CHAPTER XII_The Private Life of the Romans

BURIAL-PLACES AND FUNERAL CEREMONIES

REFERENCES: Marquardt, 340-388; Voigt, 319-322, 396, 455; Göll,

480-547; Guhl and Koner, 580-595, 857-863; Friedländer, III, 125-137;

Ramsay, 479-482; Pauly-Wissowa, _cenotaphium_, _columbārium_; Smith,

Harper, Rich, _columbārium_, _fūnus_, _sepulcrum_; Lübker,

_Bestattung_, _sepulcrum_; Baumeister, 308-311, 604-609, 1520 f.;

Mau-Kelsey, 399-428; Gusman, 44-54; Egbert, Latin Inscriptions,

230-242; Lanciani, Ancient Rome, 64, 129 f.

§419. Importance of Burial.--The Romans' view of the future life

explains the importance they attached to the ceremonial burial of the

dead. The soul, they thought, could find rest only when the body had

been duly laid in the grave; until this was done it haunted the home,

unhappy itself and bringing unhappiness to others. To perform the

funeral offices (_iūsta facere_) was, therefore, a solemn religious

duty, devolving upon the surviving members of the family (§28), and

the Latin words show that these marks of respect were looked upon as

the right of the dead. In the case of a body lost at sea, or for any

other reason unrecovered, the ceremonies were just as piously

performed, an empty tomb (_cenotaphium_) being erected sometimes in

honor of the dead. And these same rites the Roman was bound to

perform, if he came anywhere upon the unburied corpse of a citizen,

because all were members of the greater family of the commonwealth. In

this case the scattering of three handfuls of dust over the body was

sufficient for ceremonial burial and the happiness of the troubled

spirit, if for any reason the body could not actually be interred.

§420. Interment and Cremation.--Burial was the way of disposing of the

dead practiced most anciently by the Romans, and even after cremation

came into very general use it was ceremonially necessary that some

small part of the remains, usually the bone of a finger, should be

buried in the earth. Burning was practiced before the time of the

Twelve Tables, for it is mentioned together with burial in them, but

we do not know how long before. Hygienic reasons had probably

something to do with its general adoption, and this implies, of

course, cities of considerable size. By the time of Augustus it was

all but universal, but even in Rome the practice of burial was never

entirely discontinued, for cremation was too costly for the very

poorest classes, and some of the wealthiest and most aristocratic

families held fast to the more ancient custom. The Cornelii, for

example, always buried their dead until the dictator required his body

to be burned for fear that his bones might be disinterred and

dishonored by his enemies, as he had dishonored those of Marius.

Children less than forty days old were always buried, and so, too,

slaves whose funeral expenses were paid by their masters. After the

introduction of Christianity burial came again to be the prevailing

use, largely because of the increased expense of burning.

[Illustration: FIGURE 193. TOMB OF PLANCUS]

[Illustration: FIGURE 194. TOMB OF CESTIUS]

[Illustration: FIGURE 195. STREET OF TOMBS AT POMPEII]

§421. Places of Burial.--The most ancient place of burial, at least

for the head of the house, was beneath the hearthstone in the _ātrium_

of his house, later in the garden behind his house, but this had

ceased to be the custom long before history begins, and the Twelve

Tables forbade the burial or even the burning of the dead within the

walls of the city. For the very poor, places of burial were provided

in remote localities outside the walls, corresponding in some degree

to the Potter's Field of modern cities. The well-to-do made their

burial-places as conspicuous as their means would permit, with the

hope that the inscriptions upon the monuments would keep alive the

names and virtues of the dead, and with the idea, perhaps, that they

still had some part in the busy life around them. To this end they

lined the great roads on either side for miles out of the cities with

rows of tombs of the most elaborate and costly architecture. In the

vicinity of Rome the Appian way as the oldest (§385) showed the

monuments of the noblest and most ancient families, but none of the

roads lacked similar memorials. Many of these tombs were standing in

the sixteenth century, a few still remain. The same custom was

followed in the smaller towns, and an idea of the appearance of the

monuments may be had from the so-called "Street of Tombs" in Pompeii

(Fig. 195). There were other burial-places near the cities, of course,

less conspicuous and less expensive, and on the farms and country

estates like provision was made for persons of humbler station.

[Illustration: FIGURE 196. EXTERIOR OF TOMB AT POMPEII]

§422. The Tombs.--The tombs, whether intended to receive the bodies or

merely the ashes, or both, differed widely in size and construction

with the different purposes for which they were erected. Some were for

individuals only, but these in most cases were strictly public

memorials as distinguished from actual tombs intended to receive the

remains of the dead. The larger number of those that lined the roads

were family tombs, ample in size for whole generations of descendants

and retainers of the family, including guest-friends (§185), who had

died away from their own homes, and freedmen (§175). There were also

the burial-places of the _gentēs_ (§21), in which provision was made

for all, even the humblest and poorest, who claimed connection with

the _gēns_ and had had a place in its formal organization (§22).

Others were erected on a large scale by speculators who sold at low

prices space enough for an urn or two to persons too poor to erect

tombs of their own and without any claim on a family or gentile

burying-place. In imitation of these structures others were erected on

the same plan by burial societies formed by persons of the artisan

class, and others still by benevolent men, as we have seen baths

(§373) and libraries (§402) erected and maintained for the public

good. Something will be said of the tombs of all these kinds after the

public burying-places have been described.

