9 Homer, _Hymn to Aphrodite_, 262 _sqq._
10 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xii. 3; Ovid, _Metam._ vi. 392; _id._, _Fasti_,
iii. 303, 309; Gloss. Isid. Mart. Cap. ii. 167, cited by W.
Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, p. 113.
11 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xii. 3; Martianus Capella, ii. 167; Augustine,
_De civitate Dei_, xv. 23; Aurelius Victor, _Origo gentis Romanae_,
iv. 6.
12 Servius on Virgil, _Ecl._ vi. 14; Ovid, _Metam._ vi. 392 _sq._;
Martianus Capella, ii. 167.
13 W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, pp. 138 _sq._; _id._, _Antike Wald- und
Feldkulte_, p. 145.
14 Servius on Virgil, _Georg._ i. 10.
15 Above, vol. i. pp. 281 _sqq._
_ 16 Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, ch. iii. pp. 113-211. In the text I
have allowed my former exposition of Mannhardt’s theory as to
ancient semi-goat-shaped spirits of vegetation to stand as before,
but I have done so with hesitation, because the evidence adduced in
its favour appears to me insufficient to permit us to speak with any
confidence on the subject. Pan may have been, as W. H. Roscher and
L. R. Farnell think, nothing more than a herdsman’s god, the
semi-human, semi-bestial representative of goats in particular. See
W. H. Roscher’s _Lexikon der griech. und röm. Mythologie_, iii. 1405
_sq._; L. R. Farnell, _The Cults of the Greek States_, v. (Oxford,
1909) pp. 431 _sqq._ And the Satyrs and Silenuses seem to have more
affinity with horses than with goats. See W. H. Roscher’s _Lexikon
der griech. und röm. Mythologie_, iv. 444 _sqq._
17 Above, vol. i. pp. 231 _sqq._
M3 Wood-spirits in the form of goats.
18 Above, vol. i. pp. 17 _sq._
M4 The bull as an embodiment of Dionysus seems to be another expression
of his character as a god of vegetation.
19 Above, vol. i. pp. 16 _sq._
20 Above, vol. i. pp. 288 _sqq._
21 A. Lang, _Myth, Ritual, and Religion_,2 ii. 252.
22 Compare _Totemism and Exogamy_, iv. 12 _sqq._
M5 The _bouphonia_, an Athenian sacrifice of an ox to Zeus Polieus.
23 Pausanias, i. 24. 4; _id._, i. 28. 10; Porphyry, _De abstinentia_,
ii. 29 _sq._; Aelian, _Var. Hist._ viii. 3; Scholia on Aristophanes,
_Peace_, 419, and _Clouds_, 985; Hesychius, Suidas, and
_Etymologicum Magnum_, _s.v._ βούφονια; Suidas, _s.v._ Θαύλων; Im.
Bekker’s _Anecdota Graeca_ (Berlin, 1814-1821), p. 238, _s.v._
Δυπόλια. The date of the sacrifice (14th Skirophorion) is given by
the Scholiast on Aristophanes and the _Etymologicum Magnum_; and
this date corresponds, according to W. Mannhardt (_Mythologische
Forschungen_, p. 68), with the close of the threshing in Attica. No
writer mentions the trial of both the axe and the knife. Pausanias
speaks of the trial of the axe, Porphyry and Aelian of the trial of
the knife. But from Porphyry’s description it is clear that the
slaughter was carried out by two men, one wielding an axe and the
other a knife, and that the former laid the blame on the latter.
Perhaps the knife alone was condemned. That the King (as to whom see
_The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, i. 44 _sq._) presided at
the trial of all lifeless objects, is mentioned by Aristotle
(_Constitution of Athens_, 57) and Julius Pollux (viii. 90, compare
viii. 120).
M6 The ox sacrificed at the _bouphonia_ appears to have embodied the
corn-spirit.
24 The real import of the name _bouphonia_ was first perceived by W.
Robertson Smith. See his _Religion of the Semites_,2 pp. 304 _sqq._
In Cos also an ox specially chosen was sacrificed to Zeus Polieus.
See Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 No. 616; Ch.
Michel, _Recueil d’Inscriptions Grecques_, No. 716; H. Collitz und
F. Bechtel, _Sammlung der griechischen Dialekt-Inschriften_, iii.
pp. 357 _sqq._, No. 3636; J. de Prott et L. Ziehen, _Leges Graecorum
Sacrae e Titulis collectae_, Fasciculus i. (Leipsic, 1896) pp. 19
_sqq._, No. 5; M. P. Nilsson, _Griechische Feste_ (Leipsic, 1906),
pp. 17-21. A month Bouphonion, corresponding to the Attic Boedromion
(September), occurred in the calendars of Delos and Tenos. See E.
Bischoff, “De fastis Graecorum antiquioribus,” in _Leipziger Studien
für classische Philologie_, vii. (Leipsic, 1884) p. 414.
25 Varro, _De re rustica_, ii. 5. 4. Compare Columella, _De re
rustica_, vi. praef. § 7. Perhaps, however, Varro’s statement may be
merely an inference drawn from the ritual of the _bouphonia_ and the
legend told to explain it.
26 W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, p. 409.
27 See _The Dying God_, p. 208.
M7 Sacrifice of an ox to Zeus Sosipolis at Magnesia on the Maeander.
The bull so sacrificed seems to have been regarded as an embodiment
of the corn-spirit.
28 Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_2 (Leipsic,
1898-1901), vol. ii. pp. 246-248, No. 553. As to the identification
of the Magnesian month Artemision with the Attic month Thargelion
(May), see Dittenberger, _op. cit._ ii. p. 242, No. 552 note 4. It
is interesting to observe that at Magnesia the sowing took place in
Cronion, the month of Cronus, a god whom the ancients regularly
identified with Saturn, the Italian god of sowing. In Samos,
Perinthus, and Patmos, however, the month Cronion seems to have been
equivalent to the Attic Scirophorion, a month corresponding to June
or July, which could never have been a season of sowing in the hot
rainless summers of Greece. See E. Bischoff, “De fastis Graecarum
antiquioribus,” in _Leipziger Studien für classische Philologie_,
vii. (1884) p. 400; Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum
Graecarum_,2 No. 645 note 14, vol. ii. p. 449.
29 In thus interpreting the sacrifice of the bull at Magnesia I follow
the excellent exposition of Professor M. P. Nilsson, _Griechische
Feste_ (Leipsic, 1906), pp. 23-27.
M8 The Greek conception of the corn-spirit as both male and female.
30 See above, vol. i. pp. 36 _sq._, 65 _sqq._
M9 The ox as a representative of the corn-spirit at Great Bassam in
Guinea.
31 H. Hecquard, _Reise an die Küste und in das Innere von West-Afrika_
(Leipsic, 1854), pp. 41-43.
32 See above, vol. i. p. 248.
33 Above, vol. i. pp. 268, 272.
34 Franz Cumont, _Textes et Monuments figurés relatifs aux Mystères de
Mithra_ (Brussels, 1896-1899), ii. figures 18, 19, 20, 59 (p. 228,
corn-stalks issuing from wound), 67, 70, 78, 87, 105, 143, 168, 215,
also plates v. and vi.
M10 The ox as a personification of the corn-spirit in China.
_ 35 China Review_, i. (July 1872 to June 1873, Hongkong), pp. 62, 154,
162, 203 _sq._; Rev. J. Doolittle, _Social Life of the Chinese_, ed.
Paxton Hood (London, 1868), pp. 375 _sq._; Rev. J. H. Gray, _China_
(London, 1878), ii. 115 _sq._
_ 36 Ostasiatischer Lloyd_, March 14, 1890, quoted by J. D. E. Schmeltz,
“Das Pflugfest in China,” _Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie_,
xi. (1898) p. 79. With this account the one given by S. W. Williams
(_The Middle Kingdom_, New York and London, 1848, ii. 109)
substantially agrees. In many districts, according to the
_Ostasiatischer Lloyd_, the Genius of Spring is represented at this
festival by a boy of blameless character, clad in green. As to the
custom of going with one foot bare and the other shod, see _Taboo
and the Perils of the Soul_, pp. 311-313.
37 R. F. Johnston, _Lion and Dragon in Northern China_ (London, 1910),
pp. 180-182.
