful influence was not
exerted in their behalf they lost lives and fortunes. For the
influence they had to pay dearly. One example may be cited. The estate
of one Roscius of Ameria, valued at $300,000, was bid in for $100 by
Lucius Chrysogonus, a freedman of Sulla, because no one dared bid
against the creature of the dictator. The settling of the soldiers on
grants of land made good business for the three commissioners who
superintended the distribution of the land. The grants were always of
farms owned and occupied by adherents of the beaten party, and the
bribes came from both sides.
§409. Careers of the Equites.--The name of knight had lost its
original significance long before the time of Cicero. The equites had
become the class of capitalists who found in financial transactions
the excitement and the profit that the nobles found in politics and
war. It was the immense scale of their operations that relieved them
from the stigma that attached to working for gain, just as in modern
times the wholesale dealer may have a social position entirely beyond
the hopes of the small retailer. As a body the equites exerted
considerable political influence, holding in fact the balance of power
between the senatorial and the democratic parties. As a rule they
exerted this influence only so far as was necessary to secure
legislation favorable to them as a class, and to insure as governors
for the provinces men that would not look too closely into their
transactions there. For it was in the provinces that the knights as
well as the nobles found their best opportunities. Their chief
business was the farming of the revenues. For this purpose syndicates
were formed, which paid into the public treasury a lump sum, fixed by
the senate, and reimbursed themselves by collecting what they could
from the province. The profits were beyond all reason, and the word
publican became a synonym for sinner. Besides farming the revenues
they "financed" the provinces and allied states, advancing money to
meet the ordinary or extraordinary expenses. Sulla levied a
contribution of 20,000 talents (about $20,000,000) on Asia. The money
was advanced by a syndicate of Roman capitalists, and they had
collected the amount six times over when Sulla interfered, for fear
that there would be nothing left for him in case of further needs.
More than one pretender was set upon a puppet throne in the East in
order to secure the payment of sums previously loaned him by the
capitalists. Their operations as individuals were only less extensive
and profitable. The grain in the provinces, the wool, the products of
mines and factories could be moved only with the money advanced by
them. They ventured, too, to engage in commercial enterprises abroad
that were barred against them at home, doing the buying and selling
themselves, not merely supplying the means to others. They loaned
money to individuals, too, though at Rome money lending was
discreditable. The usual rate was twelve per cent, but Marcus Brutus
was loaning money at forty-eight per cent in Cilicia, when Cicero went
there as governor in 51 B.C., and expected Cicero to enforce his
contracts for him.
§410. The Soldiers.--The freeborn citizens of Rome below the nobles
and the knights may be roughly divided into two classes, the soldiers
and the proletariate. The civil wars had driven them from their farms
or had unfitted them for the work of farming, and the pride of race or
the competition of slave labor had closed against them the other
avenues of industry, numerous as these must have been in the world's
capital. The best of this class turned to the army. This had long
since ceased to be composed of citizen-soldiers, called out to meet a
special emergency for a single campaign, and disbanded at its close.
It was what we should call a regular army, the soldiers enlisting for
a term of twenty years, receiving stated pay and certain privileges
after an honorable discharge. In time of peace, when there was peace,
they were employed on public works (§385). The pay was small, perhaps
forty or fifty dollars a year with rations in Caesar's time, but this
was as much as a laborer could earn by the hardest kind of toil, and
the soldier had the glory of war to set over against the stigma of
work, and hopes of presents from his commander and the privilege of
occasional pillage and plunder. After he had completed his time he
might if he chose return to Rome, but many had formed connections in
the communities where their posts were fixed and preferred to make
their homes there on free grants of land, an important instrument in
spreading Roman civilization.
§411. The Proletariate.--In addition to the idle and the profligate
attracted to Rome by the free corn and by the other allurements that
bring a like element into our cities now, large numbers of the
industrious and the frugal had been forced into the city by the loss
of their property during the civil wars and the failure to find
employment elsewhere. No exact estimate of the number of these
unemployed people can be given, but it is known that before Caesar's
time it had passed the mark of 300,000. Relief was occasionally given
by the establishing of colonies on the frontiers--in this way Caesar
put as many as 80,000 in the way of earning their living again, short
as was his administration of affairs at Rome--but it was the least
harmful element that was willing to emigrate and the dregs were left
behind. Aside from beggary and petty crimes their only source of
income was the sale of their votes, and this made them a real menace
to the Republic. Under the Empire their political influence was lost
and the state found it necessary to make distributions of money
occasionally to relieve their want. Some of them played client to the
upstart rich (§181), but the most were content to be fed by the state
and amused by the constantly increasing shows and games (§322).