[Illustration: FIGURE 197. SECTIONS OF TOMB SHOWN IN FIGURE 196]

§423. The Potter's Field.--During the Republic the Esquiline Hill, or

at least the eastern part of it, was the place to which was carted all

the refuse of the city that the sewers would not carry away. Here,

too, were the gravepits (_puticulī_) for the pauper class. They were

merely holes in the ground, about twelve feet square, without lining

of any kind. Into them were thrown the bodies of the friendless poor,

and along with them and over them the carcasses of dead animals and

the filth and scrapings of the streets. The pits were kept open,

uncovered apparently even when filled, and the stench and the

disease-breeding pollution made the hill absolutely uninhabitable.

Under Augustus the danger to the health of the whole city became so

great that the dumping grounds were moved to a greater distance, and

the Esquiline, covered over pits and all with pure soil to the depth

of twenty-five feet, was made a park, known as the _Hortī Maecēnātis_.

§424. It is not to be understood, however, that the bodies of Roman

citizens were ordinarily disposed of in this revolting way. Faithful

freedmen were cared for by their patrons, the industrious poor made

provision for themselves in coöperative societies mentioned above, and

the proletariate class (§411) was in general saved from such a fate by

gentile relations, by patrons (§181), or by the benevolence of

individuals. Only in times of plague and pestilence, it is safe to

say, were the bodies of known citizens cast into these pits, as under

like circumstances bodies have been burned in heaps in our own cities.

The uncounted thousands that peopled the Potter's Field of Rome were

the riffraff from foreign lands, abandoned slaves (§156), the victims

that perished in the arena (§362), outcasts of the criminal class, and

the "unidentified" that are buried nowadays at public expense.

Criminals put to death by authority were not buried at all; their

carcasses were left to birds and beasts of prey at the place of

execution near the Esquiline gate.

[Illustration: FIGURE 198. INTERIOR OF TOMB AT POMPEII]

§425. Plan of Tombs and Grounds.--The utmost diversity prevails in the

outward form and construction of the tombs, but those of the classical

period seem to have been planned with the thought that the tomb was to

be a home for the dead and that they were not altogether cut off from

the living. The tomb, therefore, whether built for one person or for

many, was ordinarily a building inclosing a room (_sepulcrum_), and

this room was really the important thing. Attention has already been

called (§189) to the fact that even the urns had in ancient times the

shape of the house of one room. The floor of the _sepulcrum_ was quite

commonly below the level of the surrounding grounds and was reached by

a short flight of steps. Around the base of the walls ran a slightly

elevated platform (_podium_, cf. §§337, 357) on which were placed the

coffins of those who were buried, while the urns were placed either on

the platform or in niches in the wall. An altar or shrine is often

found, at which offerings were made to the _mānēs_ of the departed.

Lamps are very common and so are other simple articles of furniture,

and the walls, floors, and ceilings are decorated in the same style as

those of houses (§220 f.). Things that the dead liked to have around

them when living, especially things that they had used in their

ordinary occupations, were placed in the tomb at the time of burial,

or burned with them on the funeral pyre, and in general an effort was

made to give an air of life to the chamber of rest. The interior of a

tomb at Pompeii is shown in Fig. 198, and sections of another in Fig.

197, §423.

[Illustration: FIGURE 199. PLAN OF GROUNDS ABOUT TOMB]

§426. The monument itself was always built upon a plot of ground as

spacious as the means of the builders would permit, sometimes several

acres in extent. In it provision was made for the comfort of surviving

members of the family, who were bound to visit the resting-place of

their dead on certain regularly recurring festivals (§438). If the

grounds were small there would be at least a seat, perhaps a bench. On

more extensive grounds there were places of shelter, arbors, or summer

houses. Dining-rooms, too, in which were celebrated the anniversary

feasts, and private _ūstrīnae_ (places for the burning of bodies) are

frequently mentioned. Often the grounds were laid out as gardens or

parks, with trees and flowers, wells, cisterns or fountains, and even

a house, with other buildings perhaps, for the accommodation of the

slaves or freedmen who were in charge. A plan of such a garden is

shown in Fig. 199. In the middle of the garden is the _ārea_, the

technical word for the plot of ground set aside for the tomb, with

several buildings upon it, one of which is a storehouse or granary

(_horreum_); around the tomb itself are beds of roses and violets,

used in festivals (§438), and around them in turn are grapes trained

on trellises. In the front is a terrace (_sōlārium_, cf. §207), and in

the rear two pools (_piscīnae_) connected with the _ārea_ by a little

canal, while at the back is a thicket of shrubbery (_harundinētum_).

The purpose of the granary is not clear as no grain seems to have been

raised on the lot, but it may have been left where it stood before the

ground was consecrated. A tomb surrounded by grounds of some extent

was called a _cēpotaphium_.

[Illustration: FIGURE 200. RUINS OF COLUMBARIUM OF LIVIA]

§427. Exterior of the Tombs.--An idea of the exterior appearance of

monuments of the better sort may be had from Figs. 193-196. The forms

are very many, those of the altar and temple are the most common,

perhaps, but memorial arches and niches are often found, and at

Pompeii the semicircular bench that was used for conversation out of

doors occurs several times, covered and uncovered. Not all of the

tombs have the sepulchral chamber, the remains being sometimes

deposited in the earth beneath the monument. In such cases a tube or

pipe of lead ran from the receptacle to the surface, through which

offerings of wine and milk could be poured (§§429, 438). In Fig. 193,

§420, is shown the round monument at Caieta of Lucius Munatius

Plancus, one of Caesar's marshals (_lēgātī_) in Gaul, the

inscription[1] on which recounts the positions he had filled and the

work he had done. In Fig. 194, §420, is shown the pyramid erected at

Rome in honor of Caius Cestius by his heirs, one of whom was Marcus

Agrippa. According to the inscription on it the monument was completed

in 330 days. The most imposing of all was the mausoleum of Hadrian

(Fig. 205, §438) at Rome, now the castle of St. Angelo. A less

elaborate exterior is that of the "tomb with the marble door" at

Pompeii, given in Fig. 196, §422.