38 Ed. Chavannes, _Le T’ai Chan, Essai de Monographie d’un Culte
Chinois_ (Paris, 1910), p. 500 (_Annales du Musée Guimet,
Bibliothèque d’Études_, vol. xxi.).
39 See _The Dying God_, pp. 240 _sq._, 250.
M11 The ox as a personification of the corn-spirit in Kashgar and Annam.
40 J. L. Dutreuil de Rhins, _Mission Scientifique dans la Haute Asie,
1890-1895_, i. (Paris, 1897) pp. 95 _sq._ After describing the
ceremony as he witnessed it at Kashgar, the writer adds: “Probably
the ox was at first a living animal which they sacrificed and
distributed the flesh to the bystanders. At the present day the
official who acts as pontiff has a number of small pasteboard oxen
made, which he sends to the notables in order that they may
participate intimately in the sacrifice, which is more than
symbolical. The reason for carrying the ox a long distance is that
as much as possible of the territory may be sanctified by the
passage of the sacred animal, and that as many people as possible
may share in the sacrifice, at least with their eyes and good
wishes. The procession, which begins very early in the morning,
moves eastward, that is, toward the quarter where, the winter being
now over, the first sun of spring may be expected to appear, whose
divinity the ceremony is intended to render propitious. It is
needless to insist on the analogy between this Chinese festival and
our Carnival, at which, about the same season, a fat ox is led
about. Both festivals have their origin in the same conceptions of
ancient natural religion.”
41 Colonel E. Diguet, _Les Annamites, Société, Coutumes, Religions_
(Paris, 1906), pp. 250-253.
42 See above, vol. i. pp. 41 _sq._, and below, pp. 21 _sq._
M12 Annual inauguration of ploughing by the Chinese emperor.
43 Du Halde, _The General History of China_, Third Edition (London,
1741), ii. 120-122; Huc, _L’Empire Chinois_5 (Paris, 1879), ii.
338-343; Rev. J. H. Gray, _China_ (London, 1878), ii. 116-118.
Compare _The Sacred Books of China_, translated by James Legge, Part
iii., _The Lî Kî_ (_Sacred Books of the East_, vol. xxvii., Oxford,
1885), pp. 254 _sq._: “In this month [the first month of spring] the
son of Heaven on the first day prays to God for a good year; and
afterwards, the day of the first conjunction of the sun and moon
having been chosen, with the handle and share of the plough in the
carriage, placed between the man-at-arms who is its third occupant
and the driver, he conducts his three ducal ministers, his nine high
ministers, the feudal princes and his Great officers, all with their
own hands to plough the field of God. The son of Heaven turns up
three furrows, each of the ducal ministers five, and the other
ministers and feudal princes nine. When they return, he takes in his
hand a cup in the great chamber, all the others being in attendance
on him and the Great officers, and says, ‘Drink this cup of comfort
after your toil.’ In this month the vapours of heaven descend and
those of the earth ascend. Heaven and earth are in harmonious
co-operation. All plants bud and grow.” Here the selection of a day
in spring when sun and moon are in conjunction is significant. Such
conjunctions are regarded as marriages of the great luminaries and
therefore as the proper seasons for the celebration of rites
designed to promote fertility. See _The Dying God_, p. 73.
M13 Analogy of the Chinese custom to the agricultural rites at Eleusis
and elsewhere.
44 See above, pp. 74, 108.
45 See above, p. 93.
46 See above, pp. 94, 109; _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_,
ii. 105 _sqq._
M14 The rending of live animals in the rites of Dionysus.
47 As to the European customs, see above, p. 12.
M15 Association of the pig with Demeter. Pigs in the ritual of the
Thesmophoria. The sacred serpent at Lanuvium.
48 See above, vol. i. pp. 298 _sqq._
49 Scholiast on Aristophanes, _Acharn._ 747.
50 J. Overbeck, _Griechische Kunstmythologie_, Besonderer Theil, ii.
(Leipsic, 1873-1878), p. 493; Müller-Wieseler, _Denkmäler der alten
Kunst_, ii. pl. viii. 94.
51 Hyginus, _Fab._ 277; Cornutus, _Theologiae Graecae Compendium_, 28;
Macrobius, _Saturn._ i. 12. 23; Scholiast on Aristophanes, _Acharn._
747; _id._, on _Frogs_, 338; _id._, on _Peace_, 374; Servius on
Virgil, _Georg._ ii. 380; Aelian, _Nat. Anim._ x. 16.
52 See above, vol. i. pp. 22 _sq._
53 As to the Thesmophoria see my article “Thesmophoria” in the
_Encyclopaedia Britannica_, Ninth Edition, vol. xxiii, 295 _sqq._;
August Mommsen, _Feste der Stadt Athen im Altertum_ (Leipsic, 1898),
pp. 308 _sqq._; Miss J. E. Harisson, _Prolegomena to the Study of
Greek Religion_2 (Cambridge, 1908), pp. 120 _sqq._; M. P. Nilsson,
_Griechische Feste_ (Leipsic, 1906), pp. 313 _sqq._; L. R. Farnell,
_The Cults of the Greek States_, iii. (Oxford, 1907) pp. 75 _sqq._
At Thebes and in Delos the Thesmophoria was held in summer, in the
month of Metageitnion (August). See Xenophon, _Hellenica_, v. 2. 29;
M. P. Nilsson _Griechische Feste_, pp. 316 _sq._
54 Photius, _Lexicon_, _s.v._ στήνια, speaks of the ascent of _Demeter_
from the lower world; and Clement of Alexandria speaks of both
Demeter and Persephone as having been engulfed in the chasm
(_Protrept._ ii. 17). The original equivalence of Demeter and
Persephone must be borne steadily in mind.
55 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 69; Photius, _Lexicon_, _s.v._ στήνια.
56 E. Rohde, “Unedirte Lucians-scholien, die attischen Thesmophorien
und Haloen betreffend,” _Rheinisches Museum_, N.F., xxv. (1870) p.
548; _Scholia in Lucianum_, ed. H. Rabe (Leipsic, 1906), pp. 275
_sq._ Two passages of classical writers (Clement of Alexandria,
_Protrept._ ii. 17, and Pausanias, ix. 8. 1) refer to the rites
described by the scholiast on Lucian, and had been rightly
interpreted by Chr. A. Lobeck (_Aglaophamus_, pp. 827 _sqq._) before
the discovery of the scholia.
57 The scholiast speaks of them as _megara_ and _adyta_. The name
_megara_ is thought to be derived from a Phoenician word meaning
“cavern,” “subterranean chasm,” the Hebrew מעךה. See F. C. Moyers,
_Die Phoenizier_ (Bonn, 1841), i. 220. In Greek usage the _megara_
were properly subterranean vaults or chasms sacred to the gods. See
Hesychius, quoted by Movers, _l.c._ (the passage does not appear in
M. Schmidt’s minor edition of Hesychius); Porphyry, _De antro
nympharum_, 6; and my note on Pausanias, ii. 2. 1.
58 We infer this from Pausanias, ix. 8. 1, though the passage is
incomplete and apparently corrupt. For ἐν Δωδώνῃ Lobeck
(_Aglaophamus_, pp. 829 _sq._) proposed to read ἀναδῦναι or
ἀναδοθῆαι. At the spring and autumn festivals of Isis at Tithorea
geese and goats were thrown into the _adyton_ and left there till
the following festival, when the remains were removed and buried at
a certain spot a little way from the temple. See Pausanias, x. 32.
14. This analogy supports the view that the pigs thrown into the
caverns at the Thesmophoria were left there till the next festival.
59 Aelian, _De natura animalium_, xi. 16; Propertius, v. 8. 3-14. The
feeding of the serpent is represented on a Roman coin of about 64
B.C.; on the obverse of the coin appears the head of Juno Caprotina.
See E. Babelon, _Monnaies de la République Romaine_ (Paris, 1886),
ii. 402. A common type of Greek art represents a woman feeding a
serpent out of a saucer. See _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second
Edition, p. 75.
M16 Legend told to explain the ritual of the Thesmophoria.
_ 60 Scholia in Lucianum_, ed. H. Rabe, pp. 275 _sq._
61 Ovid, _Fasti_, iv. 461-466, upon which Gierig remarks, “_Sues melius
poeta omisisset in hac narratione_.” Such is the wisdom of the
commentator.