§412. Professions and Trades.--The professions and trades, between
which the Romains made no distinction, in the last years of the
Republic were practically given over to the _lībertīnī_ (§175) and to
foreigners. Of some of these something has been said already. Teachers
were poorly paid (§121), and usually looked upon with contempt.
Physicians were held in no higher esteem, but seem to have been well
paid, if we may judge from those that were attached to the court. Two
of these left a joint estate of $1,000,000, and another received from
the Emperor Claudius a yearly stipend of $25,000. In knowledge and
skill in both surgery and medicine they do not seem to have been much
behind the practitioners of two centuries ago. Bankers united money
changing with money loaning. The former was very necessary in a city
into which came all the coins of the known world; the latter was never
looked upon as entirely respectable for a Roman, but there can be no
doubt that many a Roman of the highest respectability drew large
profits from this business, carried on discreetly in the name of a
freedman. The trades were early organized at Rome in guilds, but their
only purpose seems to have been to hand down and perfect the technique
of the crafts; at least there was no obstacle in the way of workmen
not belonging to the guilds, and there were no such things known as
patents or special privileges in the way of work. Eight of these
guilds are older than history, those of the fullers, cobblers,
carpenters, goldsmiths, coppersmiths, potters, dyers, and (oddly
enough) the fluteblowers. Numerous others were formed as knowledge of
the arts advanced or the division of labor proceeded. Special parts of
the city seem to have been appropriated by special classes of workmen,
as like businesses are apt to be carried on in the same neighborhood
in our cities: Cicero speaks of a street of the Scythemakers.
§413. Business and Commerce.--The commerce of Rome covered all lands
and seas. Pliny tells us that the trade with India and China took from
Rome $5,000,000 yearly. The wholesale trade was to a large extent in
the hands of the capitalist class, the retail business was conducted
by freedmen and foreigners. How large these businesses were we have no
means of telling. The supplying of the food to the city must have
given employment to thousands; the clothing trade has been mentioned
already (§271). Building operations were carried on at an immense cost
and on the largest scale. All the public buildings and many of the
important private buildings were built by contract. There can be
little doubt that the letting of the contracts for the public
buildings was made very profitable for the officers who had it to do,
but it must be admitted on the other hand that the work was well done.
Crassus seems to have done a sort of salvage business. When buildings
seemed certain to be destroyed by fire he would buy them with their
contents at a nominal sum, and then fight the flames with gangs of
slaves that he had trained for the purpose. The slave trade itself was
very considerable and large fortunes were amassed in it (§139). The
heavy work of ordinary laborers was performed almost entirely by
slaves (§148), and it must be remembered that much work was then done
by hand that is now done by machinery. The book business has been
mentioned (§400). Even the place of the modern newspaper was taken by
letters written as a business by persons who collected all the news,
gossip, and scandal of the city, had it copied by slaves, and sent it
to persons away from the city who did not like to trouble their
friends (§379) and were willing to pay for intelligence.
§414. The Civil Service.--The free persons employed in the offices of
the various magistrates were of the lowest class, mostly _lībertīnī_.
They were paid by the state, and while appointed nominally for a year
only, they seem to have practically held their places during good
behavior. This was largely due to the shortness of the term of the
regular magistrates and the rarity of reëlection. Having no experience
themselves in conducting their offices the magistrates would have all
the greater need of thoroughly trained and experienced assistants. The
highest class of these officials formed an _ōrdō_, the _scrībae_,
whose name gives no adequate notion of the extent and importance of
their duties. All that is now done by cabinet officers, secretaries,
department heads, bureau chiefs, auditors, comptrollers, recorders,
and accountants, down to the work of the ordinary clerks and copyists,
was done by these "scribes." Below them came others almost equally
necessary but not equally respected, the lictors, messengers, etc.
These civil servants had special places at the theater and the circus.
The positions seem to have been in great demand, as such places are
now in France, for example. Horace is said to have been a department
clerk.