[Footnote 1: Inscription on the tomb of Plancus: "Lucius Munatius

Plancus, son, etc. (§39), consul, censor, twice imperator, member of

the board of seven in charge of sacrificial feasts. He celebrated a

triumph over the people of Raetia. From the spoils of war he erected a

temple to Saturn. In Italy he assigned lands about Beneventum. In Gaul

he planted colonies at Lugdunum and Raurica."]

[Illustration: FIGURE 201. GROUND PLAN OF COLUMBARIUM OF LIVIA]

[Illustration: FIGURE 202. SARCOPHAGUS OF SCIPIO]

§428. The Columbaria.--From the family tombs were developed the

immense structures mentioned in §422 intended to receive great numbers

of urns. They began to be erected in the time of Augustus and seem to

have been confined to Rome, where the high price of land made the

purchase of private burial-grounds impossible for the poorer classes.

An idea of their interior arrangements may be had from the ruins (Fig.

200) of one erected on the Appian way for the freedmen of Livia, the

wife of Augustus. From their resemblance to a dovecote or pigeon house

they were called _columbāria_. They are usually partly underground,

rectangular in form, with great numbers of the niches (also called

_columbāria_) running in regular rows horizontally (_gradūs_) and

vertically (_ōrdinēs_). In the larger _columbāria_ provision was made

for as many as a thousand urns. Around the walls at the base was a

_podium_, on which were placed the sarcophagi of those whose remains

had not been burned, and sometimes chambers were excavated beneath the

floor for the same purpose. In the _podium_ were also niches that no

space might be lost. If the height of the building was great enough to

warrant it, wooden galleries ran around the walls. Access to the room

was given by a stairway in which were niches, too; light was furnished

by small windows near the ceiling, and walls and floors were

handsomely finished and decorated.

[Illustration: FIGURE 203. AEDICULA IN COLUMBARIUM]

§429. The niches were sometimes rectangular in form, but more commonly

half round, as shown in Figs. 200 and 203. Some of the _columbāria_

have the lower rows rectangular, those above arched. They contained

ordinarily two urns (_ollae_, _ollae ossuāriae_) each, arranged side

by side, that they might be visible from the front. Occasionally the

niches were made deep enough for two sets of urns, those behind being

elevated a little over those in front. Above or below each niche was

fastened to the wall a piece of marble (_titulus_) on which was cut

the name of the owner. If a person required for his family a group of

four or six niches, it was customary to mark them off from the others

by wall decorations to show that they made a unit; a very common way

was to erect pillars at the sides so as to give the appearance of the

front of a temple (Fig. 203). Such groups were called _aediculae_. The

value of the places depended upon their position, those in the higher

rows (_gradūs_) being less expensive than those near the floor, those

under the stairway the least desirable of all. The urns themselves

were of various materials (§437) and usually cemented to the bottom of

the niches. The tops could be removed, but they, too, were sealed

after the ashes had been placed in them, small openings being left

through which offerings of milk and wine could be poured. On the urns

or their tops were painted the names of the dead with sometimes the

day and the month of death. The year is almost never found. Over the

door of such a _columbārium_ on the outside was cut an inscription

giving the names of the owners, the date of erection, and other

particulars.

[Illustration: FIGURE 204. CINERARY URNS]

§430. Burial Societies.--Early in the Empire associations were formed

for the purpose of meeting the funeral expenses of their members,

whether the remains were to be buried or cremated, or for the purpose

of building _columbāria_, or for both. These coöperative associations

(_collegia fūnerāticia_) started originally among members of the same

guild (§412) or among persons of the same occupation. They called

themselves by many names, _cultōrēs_ of this deity or that, _collegia

salūtāria_, _collegia iuvenum_, etc., but their objects and methods

were practically the same. If the members had provided places for the

disposal of their bodies after death they now provided for the

necessary funeral expenses by paying into the common fund weekly a

small fixed sum, easily within the reach of the poorest of them. When

a member died a stated sum was drawn for his funeral from the

treasury, a committee saw that the rites were decently performed, and

at the proper seasons (§438) the society made corporate offerings to

the dead. If the purpose of the society was the building of a

_columbārium_, the cost was first determined and the sum total divided

into what we should call shares (_sortēs virīlēs_), each member taking

as many as he could afford and paying their value into the treasury.

Sometimes a benevolent person would contribute toward the expense of

the undertaking, and then such a person would be made an honorary

member of the society with the title of _patrōnus_ or _patrōna_. The

erection of the building was intrusted to a number of _cūrātōrēs_,

chosen by ballot, naturally the largest shareholders and most

influential men. They let the contracts and superintended the

construction, rendering account for all the money expended. The office

of the curators was considered very honorable, especially as their

names appeared on the inscription without the building, and they often

showed their appreciation of the honor done them by providing at their

own expense for the decoration of the interior, or by furnishing all

or a part of the _titulī_, _ollae_, etc., or by erecting on the

surrounding grounds places of shelter and dining-rooms for the use of

the members, like those mentioned in §426.

§431. After the completion of the building the _cūrātōrēs_ allotted

the niches to the individual members. The niches were either numbered

consecutively throughout or their position was fixed by the number of

the _ōrdō_ and _gradus_ (§428) in which they were situated. Because

they were not all equally desirable, as has been explained, the

curators divided them into sections as fairly as possible and then

assigned the sections (_locī_) by lot to the shareholders. If a man

held several shares of stock he received a corresponding number of

_locī_, though they might be in widely different parts of the

building. The members were allowed freely to dispose of their holdings

by exchange, sale, or gift, and many of the larger stockholders

probably engaged in the enterprise for the sake of the profits to be

made in this way. After the division was made the owners had their

names cut upon the _titulī_, and might put up the columns to mark the

_aediculae_, set up statues, etc., if they pleased. Some of the

_titulī_ give besides the name of the owner the number and position of

his _locī_ or _ollae_. Sometimes they record the purchase of _ollae_,

giving the number bought and the name of the previous owner. Sometimes

the names on the _ollae_ do not correspond with that over the niche,

showing that the owner had sold a part only of his holdings, or that

the purchaser had not taken the trouble to replace the _titulus_. The

expenses of maintenance were probably paid from the weekly dues of the

members, as were the funeral benefits.