62 Pausanias, i. 14. 3.
63 Scholiast on Aristophanes, _Frogs_, 338.
M17 Analogy of the Thesmophoria to the folk-customs of Northern Europe.
64 Above, vol. i. p. 285.
65 Above, vol. i. p. 290.
66 Above, vol. i. p. 278.
67 Above, vol. i. p. 300.
68 Above, vol. i. pp. 300 _sq._
69 In Clement of Alexandria, _Protrept._ ii. 17, for μεγαρίζοντες
χοίρους ἐκβάλλουσι Lobeck (_Aglaophamus_, p. 831) would read
μεγάροις ζῶντας χοίρους ἐμβάλλουσι. For his emendation of Pausanias,
see above, p. 18 note 1.
70 It is worth nothing that in Crete, which was an ancient seat of
Demeter worship (see above, vol. i. p. 131), the pig was esteemed
very sacred and was not eaten (Athenaeus, ix. 18, pp. 375 F-376 A).
This would not exclude the possibility of its being eaten
sacramentally, as at the Thesmophoria.
M18 The horse-headed Demeter of Phigalia.
71 Pausanias, viii. 42.
72 Above, vol. i. pp. 292 _sqq._
73 Pausanias, viii. 25 and 42. At the sanctuary of the Mistress (that
is, of Persephone) in Arcadia many terracotta statuettes have been
found which represent draped women with the heads of cows or sheep.
They are probably votive images of Demeter or Persephone, for the
ritual of the sanctuary prescribed the offering of images
(Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 No. 939, vol. ii.
pp. 803 _sq._). See P. Perdrizet, “Terres-cuites de Lycosoura, et
mythologie arcadienne,” _Bulletin de Correspondance Hellénique_,
xxiii. (1899) p. 635; M. P. Nilsson, _Griechische Feste_ (Leipsic,
1906), pp. 347 _sq._ On the Phigalian Demeter, see W. Mannhardt,
_Mythologische Forschungen_, pp. 244 _sqq._ I well remember how on a
summer afternoon I sat at the mouth of the shallow cave, watching
the play of sunshine on the lofty wooded sides of the ravine and
listening to the murmur of the stream.
M19 Attis and the pig.
74 See _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second Edition, p. 221. On the position
of the pig in ancient Oriental and particularly Semitic religion,
see F. C. Movers, _Die Phoenizier_, i. (Bonn, 1841), pp. 218 _sqq._
_ 75 Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second Edition, p. 220.
76 Demosthenes, _De corona_, p. 313.
77 The suggestion was made to me in conversation by my lamented friend,
the late R. A. Neil of Pembroke College, Cambridge.
M20 Adonis and the boar. Ambiguous position of pigs at Hierapolis.
78 See _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second Edition, p. 8; and to the
authorities there cited add Athenaeus, ii. 80, p. 69 B; Cornutus,
_Theologiae Graecae Compendium_, 28; Plutarch, _Quaest. Conviv._ iv.
5. 3, § 8; Aristides, _Apologia_, II, p. 107, ed. J. Rendel Harris
(Cambridge, 1891); Joannes Lydus, _De mensibus_, iv. 44; Propertius,
iii. 4 (5). 53 _sq._, ed. F. A. Paley; Lactantius, _Divin. Instit._
i. 17; Augustine, _De civitate Dei_, vi. 7; Firmicus Maternus, _De
errore profanarum religionum_, 9; Macrobius, _Saturnal._ i. 21. 4.
See further W. W. Graf Baudissin, _Adonis und Esmun_ (Leipsic,
1911), pp. 142 _sqq._
79 See _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second Edition, p. 186.
80 W. Cureton, _Spicilegium Syriacum_ (London, 1855), p. 44.
81 Lucian, _De dea Syria_, 54.
82 The heathen Harranians sacrificed swine once a year and ate the
flesh (En-Nedîm, in D. Chwolsohn’s _Die Ssabier und der Ssabismus_,
St. Petersburg, 1856, ii. 42). My friend W. Robertson Smith
conjectured that the wild boars annually sacrificed in Cyprus on 2nd
April (Joannes Lydus, _De mensibus_, iv. 45) represented Adonis
himself. See his _Religion of the Semites_,2 pp. 290 _sq._, 411.
M21 Attitude of the Jews to the pig.
83 Plutarch, _Quaest. Conviv._ iv. 5.
84 Isaiah lxv. 3, lxvi. 3, 17. Compare R. H. Kennett, _The Composition
of the Book of Isaiah in the Light of History and Archaeology_
(London, 1910) p. 61, who suggests that the eating of the mouse as a
sacrament may have been derived from the Greek worship of the Mouse
Apollo (Apollo Smintheus). As to the Mouse Apollo see below, pp. 282
_sq._
M22 Attitude of the ancient Egyptians to the pig. Annual sacrifice of
pigs to Osiris and the moon.
85 Herodotus, ii. 47; Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 8; Aelian, _Nat.
Anim._ x. 16. Josephus merely says that the Egyptian priests
abstained from the flesh of swine (_Contra Apionem_, ii. 13).
86 Herodotus, _l.c._
87 Plutarch and Aelian, _ll.cc._
88 Herodotus, _l.c._ At Castabus in Chersonese there was a sacred
precinct of Hemithea, which no one might approach who had touched or
eaten of a pig (Diodorus Siculus, v. 62. 5).
89 Herodotus, ii. 47 _sq._; Aelian and Plutarch, _ll.cc._ Herodotus
distinguishes the sacrifice to the moon from that to Osiris.
According to him, at the sacrifice to the moon, the extremity of the
pig’s tail, together with the spleen and the caul, was covered with
fat and burned; the rest of the flesh was eaten. On the evening (not
the eve, see H. Stein’s note on the passage) of the festival the
sacrifice to Osiris took place. Each man slew a pig before his door,
then gave it to the swineherd, from whom he had bought it, to take
away.
M23 Belief that the eating of a sacred animal causes skin-disease,
especially leprosy.
90 J. G. F. Riedel, _De sluik- en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes
en Papua_ (The Hague, 1886), pp. 432, 452.
91 Rev. J. Owen Dorsey, “Omaha Sociology,” _Third Annual Report of the
Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1884), p. 225; Miss A. C. Fletcher
and F. la Flesche, “The Omaha Tribe,” _Twenty-seventh Annual Report
of the Bureau of American Ethnology_ (Washington, 1911), p. 144.
According to the latter writers, any breach of a clan taboo among
the Omahas was supposed to be punished either by the breaking out of
sores or white spots on the body of the offender or by his hair
turning white.
92 Rev. J. Owen Dorsey, _op. cit._ p. 231.
93 J. Crevaux, _Voyages dans l’Amérique du Sud_ (Paris, 1883), p. 59.
94 Plutarch, _De superstitione_, 10; Porphyry, _De abstinentia_, iv.
15. As to the sanctity of fish among the Syrians, see also Ovid,
_Fasti_, ii. 473 _sq._; Diodorus Siculus, ii. 4.
95 R. Sutherland Rattray, _Some Folklore Stories and Songs in
Chinyanja_ (London, 1907), pp. 174 _sq._
96 Rev. H. Cole, “Notes on the Wagogo of German East Africa,” _Journal
of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxii. (1902) p. 307, compare p.
317.
97 E. Nigmann, _Die Wahehe_ (Berlin, 1908), p. 42.
98 J. Kohler, “Das Banturecht in Ostafrika,” _Zeitschrift für
vergleichende Rechtswissenschaft_, xv. (1902) pp. 2, 3.
99 C. W. Hobley, “Anthropological Studies in Kavirondo and Nandi,”
_Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxiii. (1903) p. 347.
_ 100 Central Provinces, Ethnographic Survey_, II. _Draft Articles on
Uriya Castes_ (Allahabad, 1907), p. 16.
101 C. Creighton, _s.v._ “Leprosy,” _Encyclopaedia Biblica_, iii. col.
2766.
102 2 Kings v. 27; 2 Chronicles xxvi. 16-21.
M24 Mere contact with a sacred object is deemed dangerous and calls for
purification as a sort of disinfectant.