§415. The Roman's Day.--The way in which a Roman spent his day
depended, of course, upon his position and business, and varied
greatly with individuals and with the particular day. The ordinary
routine of a man of the higher class, the man of whom we read most
frequently in Roman literature, was something like this: The Roman
rose at a very early hour, his day beginning before sunrise, because
it ended so early. After a hurried breakfast (§302) he devoted such
time as was necessary to his private business, looking over accounts,
consulting with his managers, giving directions, etc. Cicero and Pliny
found these early hours the best for their literary work. Horace tells
of lawyers giving free advice at three in the morning. After his
private business was despatched the Roman took his place in the
_ātrium_ (§198) for the _salūtātiō_ (§182), when his clients came to
pay their respects, perhaps to ask for the help or advice that he was
bound to furnish them (§179). All this business of the early morning
might have to be dispensed with, however, if the Roman was asked to a
wedding (§79), or to be present at the naming of a child (§97), or to
witness the coming of age (§128) of the son of a friend, for all these
semi-public functions took place in the early morning. But after them
or after the levee the Roman went to the forum attended by his clients
and carried in his litter (§151) with his _nōmenclātor_ at his elbow.
The business of the courts and of the senate began about the third
hour, and might continue until the ninth or tenth, that of the senate
was bound to stop at sunset. Except on extraordinary occasions all
business was pretty sure to be over before eleven o'clock, and at this
time the lunch was taken (§302).
§416. Then came the midday siesta, so general that the streets were as
deserted as at midnight, and one of the Roman writers fixes upon this
as the proper time for a ghost story. Of course there were no sessions
of the courts or meetings of the senate on the public holidays, and
then the hours generally given to business might be spent at the
theater or the circus or other games. As a matter of fact the Romans
of the better class rather avoided these shows, unless they were
officially connected with them, and many of them devoted the holidays
to visiting their country estates. After the siesta, which lasted for
an hour or more, the Roman was ready for his regular athletic exercise
and bath, either in the Campus and the Tiber (§317) or in one of the
public bathing establishments (§365). The bath proper (§367) was
followed by the lounge (§377), perhaps a promenade in the court, which
gave him a chance for a chat with a friend, or an opportunity to hear
the latest news, to consult business associates, in short to talk over
any of the things that men now discuss at their clubs. After this came
the great event of the day, the dinner (§303), at his own house or at
that of some friend, followed immediately by retirement for the night.
Even on the days spent in the country this programme would not be
materially changed, and the Roman took with him into the provinces the
customs of his home life so far as possible.
[Illustration: FIGURE 192. ANCIENT CALENDAR]
§417. Hours of the Day.--The day itself was divided into twelve hours
(_hōrae_), each being one-twelfth of the time between sunrise and
sunset and varying therefore with the season of the year. The length
of the day and hour at Rome in different times of the year is shown in
the following table:
Month Length Length | Month Length Length
and Day of Day of Hour | and Day of Day of Hour
--------------------------------+--------------------------------
Dec. 23 8° 54' 44' 30" | June 25 15° 6' 1° 15' 30"
Feb. 6 9° 50' 49' 10" | Aug. 10 14° 10' 1° 10' 50"
March 23 12° 00' 1° 00' 00" | Sept. 25 12° 00' 1° 00' 00"
May 9 14° 10' 1° 10' 50" | Nov. 9 9° 50' 49' 10"
§418. Taking the days of June 25 and December 23 as respectively the
longest and shortest of the year, the following table gives the
conclusion of each hour for summer and winter:
Time Summer Winter
-----------------------------------------
Sunrise 4° 27' 00" 7° 33' 00"
1st Hour 5° 42' 30" 8° 17' 30"
2d Hour 6° 58' 00" 9° 02' 00"
3d Hour 8° 13' 30" 9° 46' 30"
4th Hour 9° 29' 00" 10° 31' 00"
5th Hour 10° 44' 30" 11° 15' 30"
6th Hour 12° 00' 00" 12° 00' 00"
7th Hour 1° 15' 30" 12° 44' 30"
8th Hour 2° 31' 00" 1° 29' 00"
9th Hour 3° 46' 30" 2° 13' 30"
10th Hour 5° 02' 00" 2° 58' 00"
11th Hour 6° 17' 30" 3° 42' 30"
12th Hour 7° 33' 00" 4° 27' 00"
In the same way the hours may be calculated for any given day, the
length of the day and the hour of sunrise being known, but for all
practical purposes the old couplet will serve:
The English hour you may fix,
If to the Latin you add six.
When the Latin hour is above six it will be more convenient to
subtract than to add.