L • ABVCIVS • HERMES • IN • HOC

ORDINE • AB • IMO • AD • SVMMVM

COLVMBARIA • IX • OLLAE • XVIII

SIBI • POSTERISQVE • SVIS[2]

[Footnote 2: Titulus in Columbarium: "Lucius Abucius Hermes (has

acquired) in this row, running from the ground to the top, nine niches

with eighteen urns for (the ashes of) himself and his descendants."]

§432. Funeral Ceremonies.--The detailed accounts of funeral ceremonies

that have come down to us relate almost exclusively to those of

persons of high position, and the information gleaned from other

sources (§12) is so scattered that there is great danger of confusing

usages of widely different times. It is quite certain, however, that

very young children were buried at all times simply and quietly

(_fūnus acerbum_), that no ceremonies at all attended the burial of

slaves (§420) when conducted by their masters (nothing is known of the

forms used by the burial societies mentioned above), and that citizens

of the lowest class were laid to rest without public parade (_fūnus

plēbēium_). It is also known that burials took place by night except

during the last century of the Republic and the first two centuries of

the Empire, and it is natural to suppose that, even in the case of

persons of high position, there was ordinarily much less of pomp and

parade than on occasions that the Roman writers thought it worth while

to describe. This has been found true in the matter of wedding

festivities (§79). It will be convenient to take in order the

proceedings at the house, the funeral procession, and the ceremonies

at the place of burial.

§433. At the House.--When the Roman died at home surrounded by his

family, it was the duty of his oldest son to bend over the body and

call him by name, as if with the hope of recalling him to life. The

formal performance of the act (_conclāmātiō_) he announced immediately

with the words: _conclāmātum est_. The eyes of the dead were then

closed, the body was washed with warm water and anointed, the limbs

were straightened, and if the deceased had held a curule office a wax

impression of his features was taken. The body was then dressed in the

toga (§240) with all the insignia of rank that the dead had been

entitled to wear in life, and was placed upon the funeral couch

(_lectus fūnebris_) in the _ātrium_ (§198), with the feet to the door,

to lie in state until the time of the funeral. The couch was

surrounded with flowers, and incense was burned about it. Before the

door of the house were set branches of pine or cypress as a warning

that the house was polluted by death. The simple offices that have

been described were performed in humble life by the relatives and

servants, in other cases by professional undertakers (_libitīnāriī_),

who also embalmed the body and superintended all the rest of the

ceremonies. Reference is made occasionally to the kissing of the dying

person as he breathed his last, as if this last breath was to be

caught in the mouth of the living, and in very early and very late

times it was undoubtedly the custom to put a small coin between the

teeth of the dead with which to pay his passage across the Styx in

Charon's boat. Neither of these formalities seems to have obtained

generally in classical times.

§434. The Funeral Procession.--The funeral procession of the ordinary

citizen was simple enough. Notice was given to neighbors and friends,

and surrounded by them and by the family, carried on the shoulders of

the sons or other near relatives, with perhaps a band of musicians in

the lead, the body was borne to the tomb. The procession of one of the

mighty, on the other hand, was marshaled with all possible display and

ostentation. It occurred as soon after death as the necessary

preparations could be made, there being no fixed intervening time.

Notice was given by a public crier in the ancient words of style:

_Ollus Quiris lētō datus. Exsequiās, quibus est commodum, īre iam

tempus est. Ollus ex aedibus effertur._[3] Questions of order and

precedence were settled by one of the undertakers (_dēsīgnātor_). At

the head went a band of musicians, followed at least occasionally by

persons singing dirges in praise of the dead, and by bands of buffoons

and jesters, who made merry with the bystanders and imitated even the

dead himself. Then came the imposing part of the display. The wax

masks of the dead man's ancestors had been taken from their place in

the _ālae_ (§200) and assumed by actors in the dress appropriate to

the time and station of the worthies they represented. It must have

seemed as if the ancient dead had returned to earth to guide their

descendant to his place among them. Servius tells us that six hundred

_imāginēs_ were displayed at the funeral of the young Marcellus, the

nephew of Augustus. Then followed the memorials of the great deeds of

the deceased, if he had been a general, as in a triumphal procession,

and then the dead himself, carried with face uncovered on a lofty

couch. Then came the family, including freedmen (especially those made

free by the testament of their master) and slaves, and then the

friends, all in mourning garb (§§246, 254), and all freely giving

expression to the emotion that we try to suppress on such occasions.

Torch-bearers attended the train, even by day, as a remembrance of the

older custom of burial by night.

[Footnote 3: "This citizen has been surrendered to death. For those

who find it convenient it is now time to attend the funeral. He is

being brought from his house."]