103 Leviticus xvi. 23 _sq._
104 Porphyry, _De abstinentia_, ii. 44. For this and the Jewish examples
I am indebted to my friend W. Robertson Smith. Compare his _Religion
of the Semites_,2 pp. 351, 426, 450 _sq._
_ 105 Central Provinces, Ethnographic Survey_, VII. _Draft Articles on
Forest Tribes_ (Allahabad, 1911), p. 97.
_ 106 Central Provinces, Ethnographic Survey_, I. _Draft Articles on
Hindustani Castes_ (Allahabad, 1907), p. 32.
107 See _Taboo and the Perils of the Soul_, pp. 133 _sq._
_ 108 Op. cit._ pp. 134-136.
109 E. Casalis, _The Basutos_ (London, 1861), p. 211; D. Livingstone,
_Missionary Travels and Researches in South Africa_ (London, 1857),
p. 255; John Mackenzie, _Ten Years north of the Orange River_
(Edinburgh, 1871), p. 135 note. See further _Totemism and Exogamy_,
ii. 372.
110 J. Mackenzie, _l.c._
111 Rev. J. Owen Dorsey, “Omaha Sociology,” _Third Annual Report of the
Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1884), p. 225.
_ 112 Ibid._ p. 275.
113 G. Turner, _Samoa_ (London, 1884), p. 76.
_ 114 Ibid._ p. 70.
115 Captain C. Eckford Luard, in _Census of India, 1901_, vol. xix.
_Central India_, Part i. (Lucknow, 1902) pp. 299 _sq._; also _Census
of India, 1901_, vol. i. _Ethnographic Appendices_ (Calcutta, 1903),
p. 163.
M25 Thus the pig was probably at first a sacred animal with the
Egyptians, and may have been regarded as an embodiment of the
corn-god Osiris, though at a later time he was looked on as an
embodiment of Typhon, the enemy of Osiris. The havoc wrought by wild
boars in the corn is a reason for regarding them as foes of the
corn-god.
116 Diogenes Laertius, _Vitae Philosophorum_, viii. 8.
117 Aelian, _Nat. Anim._ x. 16. The story is repeated by Pliny, _Nat.
Hist._ xviii. 168.
118 E. Lefébure, _Le Mythe Osirien_, Première Partie, _Les yeux d’Horus_
(Paris, 1874), p. 44; _The Book of the Dead_, English translation by
E. A. Wallis Budge (London, 1901), ii. 336 _sq._, chapter cxii.; E.
A. Wallis Budge, _The Gods of the Egyptians_ (London, 1904), i. 496
_sq._; _id._, _Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_ (London and New
York, 1911), i. 62 _sq._
119 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 8. E. Lefébure (_op. cit._ p. 46)
recognises that in this story the boar is Typhon himself.
120 This important principle was first recognised by W. Robertson Smith.
See his article, “Sacrifice,” _Encyclopaedia Britannica_, Ninth
Edition, xxi. 137 _sq._ Compare his _Religion of the Semites_,2 pp.
373, 410 _sq._
121 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 31.
M26 Evidence of the depredations committed by wild boars on the crops.
122 H. B. Tristram, _The Natural History of the Bible_, Ninth Edition
(London, 1898), pp. 54 _sq._
123 Rev. J. Shooter, _The Kafirs of Natal and the Zulu Country_ (London,
1857), pp. 18-20.
124 Miss A. Werner, _The Natives of British Central Africa_ (London,
1906), pp. 182 _sq._
125 E. Modigliano, _Un Viaggio a Nías_ (Milan, 1890), pp. 524 _sq._,
601.
126 A. E. Jenks, _The Bontoc Igorot_, (Manilla, 1905), pp. 100, 102.
127 A. Bastian, “Beiträge zur Kenntniss der Gebirgs-stämme in Kambodia,”
_Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft für Erdkunde zu Berlin_, i. (1866) p.
44.
128 G. Snouck Hurgronje, _Het Gajōland en zijne Bewoners_ (Batavia,
1903), p. 348.
129 Ch. Keysser, “Aus dem Leben der Kaileute,” in R. Neuhauss, _Deutsch
Neu-Guinea_ (Berlin, 1911), p. 125.
M27 The ravages of wild boars among the crops help us to understand the
ambiguous attitude of the ancient Egyptians to swine.
130 E. Lefébure, _Le Mythe Osirien_, Première Partie, _Les yeux d’Horus_
(Paris, 1874), pp. 48 _sq._
M28 Egyptian sacrifices of red oxen and red-haired men.
131 See above, pp. 260 _sq._; _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second Edition,
pp. 331, 338.
132 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 33, 73; Diodorus Siculus, i. 88.
133 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 31; Diodorus Siculus, i. 88. Compare
Herodotus, ii. 38.
M29 Osiris identified with the sacred bulls Apis and Mnevis.
Stratification of three great types of religion or superstition in
ancient Egypt.
134 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 20, 29, 33, 43; Strabo, xvii. 1. 31;
Diodorus Siculus, i. 21, 85; Duncker, _Geschichte des Alterthums_,5
i. 55 _sqq._ On Apis and Mnevis, see also Herodotus, ii. 153, with
A. Wiedemann’s comment, iii. 27 _sq._; Ammianus Marcellinus, xxii.
14. 7; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ viii. 184 _sqq._; Solinus, xxxii. 17-21;
Cicero, _De natura deorum_, i. 29; Augustine, _De civitate Dei_,
xviii. 5; Aelian, _Nat. Anim._ xi. 10 _sq._; Plutarch, _Quaest.
Conviv._ viii. 1. 3; _id._, _Isis et Osiris_, 5, 35; Eusebius,
_Praeparatio Evangelii_, iii. 13. 1 _sq._; Pausanias, i. 18. 4, vii.
22. 3 _sq._; W. Dittenberger, _Orientis Graeci Inscriptiones
Selectae_ (Leipsic, 1903-1905), Nos. 56, 90 (vol. i. pp. 98, 106,
159). Both Apis and Mnevis were black bulls, but Apis had certain
white spots. See A. Wiedemann, _Die Religion der alten Aegypter_
(Münster i. W., 1890), pp. 95, 99-101. When Apis died, pious people
used to put on mourning and to fast, drinking only water and eating
only vegetables, for seventy days till the burial. See A. Erman,
_Die ägyptische Religion_ (Berlin, 1905), pp. 170 _sq._
135 Diodorus Siculus, i. 21.
136 On the religious reverence of pastoral peoples for their cattle, and
the possible derivation of the Apis and Isis-Hathor worship from the
pastoral stage of society, see W. Robertson Smith, _Religion of the
Semites_,2 pp. 296 _sqq._
137 Herodotus, ii. 41.
138 Herodotus, ii. 41, with A. Wiedemann’s commentary; Plutarch, _Isis
et Osiris_, 19; E. A. Wallis Budge, _Osiris and the Egyptian
Resurrection_ (London and New York, 1911), i. 8. In his commentary
on the passage of Herodotus Prof. Wiedemann observes (p. 188) that
“the Egyptian name of the Isis-cow is _ḥes-t_ and is one of the few
cases in which the name of the sacred animal coincides with that of
the deity.”
139 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ viii. 184; Solinus, xxxii. 18; Ammianus
Marcellinus, xxii. 14. 7. The spring or well in which he was drowned
was perhaps the one from which his drinking-water was procured; he
might not drink the water of the Nile (Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_,
5).
140 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 56.
141 G. Maspero, _Histoire ancienne_4 (Paris, 1886), p. 31. Compare
Duncker, _Geschichte des Alterthums_,5 i. 56. It has been
conjectured that the period of twenty-five years was determined by
astronomical considerations, that being a period which harmonises
the phases of the moon with the days of the Egyptian year. See L.
Ideler, _Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen Chronologie_
(Berlin, 1825-1826), i. 182 _sq._; F. K. Ginzel, _Handbuch der
mathematischen und technischen Chronologie_, i. (Leipsic, 1906), pp.
180 _sq._
M30 On the stratification of religions corresponding to certain social
types.
M31 Reverence of the Dinka for their cattle.
142 G. Schweinfurth, _The Heart of Africa_, Third Edition (London,
1878), i. 59 _sq._
143 E. de Pruyssenaere, _Reisen und Forschungen im Gebiete des Weissen
und Blauen Nil_ (Gotha, 1877), pp. 22 _sq._ (_Petermann’s
Mittheilungen, Ergänzungsheft_, No. 50).