§435. The Funeral Oration.--The procession passed from the house

directly to the place of interment, unless the deceased was a person

of sufficient consequence to be honored by public authority with a

funeral oration (_laudātiō_) in the forum. In this case the funeral

coach was placed before the _rostra_, the men in the masks took their

places on curule chairs (§225) around it, the general crowd was massed

in a semicircle behind, and a son or other near relative delivered the

address. It recited the virtues and achievements of the dead and

recounted the history of the family to which he belonged. Like such

addresses in more recent times it contained much that was false and

more that was exaggerated. The honor of the _laudātiō_ was freely

given in later times, especially to members of the imperial family,

including women. Under the Republic it was less common and more highly

prized, and so far as we know the only women so honored belonged to

the _gēns Iūlia_. It will be remembered that it was Caesar's address

on the occasion of the funeral of his aunt, the widow of Marius, that

pointed him out to the opponents of Sulla as a future leader. When the

address in the forum was not authorized, one was sometimes given more

privately at the grave or at the house.

§436. At the Tomb.--When the train reached the place of burial the

proceedings varied according to the time, but all provided for the

three things ceremonially necessary: the consecration of the

resting-place, the casting of earth upon the remains, and the

purification of all polluted by the death. In ancient times the body,

if buried, was lowered into the grave either upon the couch on which

it had been brought to the spot, or in a coffin of burnt clay or

stone. If the body was to be burned a shallow grave was dug and filled

with dry wood, upon which the couch and body were placed. The pile was

then fired and when wood and body had been consumed, earth was heaped

over the ashes into a mound (_tumulus_). Such a grave in which the

body was burned was called _būstum_, and was consecrated as a regular

_sepulcrum_ by the ceremonies mentioned below. In later times the

body, if not to be burned, was placed in a sarcophagus (Fig. 203)

already prepared in the tomb (§425). If the remains were to be burned

they were taken to the _ūstrīna_ (§426), which was not regarded as a

part of the _sepulcrum_, and placed upon the pile of wood (_rogus_).

Spices and perfumes were thrown upon it, together with gifts (§425)

and tokens from the persons present. The pyre was then lighted with a

torch by a relative, who kept his face averted during the act. After

the fire had burned out the embers were extinguished with water or

wine and those present called a last farewell to the dead. The water

of purification was then thrice sprinkled over those present, and all

except the immediate family left the place. The ashes were then

collected in a cloth to be dried, and the ceremonial bone (§420),

called _os resectum_, was buried. A sacrifice of a pig was then made,

by which the place of burial was made sacred ground, and food

(_silicernium_) was eaten together by the mourners. They then returned

to the house which was purified by an offering to the _Larēs_, and the

funeral rites were over.

§437. After Ceremonies.--With the day of the burial or burning of the

remains began the Nine Days of Sorrow, solemnly observed by the

immediate family. Some time during this period, when the ashes had had

time to dry thoroughly, members of the family went privately to the

_ūstrīna_, removed them from the cloth, placed them in an _olla_ (Fig.

204) of earthenware, glass, alabaster, bronze, or other material, and

with bare feet and loosened girdles carried them into the _sepulcrum_

(§425). At the end of the nine days the _sacrificium novendiāle_ was

offered to the dead and the _cēna novendiālis_ was celebrated at the

house. On this day, too, the heirs formally entered upon their

inheritance and the funeral games (§344) were originally given. The

period of mourning, however, was not concluded on the ninth day. For

husband or wife, ascendants, and grown descendants mourning was worn

for ten months, the ancient year; for other adult relatives, eight

months; for children between the ages of three and ten years, for as

many months as they were years old.

§438. Memorial Festivals.--The memory of the dead was kept alive by

regularly recurring days of obligation of both public and private

character. To the former belong the _parentālia_, or _diēs parentālēs_

(§75), lasting from the 13th to the 21st of February, the final day

being especially distinguished as the _fērālia_. To the latter belong

the annual celebration of the birthday (or the burial-day) of the

person commemorated, and the festivals of violets and roses

(_violāria_, _rosāria_), about the end of March and May respectively,

when violets and roses were distributed among the relatives and laid

upon the graves or heaped over the urns. On all these occasions

offerings were made in the temples to the gods and at the tombs to the

_mānēs_ of the dead, and the lamps were lighted in the tombs (§425),

and at the tombs the relatives feasted together and offered food to

their dead (§426).

[Illustration: FIGURE 205. HADRIAN'S TOMB]

INDEX

References are to Paragraphs. An asterisk denotes a cut.

ā manū, 391.

abacus, reckoning board, 111*;

panels in wall decorations, 220;

sideboard, 227, 307*.

ABBREVIATIONS in names, 41.

ab epistolīs, 391.

abolla, cloak, 249*.

ab ovō ad māla, 308.

ACTORS, slave, men only, 324.

ad (malam) crucem, 174.

ADDITIONAL names, 51.

ADDRESS of letters, 392.

adfīnēs, blood relations, 26.

ADJUSTABLE tables, 227*.

adoptiō, see ADOPTION.

ADOPTION, two kinds, 29;

of a fīlius familiās, 30;

of a pater familiās, 30;

name given adopted person, 52, 56.

adrogātiō, see ADOPTION.

adversitōrēs, 152.

ADVERTISEMENTS of gladiators, 361*.

aediculae, in columbāria, 429*.

AFFECTION for nurses, 101;

for pedagogues, 123.

agger viae, 387.

agitātōrēs, drivers of chariots, 341. See aurīgae.

agnātī, related through males, 23.

AGRICULTURE, honorable occupation, 404.

ālae, in house, 191;

later, 200.

aliēnō iūrī subiectus, 17.

alveus, in bath, 369*.

amictus, outer garments, 240*-249*.

AMPHITHEATER, meaning of word, 351;

early at Rome, 352;

at Pompeii, 353*, 354*, 355*;

the coliseum, 356*, 357*, 358*.

amphitheātrum, see AMPHITHEATER.

amphorae, for wine, 297.

amurca, bitter fluid of olives, 291.

AMUSEMENTS, Chap. IX. See Table of Contents.

andabatae, blindfold gladiators, 359.

andrōn, formerly called faucēs, 192 note.

Andronicus, 113.

anteambulōnēs, outriders, 151.

antecēna, appetizer, 308.

ANTIQUITIES, public and private distinguished, 2;

and history, 4;

private defined, 1;

in philology, 6, 7;

recent interest, 8.

apodytērium, 366;

makeshift for, 367;

usually unheated, 368;

one heated, 378*;

in thermae, 376*, 377*.

APPIAN WAY, as burial-place, 421;

construction, 385 f.

APPRENTICESHIP in education, 117.

arbiter bibendī, toast master, 313.

ārca, strong box, 188, 201, 230*.

Archias, name explained, 60.

ārea, ground for tomb, 426.

arēna, circus, 330*, 332;

amphitheater (Pompeii), 354*, (Rome), 357*.

ARITHMETIC, in the schools, 111*.

armāria, cabinets, 231.

ARMY, as a career, (for nobles), 408, (for commons), 410.

ARRANGEMENT of hair, 263;

of hair of bride, 78;

of couches in dining-room, 304*.

ATHENS, university of Rome, 116.

ATHLETIC sports and games, 316*, 317*, 318*.

ātriēnsis, butler, 149.

ātrium, in primitive house, 188;

meaning, 189;

the developed ātrium, 196, 197, 198*;

burial-place of Head of House, 421.

Atticus, 155, 300, 310, 399.

auctōrātī, volunteer gladiators, 347.

aulaea, portières, 216.

aurīgae, chariot drivers, (Figs. 138, 142), 341*, 342.

BAKERIES, 286*.

BAKERS, as a guild, 286.

BALL, played by children, 102*;

by men, 318*.

balneae, meaning, 372. See BATHS.

balneāticum, bath fee, 373.

balneum, meaning, 372. See BATHS.

BANKING, as profession, 412.

BANQUETS, 315.

BARBER shops, 253.

BARRIERS, in circus, 330*, 333*.

basterna, litter drawn by mules, 382.

BATH, in early times, 365;

public and private, 365;

essentials for, 366;

rooms combined, 367;

heating, 368;

caldārium, 369;

frīgidārium, 370;

ūnctōrium, 370;

private bathhouse, 371*;

public baths, 372;

time opened, 374;

fees, 373;

for women, 375;

thermae, 376*, 377*.

BATHHOUSE, in Caerwent, 371*;

in Pompeii, 376*;

in Rome, 377*.

BATHROOMS, in residences, 203, 367, 371*.

BEANS, considered heavy food, 275.

BEARDS, fashions in, 254.

BEEF, rarely used, 277.

Benoist, his definition of Philology, 6.

BETROTHALS, 70.

BEVERAGES, 298.

bibliothēca, 206, 402.

BILLS of fare, 308, 309.

BOOKS, ancient forms, 393;

materials, 394, 395;

making, 396;

finish of, 397;

size, 398;

publishing, 399, 400;

cost, 401;

libraries, 402.

"BOOKS," divisions of literary work, 398.

BOXES, in theater, 327;

in circus, 334;

in amphitheater, 353.

BOY, named, 97;

home training, 104, 106;

athletics, 107;

education, see SCHOOL;

coming of age, 125;

given citizenship, 128.

brācātae, wearing trousers, 239.

BRAZIERS, 218*.

BREAD, 286 f.;

making, 287;

kinds of, 288.

"Bread and the Games of the Circus," 322.

BREAKFAST, 302.

BREAKING promise of marriage, 71.

BRICKS, 212*.

bulla, 99*.

BURIAL-places and ceremonies, Chapter XII. See Table of Contents.

BURIAL SOCIETIES, 430.

BUSINESS rooms added to houses, 193;

interests at Rome, 413.

BUTTER, not a food, 281.

CABINETS, 231.

calamus (scriptōrius), 395.

calceātor, 150.

calceī, 251*, 262;

senātōriī, 251;

patriciī, 251.

caldārium, 366;

near furnace, 368;

furniture, 369;

other uses of, 369;

in plans, 371*, 376*, 378*.

caligae, half-boots, 251.

calx, in circus, 331*.

camillus, 82*.

campus Mārtius, 317.

candēlābra, 229.

CANDIDATES' dress, 235, 246.

candidātī, 246.

CANDLES, ill made, 229.

CAP, of liberty, 175*, 252.

CAPITALISTS, their field, 409, 413.

capsa, 397*.

capsārius, 370.

Caracalla, hall in baths of, 365*.

cāra cognātiō, feast of, 25.

carcerēs, in circus, 330*, 333*.

carnifex, term of abuse, 174.

carpentum, traveling carriage, 383*.

CARRIAGES, for travel, 383*.

carūca, sleeping car, 383.

casa Rōmulī, 214*.

cathedra, easy chair, 226*.

catillus, outer part of mill, 284*.

Cato (234-149), treatment of slaves, 159;

opinion of cabbage, 275;

word for dinner, 312.

causia, hat, 252*.

cavea, in theater, 327;

in circus, 337;

in amphitheater (Pompeii), 353*, (Rome), 358*.

cavum aedium, 196.

CEILINGS, construction, 213.

cellae, servōrum, 207;

vīnāriae, 297*;

oleāriae, 292*.

cēna, in early times, 301;

in the city, 303-311;

hours, 303;

importance in social life, 303;

bills of fare, 308, 309;

service, 310, 311;

lībera, 362;

nūptiālis, 85.

cēna, "dinner proper," 308.

cenotaphium, empty tomb, 419.

centēnārius, winner of 100 races, 340.

cēpotaphium, tomb with grounds, 426.

cēra, for sealing letter, 392.

cerasus, cherry, 274.

CEREALS for food, 282.

Cestius, tomb of, (420*), 427.