M32 Reverence of the Nuehr for their cattle.
144 Ernst Marno, _Reisen im Gebiete des Blauen und Weissen Nil_ (Vienna,
1874), p. 343. The name _Nyeledit_ is explained by the writer to
mean “very great and mighty.” It is probably equivalent to
_Nyalich_, which Dr. C. G. Seligmann gives as a synonym for Dengdit,
the high god of the Dinka. According to Dr. Seligmann, _Nyalich_ is
the locative of a word meaning “above” and, literally translated,
signifies, “in the above.” See C. G. Seligmann, _s.v._ “Dinka,” in
_Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics_, edited by J. Hastings, D.D.,
vol. iv. (Edinburgh, 1911), p. 707. The Sakalava of Ampasimene, in
Madagascar, are said to worship a black bull which is kept in a
sacred enclosure in the island of Nosy Be. On the death of the
sacred bull another is substituted for it. See A. van Gennep, _Tabou
et Totémisme à Madagascar_ (Paris, 1904), pp. 247 _sq._, quoting J.
Carol, _Chez les Hova_ (Paris, 1898), pp. 418 _sq._ But as the
Sakalava are not, so far as I know, mainly or exclusively a pastoral
people, this example of bull-worship does not strictly belong to the
class illustrated in the text.
M33 The tradition that Virbius had been killed in the character of
Hippolytus by horses, and the custom of excluding horses from the
sacred Arician grove, may point to the conclusion that the horse was
regarded as an embodiment of Virbius and was annually sacrificed in
the grove. Similarly at Athens the goat was usually excluded from
the Acropolis but was admitted once a year for a necessary
sacrifice.
145 See _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, i. 19 _sqq._
146 See above, vol. i. pp 292-294.
147 Athenaeus, xiii. 51, p. 587 A; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ viii. 204.
Compare W. Robertson Smith, in _Encyclopaedia Britannica_, Ninth
Edition, article “Sacrifice,” vol. xxi. p. 135.
148 Varro, _De agri cultura_, i. 2. 19 _sq._: “_hoc nomine etiam Athenis
in arcem non inigi, praeterquam semel ad necessarium sacrificium._”
By _semel_ Varro probably means once a year.
149 The force of this inference is greatly weakened, if not destroyed,
by a fact which I had overlooked when I wrote this book originally.
A goat was sacrificed to Brauronian Artemis at her festival called
the Brauronia (Hesychius, _s.v._ Βραυρωνίοις; compare Im. Bekker’s
_Anecdota Graeca_, p. 445, lines 6 _sqq._). As the Brauronian
Artemis had a sanctuary on the Acropolis of Athens (Pausanias, i.
23. 7), it seems probable that the goat sacrificed once a year on
the Acropolis was sacrificed to her and not to Athena. (Note to
Second Edition of _The Golden Bough_.)
150 Herodotus, ii. 42.
151 It is worth noting that Hippolytus, with whom Virbius was
identified, is said to have dedicated horses to Aesculapius, who had
raised him from the dead (Pausanias, ii. 27. 4).
M34 Annual sacrifice of a horse at Rome in October.
152 Festus, ed. C. O. Müller, pp. 178, 179, 220; Plutarch, _Quaestiones
Romanae_, 97; Polybius, xii. 4 B. The sacrifice is referred to by
Julian, _Orat._ v. p. 176 D (p. 228 ed. F. C. Hertlein). It is the
subject of a valuable essay by W. Mannhardt, whose conclusions I
summarise in the text. See W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_
(Strasburg, 1884), pp. 156-201.
153 Ovid, _Fasti_, iv. 731 _sqq._, compare 629 _sqq._; Propertius, v. 1.
19 _sq._
M35 The horse so sacrificed seems to have embodied the corn-spirit.
154 The Huzuls of the Carpathians attribute a special virtue to a
horse’s head. They think that fastened on a pole and set up in a
garden it protects the cabbages from caterpillars. See R. F. Kaindl,
_Die Huzulen_ (Wienna, 1894), p. 102. At the close of the
rice-harvest the Garos of Assam celebrate a festival in which the
effigy of a horse plays an important part. When the festival is
over, the body of the horse is thrown into a stream, but the head is
preserved for another year. See Note at the end of the volume.
155 Above, pp. 9 _sq._
156 Above, vol. i. pp. 268, 272.
157 Above, vol. i. pp. 141, 155, 156, 158, 160 _sq._, 301.
M36 Archaic character of the sacrifice and its analogies in the harvest
customs of Northern Europe.
158 Livy, ii. 5.
159 Festus, ed. C. O. Müller, pp. 130, 131.
M37 Other examples of the exclusion of horses from sanctuaries.
Uncertainty as to the reason for excluding horses from the Arician
grove.
160 Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 No. 560 (vol. ii.
pp. 259-261); Ch. Michel, _Recueil d’Inscriptions Grecques_
(Brussels, 1900), No. 434, pp. 323 _sq._; P. Cauer, _Delectus
Inscriptionum Graecarum propter dialectum memorabilium_2 (Leipsic,
1883), No. 177, pp. 117 _sq._ As to Alectrona or Alectryona,
daughter of the Sun, see Diodorus Siculus, v. 65. 5.
161 Festus, _s.v._ “October equus,” p. 181 ed. C. O. Müller. See _The
Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, i. 315.
162 G. Zündel, “Land und Volk der Eweer auf der Sclavenküste in
West-afrika,” _Zeitschrift für Erdkunde zu Berlin_, xii. (1877) pp.
415 _sq._
163 Rev. W. Ellis, _History of Madagascar_ (London, preface dated 1838),
i. 402 _sq._
164 Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 No. 939 (vol. ii.
p. 803).
165 Pausanias, viii. 37. 7.
M38 Custom of eating the new corn sacramentally as the body of the
corn-spirit. Loaves baked of the new corn in human shape and eaten.
166 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_ (Strasburg, 1884), p. 179.
167 W. Mannhardt, _Der Baumkultus der Germanen und ihrer Nachbarstämme_
(Berlin, 1875), p. 205. It is not said that the dough-man is made of
the new corn; but probably this is, or once was, the case.
M39 Old Lithuanian ritual at eating the new corn.
168 M. Praetorius, _Deliciae Prussicae oder Preussische Schaubuhne, im
wörtlichen Auszüge aus dem Manuscript herausgegeben_ von Dr. William
Pierson (Berlin, 1871), pp. 60-64; W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und
Feldkulte_ (Berlin, 1877), pp. 249 _sqq._ Mathaeus Praetorius, the
author to whom we owe the account in the text, compiled a detailed
description of old Lithuanian manners and customs in the latter part
of the seventeenth century at the village of Niebudzen, of which he
was Protestant pastor. The work, which seems to have occupied him
for many years and to have been finished about 1698, exists in
manuscript but has never been published in full. Only excerpts from
it have been printed by Dr. W. Pierson. Praetorius was born at Memel
about 1635 and died in 1707. In the later years of his life he
incurred a good deal of odium by joining the Catholic Church.
M40 Modern European ceremonies at eating the new corn or new potatoes.
169 A. Bezzenberger, _Litauische Forschungen_ (Göttingen, 1882), p. 89.
170 Simon Grunau, _Preussischer Chronik_, herausgegeben von Dr. M.
Perlbach, i. (Leipsic, 1876) p. 91.
171 J. B. Holzmayer, “Osiliana,” _Verhandlungen der gelehrten Estnischen
Gesellschaft zu Dorpat_, vii. Heft 2 (Dorpat, 1872), p. 108.
172 On iron as a charm against spirits, see _Taboo and the Perils of the
Soul_, pp. 232 _sqq._
_ 173 Folk-lore Journal_, vii. (1889) p. 54.
174 Communicated by the Rev. J. J. C. Yarborough, of Chislehurst, Kent.
See _Folk-lore Journal_, vii. (1889) p. 50.
M41 Ceremony of the heathen Cheremiss at eating the new corn.
175 Von Haxthausen, _Studien über die innern Zustände, das Volksleben
und insbesondere die ländliche Einrichtungen Russlands_, i. 448
_sq._
176 J. G. Georgi, _Beschreibung aller Nationen des Russischen Reichs_
(St. Petersburg, 1776), p. 37.
M42 Ceremony of the Aino at eating the new millet.
177 Rev. J. Batchelor, _The Ainu and their Folk-lore_ (London, 1901),
pp. 204, 206.
M43 Ceremonies of the Melanesians of Reef Island at eating the new
bread-fruits and yams.
178 “Native Stories from Santa Cruz and Reef Islands,” translated by the
Rev. W. O’Ferrall, _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_,
xxxiv. (1904) p. 230.
M44 Ceremony of the New Caledonians at eating the first yams.
179 Glaumont, “La culture de l’igname et du taro en Nouvelle-Calédonie,”
_L’Anthropologie_, viii. (1897) pp. 43-45.
M45 Ceremonies observed at eating the new rice in Buru and Celebes.
180 G. A. Wilken, “Bijdragen tot de kennis der Alfoeren van het eiland
Boeroe,” p. 26 (_Verhandelingen van het Bataviaasch Genootschap van
Kunsten en Wetenschappen_ vol. xxxviii., Batavia, 1875).
181 P. N. Wilken, “Bijdragen tot de kennis van de zeden en gewoonten der
Alfoeren in de Minahassa,” _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche
Zendelinggenootschap_, vii. (1863) p. 127.
182 N. P. Wilken en J. A. Schwarz, “Allerlei over het land en volk van
Bolaang Mongondou,” _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche
Zendelinggenootschap_, xi. (1867) pp. 369 _sq._
M46 Ceremonies observed at eating the new rice in Ceram and Borneo.
183 J. Boot, “Korte schets der noordkust van Ceram,” _Tiidschrift van
het Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig Genootschap_, Tweede Serie, x.
(1893) pp. 671 _sq._
184 See above, vol. i. pp. 184 _sqq._
185 A. W. Nieuwenhuis, _In Centraal Borneo_ (Leyden, 1900), i. 156;
_id._, _Quer durch Borneo_ (Leyden, 1904-1907), i. 117 _sq._ In the
latter passage “_ist jeder_” is a misprint for “_isst jeder_”; the
Dutch original is “_eet ieder_.”
M47 Ceremonies observed at eating the new rice in India.
186 H. Harkness, _Description of a Singular Aboriginal Race inhabiting
the Summit of the Neilgherry Hills_ (London, 1832), pp. 56 _sq._
187 Ch. E. Gover, _The Folk-songs of Southern India_ (London, 1872), pp.
105 _sqq._; “Coorg Folklore,” _Folk-lore Journal_, vii. (1889) pp.
302 _sqq._
188 Gover, “The Pongol Festival in Southern India,” _Journal of the
Royal Asiatic Society_, N.S., v. (1871) pp. 91 _sqq._
189 From notes sent to me by my friend Mr. W. Crooke.
190 Major J. Biddulph, _Tribes of the Hindoo Koosh_ (Calcutta, 1880), p.
103.
M48 Ceremonies observed by the Chams at ploughing, sowing, reaping, and
eating the new rice.
191 E. Aymonier, “Les Tchames et leurs religions,” _Revue de l’histoire
des Religions_, xxiv. (1891) pp. 272-274.
M49 Ceremony at eating the new yams at Onitsha on the Niger.
192 S. Crowther and J. C. Taylor, _The Gospel on the Banks of the Niger_
(London, 1859), pp. 287 _sq._ Mr. Taylor’s information is repeated
in _West African Countries and Peoples_, by J. Africanus B. Horton
(London, 1868), pp. 180 _sq._
M50 Ceremonies at eating the new yams among the Ewe negroes of Togoland.
193 J. Spieth, _Die Ewe-Stämme_ (Berlin, 1906), pp. 304-310, 340;
compare _id._ pp. 435, 480, 768. The “slaves of the Earth-gods” are
children whom women have obtained through prayers offered to
Agbasia, the greatest of the Earth-gods. When such a child is born,
it is regarded as the slave of Agbasia; and the mother dedicates it
to the service of the god, as in similar circumstances Hannah
dedicated Samuel to the Lord (1 Samuel i.). If the child is a girl,
she is married to the priest’s son; if it is a boy, he serves the
priest until his mother has given birth to a girl whom she exchanges
for the boy. See J. Spieth, _op. cit._ pp. 448-450. In all such
cases the original idea probably was that the child has been
begotten in the woman by the god and therefore belongs to him as to
his father, in the literal sense of the word.
M51 Festival of the new yams among the Ashantees in September.
194 T. E. Bowdich, _Mission from Cape Coast Castle to Ashantee_, New
Edition (London, 1873), pp. 226-229.
195 A. B. Ellis, _The Tshi-speaking Peoples of the Gold Coast_ (London,
1887), pp. 229 _sq._
196 J. C. Reichenbach, “Etude sur le royaume d’Assinie,” _Bulletin de la
Société de Géographie_ (Paris), vii.ème Série, xi. (1890) p. 349.
M52 Festival of the new yams at Coomassie and Benin.
197 Ramseyer and Kühne, _Four Years in Ashantee_ (London, 1875), pp.
147-151; E. Perregaux, _Chez les Achanti_ (Neuchatel, 1906), pp.
158-160.
198 H. Ling Roth, _Great Benin_ (Halifax, England, 1903), pp. 76 _sq._
M53 Ceremonies observed by the Nandi at eating the new eleusine grain.
199 A. C. Hollis, _The Nandi_ (Oxford, 1909), pp. 46 _sq._
200 Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_ (London, 1911), p. 428.
M54 Festival of the new fruits among the Caffres of Natal and Zululand.
201 F. Speckmann, _Die Hermannsburger Mission in Afrika_ (Hermannsburg,
1876), pp. 150 _sq._
202 L. Grout, _Zulu-land_ (Philadelphia, N.D.), p. 161.
_ 203 (South African) Folk-lore Journal_, i. (1879) p. 135; Rev. H.
Callaway, _Religious System of the Amazulu_, Part iii. p. 389 note.
204 Rev. J. Macdonald, _Light in Africa_, Second Edition (London, 1890),
pp. 216 _sq._ On the conception of the two fire-sticks as husband
and wife, see _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 208
_sqq._
M55 Dance of the Zulu king at the festival. Licentious character of the
festival. The festival as celebrated by the Pondos. Bull-fights and
games. License accorded to chiefs and others at this festival among
the Zulus. Traces of an annual abdication of Zulu kings, perhaps of
a custom of burning them and scattering their ashes.
205 J. Shooter, _The Kafirs of Natal_ (London, 1857), p. 27; N. Isaacs,
_Travels and Adventures in Eastern Africa_ (London, 1836), ii. 293;
Dudley Kidd, _The Essential Kafir_ (London, 1904), pp. 270, 271.
206 J. Macdonald, _op. cit._ p. 189.
207 Rev. J. Macdonald, _Religion and Myth_ (London, 1893), pp. 136-138,
from manuscript notes furnished by J. Sutton. Mr. Macdonald has
described the custom more briefly in his _Light in Africa_, Second
Edition (London, 1890), p. 189.
208 N. Isaacs, _Travels and Adventures in Eastern Africa_ (London,
1836), ii. 292.
209 A. Delegorgue, _Voyage dans l’Afrique Australe_ (Paris, 1847), ii.
237.
210 Above, vol. i. p. 240.
211 See _The Dying God_, pp. 36 _sq._ On the Zulu festival of
first-fruits see also T. Arbousset et F. Daumas, _Voyage
d’Exploration au Nord-Est de la Colonie du Cap de Bonne Espérance_
(Paris, 1843), pp. 308 _sq._; G. Fritsch, _Die Eingeborenen
Süd-Afrikas_ (Breslau, 1872), p. 143. Fritsch mentions that after
executing a grotesque dance in the presence of the assembled
multitude the king gives formal permission to eat of the new fruits
by dashing a gourd or calabash to the ground. This ceremony of
breaking the calabash is mentioned also by J. Shooter (_Kafirs of
Natal_, p. 27), L. Grout (_Zulu-land_, p. 162), and Mr. Dudley Kidd
(_The Essential Kafir_, p. 271). According to this last writer the
calabash is filled with boiled specimens of the new fruits, and the
king sprinkles the people with the cooked food, frequently spitting
it out on them. Mr. Grout tells us (_l.c._) that at the ceremony a
bull is killed and its gall drunk by the king and the people. In
killing it the warriors must use nothing but their naked hands. The
flesh of the bull is given to the boys to eat what they like and
burn the rest; the men may not taste it. See L. Grout, _op. cit._ p.