CHAIRS, 225*, 226*.

CHALKED FEET, 139.

CHARIOT RACES, 330 f.;

number of chariots, 333;

racing syndicates, 339;

teams, 340;

drivers, 341.

charta, paper, see papyrus.

CHEESE, 281.

CHESTS, 230*.

CHILDHOOD, see CHILDREN;

end of, 125.

CHILDLESSNESS, a reproach, 28.

CHILDREN, rights of, see potestās;

property of, see pecūlium;

civil position of, 69, 94;

acknowledgment of, 95;

exposure of, 96;

maiming of, 96;

games, etc., 102, 103;

home training, 104;

punishment of, 120*, 124;

in the dining-room, 304;

burial of young children, 420.

Chrysogonus and Roscius, 408.

CHURCH, like Roman house, 191.

Cicero (106-43), number of his slaves, 155;

names of his freedmen, 59;

goodness to slaves, 158;

his books, 399, 402;

income, 407.

CINERARY urns, 189*, 428, 437.

ciniflōnēs, hairdressers, 150.

CIRCUS at Rome, 328 f.;

plan, 330*;

arēna, 332*;

carcerēs, 333*, 334*;

spīna, mētae, 335*, 336*;

seats, 337*;

capacity, 338;

races in, 339 f.

circus Flāminius, 329.

circus Maxentiī, 329;

plan of, 330*;

arēna, 332;

obelisk in, 336;

seating capacity, 338.

circus Maximus, 328;

missus in, 332;

spīna in, 336;

obelisk in 336*;

seats in, 337, 338*;

reconstruction, 338*.

cisium, two-wheeled cart, 384*.

CIVIL SERVICE, 414.

clepsydra, water-clock, 232.

clientēla, clientage, 177.

CLIENTS, Chap. V. See Table of Contents.

CLIMATE of Italy, 272.

CLOCKS, 232.

CLOTHING, Chap. VII. See Table of Contents;

colors worn, 270;

manufacture of, 271;

cleaning, 271*.

codicillī, set of writing tablets, 391*.

coēmptiō, plebeian form of marriage, 63;

implying manus, 66;

ceremony of, 83.

COFFINS, 425, 436.

COGNATES, defined, 25;

importance among plebeians, 65;

degrees between, 25, 68.

cognātī, see COGNATES.

cognātiō, see COGNATES.

cognōmen, before nōmen, 40;

marking family, 48;

age of, 49;

nickname, 49;

indication of lineage, 50;

ex virtūte, 53;

differing in same family, 55;

as fourth element in name, 55.

COLISEUM, date of, 352;

plan, 356*;

arēna, 357*;

seats, 358*.

collegia, fūnerāticia, iuvenum, salūtāria, 430.

COLONIES, 411.

COLORS, of articles of dress, 270;

of racing syndicates, 339.

columbāria, 428*-431*.

COMIC OPERAS, 323.

COMMERCE, 413.

comissātiō, drinking bout, 312*, 313.

COMMON PEOPLE, employments of, 410 f.

compluvium, 188, 191, 196, 198.

compōtātiō, drinking bout, 312*.

conclāmātiō, cry of farewell, 433.

CONCRETE, extensive use, 146;

method of making, 211*;

in roads, 387.

conductor, manager of baths, 373.

cōnfarreātiō, 61;

religious aspect, 64;

implying manus, 66;

ceremony of, 81.

CONFISCATION of property, 408.

CONFUSION of names, 55.

CONSENT necessary to marriage, 74.

Constantius (Emperor 337-361 A.D.), 338.

CONSTRUCTION of house, 210* f.;

mill, 284*;

roads, 387*.

contubernia, unions of slaves, 138, 156.

conventiō in manum, 35;

cum conventiōne, 61;

sine conventiōne, 62.

convīvia, dinners, 312;

convīvia tempestīva, 310.

COOKS, hired in early times, 299.

Cornelii, buried their dead, 420.

corōnae convīvālēs, 313.

CORRESPONDENCE, 391.

COST, of baths, 373;

books, 401;

meals (inns), 388;

slaves, 140;

tables, 227;

wines, 298.

COTTON goods, 269.

COUCHES, sofas or beds, 224*;

dining, 304*.

COVERINGS for the head, men, 252*;

women, 263.

covīnus, two-wheeled cart, 384.

Crassus, in salvage business, 413.

crātēr, mixing bowl, 314*.

CREMATION, introduced at Rome, 420.

crepundia, child's rattle, 98*.

Crescens, famous driver, 342.

CRIMSON or purple, 270.

CRUCIFIXION of slaves, 173.

cubicula, bedrooms, 205.

cucullus, hood, 247, 248, 252.

culīna, kitchen, 203*.

cumerus, 82*.

cuneī, in theater, 327;

circus, 337.

cūrātōrēs, of burial societies, 430.

Curius and his dinner, 299.

curriculum, lap in race, 331.

CURTAIN in later theater, 327.

CURULE chair, 225*.

cyathus, ladle, 314*.

CYPHER correspondence, 390.

CYPRESS, as emblem of death, 433.

DAIRY products, 281.

DANCERS, 153.

dator lūdōrum, giver of games, 334.

DAY, a Roman's, 415.

dēclāmātiō, public speaking, 115.

DECORATION of houses, 220 f.;

walls, 220*;

doors, 221*;

floors, 221*;

of tombs, 425*, 428*, 430*.

decuriae, of slaves, 133.

dēfrutum, grape jelly, 296.

delphica (mēnsa), 227*.

dēsīgnātor, funeral director, 434.

dēstrictārium, in baths, 367, 376*.

dēsultōrēs, circus riders, 343.

DEVELOPMENT of the house, 188*.

dextrārum iūnctiō, in marriage, 81*.