161. According to Shooter, two bulls are killed; the first is black,
the second of another colour. The boys who eat the beef of the black
bull may not drink till the next morning, else the king would be
defeated in war or visited with some personal misfortune. See
Shooter, _op. cit._ pp. 26 _sq._ According to another account the
sacrifice of the bull, performed by the warriors of a particular
regiment with their bare hands, takes place several weeks before the
festival of first-fruits, and “the strength of the bull is supposed
to enter into the king, thereby prolonging his health and strength.”
See D. Leslie, _Among the Zulus and Amatongas_2 (Edinburgh, 1875),
p. 91. For a general account of the Caffre festival of first-fruits,
see Dudley Kidd, _The Essential Kafir_ (London, 1904), pp. 270-272.
M56 Ceremonies observed by the Bechuanas before eating the new fruits.
212 Rev. W. C. Willoughby, “Notes on the Totemism of the Becwana,”
_Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxv. (1905) pp.
311-313. It is very remarkable that among several Bantu tribes the
cohabitation of husband and wife is enjoined as a religious or
magical rite on a variety of solemn occasions, such as after the
death of a son or daughter, the circumcision of a child, the first
menstruation of a daughter, the occupation of a new house or of a
new village, etc. For examples see C. W. Hobley, _Ethnology of
A-Kamba and other East African Tribes_ (Cambridge, 1910), pp. 58,
59, 60, 65, 67, 69, 74; H. A. Junod, “Les Conceptions physiologiques
des Bantou Sud-Africains et leurs tabous,” _Revue d’Ethnographie et
de Sociologie_, i. (1910) p. 148; Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_
(London, 1911), pp. 48, 144, 357, 363, 378, 428, etc.; _id._,
“Further Notes on the Manners and Customs of the Baganda,” _Journal
of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxii. (1902) pp. 59, 61. Among
the Baganda the act of stepping or leaping over a woman is regarded
as equivalent to cohabitation with her, and is accepted as a ritual
substitute for it (J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_, p. 357 note). The ideas
on which this custom of ceremonial cohabitation is based are by no
means clear.
M57 Ceremonies observed by the Matabele at eating the new fruits.
213 Ch. Croonenberghs, S.J., “La fête de la Grande Danse dans le haut
Zambeze,” _Les Missions Catholiques_, xiv. (1882) pp. 230-234; L.
Decle, _Three Years in Savage Africa_ (London, 1898), pp. 157 _sq._
The two accounts supplement each other. I have combined features
from both in the text.
M58 Ceremony observed by the Ovambo at eating the new fruits.
214 H. Tönjes, _Ovamboland, Land, Leute, Mission_ (Berlin, 1911), pp.
200 _sq._
M59 Ceremony observed by the Bororo Indians before eating the new maize.
215 V. Frič and P. Radin, “Contributions to the Study of the Bororo
Indians,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxvi. (1906)
p. 392.
M60 The _busk_ or festival of first-fruits among the Creek Indians of
North America. Fast and purgation. New fire made by friction.
216 The ceremony is described independently by James Adair, _History of
the American Indians_ (London, 1775), pp. 96-111; W. Bartram,
_Travels through North and South Carolina, Georgia, East and West
Florida_ (London, 1792), pp. 507 _sq._; A. Hodgson, _Letters from
North America_ (London, 1824), i. 131 _sq._; B. Hawkins, “Sketch of
the Creek Country,” in _Collections of the Georgia Historical
Society_, iii. (Savannah, 1848) pp. 75-78; A. A. M’Gillivray, in H.
R. Schoolcraft’s _Indian Tribes of the United States_ (Philadelphia,
1853-1856), v. 267 _sq._; F. G. Speck, _Ethnology of the Yuchi
Indians_ (Philadelphia, 1909), pp. 112-131. The fullest descriptions
are those of Adair and Speck. In the text I have chiefly followed
Adair, our oldest authority. A similar ceremony was observed by the
Cherokees. See the description (from an unpublished MS. of J. H.
Payne, author of _Home, Sweet Home_) in “Observations on the Creek
and Cherokee Indians, by William Bartram, 1789, with prefatory and
supplementary notes by E. G. Squier,” _Transactions of the American
Ethnological Society_, vol. iii. Part i. (1853) p. 75. The Indians
of Alabama also held a great festival at their harvest in July. They
passed the day fasting, lit a new fire, purged themselves, and
offered the first-fruits to their _Manitoo_: the ceremony ended with
a religious dance. See Bossu, _Nouveaux Voyages aux Indes
occidentales_ (Paris, 1768), ii. 54. These Indians of Alabama were
probably either the Creeks or the Cherokees.
217 W. Bartram, _Travels_, p. 507.
218 So amongst the Cherokees, according to J. H. Payne, an arbour of
green boughs was made in the sacred square; then “a beautiful
bushy-topped shade-tree was cut down close to the roots, and planted
in the very centre of the sacred square. Every man then provided
himself with a green bough.”
219 So Adair. Bartram, on the other hand, as we have seen, says that the
people provided themselves with new household utensils.
220 B. Hawkins, “Sketch,” etc., p. 76.
M61 Festival of the new fruits among the Yuchi Indians. Game of ball.
221 F. G. Speck, _Ethnology of the Yuchi Indians_ (Philadelphia, 1909),
pp. 86-89, 105-107, 112-131.
M62 Green Corn Dance among the Seminole Indians. Festival of the new
corn among the Natchez Indians.
222 Th. Waitz, _Anthropologie der Naturvölker_, iii. (Leipsic, 1862) p.
42; A. S. Gatschet, _A Migration Legend of the Creek Indians_, i.
(Philadelphia, 1884) pp. 66 _sqq._; _Totemism and Exogamy_, iii.
167.
223 C. MacCauley, “Seminole Indians of Florida,” _Fifth Annual Report of
the Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1887), pp. 522 _sq._
224 That is, the grand chief of the nation. All the chiefs of the
Natchez were called Suns and were connected with the head chief or
Great Sun, who bore on his breast an image of the sun and claimed to
be descended from the luminary. See Bossu, _Nouveaux Voyages aux
Indes occidentales_ (Paris, 1768), i. 42.
M63 New fire made by friction.
M64 Torchlight dance.
M65 Game of ball.
225 Le Page Du Pratz, _History of Louisiana, or of the western parts of
Virginia and Carolina_, translated from the French, New Edition
(London, 1774), pp. 338-341. See also J. R. Swanton, _Indian Tribes
of the Lower Mississippi Valley_ (Washington, 1911), pp. 110 _sqq._,
where the passage of Du Pratz is translated in full from the
original French. From Mr. Swanton’s translation it appears that the
English version of Du Pratz, which I have quoted in the text, is a
good deal abridged. On the festival of first-fruits among the
Natchez see also _Lettres édifiantes et curieuses_, Nouvelle
Édition, vii. (Paris, 1781) p. 19; Charlevoix, _Histoire de la
Nouvelle France_ (Paris, 1744), vi. 183; De Tonti, “Relation de la
Louisiane et du Mississippi,” _Recueil de Voyages au Nord_, v.
(Amsterdam, 1734) p. 122; Le Petit, “Relation des Natchez,” _ibid._
ix. 13 _sq._ (reprint of the account in the _Lettres édifiantes_
cited above); Bossu, _Nouveaux Voyages aux Indes occidentales_
(Paris, 1768), i. 43. According to Charlevoix, Le Petit, and Bossu
the festival fell in July. For Chateaubriand’s description of the
custom, see below, pp. 135 _sqq._
M66 Ceremonies observed by the Salish and Tinneh Indians before they eat
the first wild berries or roots of the season.
226 C. Hill-Tout, _The Far West, the Home of the Salish and Déné_
(London, 1907), pp. 168-170.
M67 Ceremonies observed by the Thompson Indians before they eat the
first wild berries or roots of the season.