DICE, gaming with, 321*.

diēs, lūstricus, 97;

parentālēs, 75, 438;

religiōsī, 75.

dimachaerī, gladiators with two swords, 359.

DINING-ROOM, 204, 304*.

DINNER, in the city, 303-311;

early times, 301;

hour, 310;

bill of fare, 309;

order of courses, 308;

places of honor, 306.

Diocletian (Emperor 284-305 A.D.) baths of, 378*.

discus, throwing the, 316*.

dispēnsātor, steward, 149.

diurna cubicula, 205.

DIVORCE, 72, 93.

DOG, as pet, 103;

in hallway, 195*.

dōlia, for oil, 292*;

for wine, 297.

dominica potestās, 37.

dominus gregis, head actor, 324.

Domitian (Emperor 81-96 A.D.), 339.

domus, 186;

see HOUSE.

DOORS, construction, 215* f.;

names, 216.

dormitōria, 205.

dorsum, top course in road, 387.

dōs, dowry, 72.

DOWRY, 72.

DRAMATIC performances, 323 f.

DRESS, Chap. VII. See Table of Contents.

DRINKING bouts, 312*.

DRIVERS, chariot races, 341*.

ducēnārius, horse of 200 victories, 340.

DWARFS, kept for amusement, 153.

"EARLY DINNERS," 310.

EARLY FORMS, of marriage, 61;

of names, 38, 57, 58;

of table customs, 299;

of toga, 245;

of theater, 325;

of baths, 365;

of gladiatorial shows, 345.

EARLY HOURS at Rome, 79, 415.

EARS of slaves bored, 139.

EDUCATION, Chap. IV. See Table of Contents.

ELM TREE, for grapes, 295;

for switches, 167;

"essence of elm," 168.

ēditor mūnerum, giver of gladiatorial show, 362.

ELOCUTION in schools, 114.

EMANCIPATION, of a son, 18;

of a slave, 175.

endormis, bath robe, 249.

ENGAGEMENTS, marriage, 71.

EPIGRAPHIC sources, 10.

epityrum, olive salad, 290.

equitēs, career of, 409.

ERRORS in manuscript books, 399.

Esquiline Hill, as burial-place, 423.

essedāriī, chariot fighters, 359;

spelled assidāriī, 362.

ESSENTIALS for the bath, 366;

for burial, 436.

EXAGGERATION in satire, 93.

ex cathedrā, official utterance, 226.

exedrae, reception halls, 207.

expōnere, "expose," of children, 95.

EXPOSURE of children, 32, 95;

slaves, 157.

exta, of the sacrifices, 277.

EXTINCTION of the potestās, 34;

of a family, 30.

See ADOPTION.

f., abbreviation in names, 39, 57;

for fugitīvus, 172.

fābulae palliātae, 323.

facēs, torches kept in doorways, 229.

factiōnēs, racing syndicates, 339.

familia, meanings, 17, 21;

=stirps, 22;

gladiātōria, 349;

rūstica, 142, 145;

urbāna, 149.

FAMILY, Chap. I. See Table of Contents;

defined, 17;

splitting up of, 19;

cult, 27.

FANS, 266*.

far, early sort of grain, 282.

FARMING of revenues, 409.

FARM slaves, see familia rūstica;

work, 148.

fasciae, wrappings of cloth, 239.

fascinātiō, evil eye, 98, 99.

fascis, a set of books, 397.

FASTENINGS for doors, 216.

FATHER, see pater familiās;

as companion of his sons, 106.

faucēs, in a house, 192, note.

FEES, in schools, 109, 119;

baths, 373.

fēlīciter, in congratulations, 82.

feminālia, wrappings for legs, 239.

fenestrae, windows, 217*.

fērālia, 438.

Fescinnīnī versūs, 87.

FESTIVALS, cāra cognātiō, 25;

fērālia, 438;

mātrōnālia, 91;

līberālia, 127;

rosāria, 438;

Sāturnālia, 319;

vīnālia rūstica, 296;

violāria, 438.

FESTIVITIES, wedding, 80, 85, 86, 89;

coming of age, 127.

FIREMEN, slaves as, 141.

FISH, as food, 280.

fistūca, heavy rammer, 213.

flābellum, fan, 266*.

flagrum, scourge, 167*.

flammeum, bridal veil, 77*.

Flāvium amphitheātrum, see COLISEUM.

FLOORS, construction, 213.

FLOWERS, at feasts, 313;

at tombs, 438.

fōcālia, wrappings for throat, 239.

foculī, heating stoves, 218*.

follēs, balls filled with air, 318*.

FOOD, Chap. VIII. See Table of Contents.

FORBIDDEN DEGREES of kinship, 25, 68.

forēs, double doors, 195, 216.

FORKS, not used, 299.

forum, place of early shows, 351.

FOUNDLINGS, fate of, 96.

FOWLS, domestic, 279.

FREEDMAN, name, 59;

relation to patron, 175.

frīgidārium, 366;

other uses, 367;

position, 368;

furnishings, 370;

shown on plans, 371*, 376*, 377*.

fritillus, dice box, 321.

frontēs, of papyrus rolls, 397.

FRUITS, known to Romans, 274.

frūmentum, grain, 282, and note.

fugitīvī, 172.

fullōnēs, as cleaners, 271*.

FUNERAL games, 344, 345;

ceremonies, Chap. XII. See Table of Contents.

fūnus, acerbum, plēbēium, 432.

furca, as punishment, 169.

FURNACE for houses, 218;

for baths, 368.

FURNITURE, 222 f.;

modern lacking, 223;

couches, 224*;

chairs, 225*;

tables, 227*;

lamps, 228*;

chests and cabinets, 230*;