227 J. Teit, _The Thompson Indians of British Columbia_, p. 349 (_The
Jesup North Pacific Expedition, Memoir of the American Museum of
Natural History_, April, 1900).
M68 The ceremonies observed by savages at eating the first fruits of any
crop seem to be based on the idea that the plant or tree is animated
by a spirit, who must be propitiated before it is safe to partake of
the fruit.
228 See above, p. 52.
M69 The sanctity of the new fruits indicated in various ways. Care taken
to prevent the contact of sacred and profane food in the stomach of
the eater. Contact between certain foods in the stomach of the eater
forbidden.
229 See above, pp. 50, 53, 65, 66, 72, 81.
230 See above, pp. 59, 60, 63, 69 _sq._, 71, 73, 75 _sq._, 82.
231 Joseph Thomson, _Through Masai Land_ (London, 1885), p. 430; P.
Reichard, _Deutsch-Ostafrika_ (Leipsic, 1892), p. 288; O. Baumann,
_Durch Massailand zur Nilquelle_ (Berlin, 1894), p. 162; M. Merker,
_Die Masai_ (Berlin, 1904), p. 33; M. Weiss, _Die Völkerstämme im
Norden Deutsch-Ostafrikas_ (Berlin, 1910), p. 380. However, the
motive which underlies the taboo appears to be a fear of injuring by
sympathetic magic the cows from which the milk is drawn. See my
essay “Folk-lore in the Old Testament,” in _Anthropological Essays
presented to E. B. Tylor_ (Oxford, 1907), pp. 164 _sq._ According to
Reichard the warriors may partake of honey both with meat and with
milk. Thomson does not mention honey and speaks of a purgative only.
The periods during which meat and milk are alternately consumed
vary, according to Reichard, from twelve to fifteen days. We may
conjecture, therefore, that two of them, making up a complete cycle,
correspond to a lunar month, with reference to which the diet is
perhaps determined.
232 M. W. H. Beech, _The Suk, their Language and Folklore_ (Oxford,
1911), p. 9. In both cases the motive, as with the Masai, is
probably a fear of injuring the cattle, and especially of causing
the cows to loose their milk. This is confirmed by other taboos of
the same sort observed by the Suk. Thus they think that to eat the
flesh of a certain forest pig would cause the cattle of the eater to
run dry, and that if a rich man ate fish his cows would give no
milk. See M. W. H. Beech, _op. cit._ p. 10.
233 O. Baumann, _Durch Massailand zur Nilquelle_ (Berlin, 1894), p. 171.
234 Fr. Boas, “The Central Eskimo,” _Sixth Annual Report of the Bureau
of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1888), p. 595; _id._, “The Eskimo of
Baffin Land and Hudson Bay,” _Bulletin of the American Museum of
Natural History_, vol. xv. part i. (New York, 1901) pp. 122-124. For
more details see _Taboo and the Perils of the Soul_, pp. 208 _sqq._
235 Rev. R. H. Codrington, _The Melanesians_ (Oxford, 1891), p. 134.
236 Pausanias, v. 13. 3. We may assume, though Pausanias does not
expressly say so, that persons who sacrificed to Telephus partook of
the sacrifice.
237 Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 No. 576 (vol. ii.
p. 267); Ch. Michel, _Recueil d’Inscriptions Grecques_, No. 723, p.
622. Further, no one who had suffered a domestic bereavement might
enter the sanctuary for forty days. Hence the pollution of death was
clearly deemed more virulent, or at all events more lasting, than
the pollution of food.
238 Diodorus Siculus, v. 62. 5.
M70 The sacrament of first-fruits sometimes combined with a sacrifice of
them to gods or spirits.
239 See above, pp. 51 _sq._, 54, 58, 60 _sq._, 64, 74.
240 See below, pp. 109 _sqq._
M71 Aztec custom of eating sacramentally a dough image of the god
Huitzilopochtli or Vitzilipuztli as a mode of communion with the
deity.
M72 Eating the flesh and bones of the god Vitzilipuztli sacramentally.
241 J. de Acosta, _Natural and Moral History of the Indies_, bk. v. ch.
24, vol. ii. pp. 356-360 (Hakluyt Society, London, 1880). I have
modernised the old translator’s spelling. Acosta’s authority, which
he followed without acknowledgment, was an anonymous writer of about
the middle of the sixteenth century, whose manuscript, written in
Spanish, was found in the library of the Franciscan monastery at
Mexico in 1856. A French translation of it has been published. See
_Manuscrit Ramirez, Histoire de l’Origine des Indiens qui habitent
la Nouvelle-Espagne selon leurs traditions_, publié par D. Charnay
(Paris, 1903), pp. 149-154. Acosta’s description is followed by A.
de Herrera (_General History of the vast Continent and Islands of
America_, translated by Capt. John Stevens (London, 1725-1726), iii.
213-215).
M73 The doctrine of transubstantiation or the magical conversion of
bread into flesh recognised by the ancient Aztecs and Brahmans.
_ 242 The Satapatha-Brâhmana_, translated by J. Eggeling, Part i.
(Oxford, 1882) p. 51 (_Sacred Books of the East_, vol. xii.).
_ 243 Op. cit._ pp. 51 _sq._, with the translator’s note.
M74 The sacred food not to be defiled by contact with common food.
244 See above, pp. 73 _sqq._
245 Above, p. 68, note 3.
M75 Aztec custom of killing the god Huitzilopochtli in effigy and eating
him afterwards.
246 H. H. Bancroft, _Native Races of the Pacific States_ (London,
1875-1876), iii. 297-300 (after Torquemada); F. S. Clavigero,
_History of Mexico_, translated by Ch. Cullen (London, 1807), i. 309
_sqq._; B. de Sahagun, _Histoire générale des choses de la
Nouvelle-Espagne_, traduite et annotée par D. Jourdanet et R. Siméon
(Paris, 1880), pp. 203 _sq._; J. G. Müller, _Geschichte der
amerikanischen Urreligionen_ (Bâle, 1867), p. 605; Brasseur de
Bourbourg, _Histoire des Nations civilisées du Mexique et de
l’Amérique Centrale_ (Paris, 1857-1859), iii. 531-534.
M76 Mexican custom of eating images of dough.
247 F. S. Clavigero, _op. cit._ i. 311; B. de Sahagun, _op. cit._ pp.
74, 156 _sq._; J. G. Müller, _op. cit._ p. 606; H. H. Bancroft, _op.
cit._ iii. 316; Brasseur de Bourbourg, _op. cit._ iii. 535. This
festival took place on the last day of 16th month (which extended
from 23rd December to 11th January). At another festival the
Mexicans made the semblance of a bone out of paste and ate it
sacramentally as the bone of the god. See Sahagun, _op. cit._ p. 33.
248 Brasseur de Bourbourg, _op. cit._ iii. 539.
249 G. F. de Oviedo, _Histoire du Nicaragua_ (Paris, 1840), p. 219.
Oviedo’s account is borrowed by A. de Herrera (_General History of
the vast Continent and Islands of America_, translated by Capt. John
Stevens, iii. 301).
M77 Mexican custom of eating a man as a human embodiment of the god
Tetzcatlipoca.
250 J. de Torquemada, _Monarquia Indiana_, lib. x. cap. 14, vol. ii. pp.
259 _sqq._ (Madrid, 1723); Brasseur de Bourbourg, _op. cit._ iii.
510-512.
M78 Communion with a god by eating of his effigy among the Huichol
Indians of Mexico and the Malas of Southern India. Catholic custom
of eating effigies of the Madonna.
251 C. Lumholtz, _Unknown Mexico_ (London, 1903), ii. 166-171. When Mr.
Lumholtz revisited the temple in 1898, the idol had disappeared. It
has probably been since replaced by another. The custom of
abstaining both from salt and from women as a mode of ceremonial
purification is common among savage and barbarous peoples. See
above, p. 75 (as to the Yuchi Indians), and _Totemism and Exogamy_,
iv. 224 _sqq._
252 E. Thurston, _Castes and Tribes of Southern India_ (Madras, 1909),
iv. 357 _sq._
253 Graf Paul von Hoensbroech, _14 Jahre Jesuit_ (Leipsic, 1909-1910),
i. 25 _sq._ The practice was officially sanctioned by a decree of
the Inquisition, 29th July 1903.
M79 Loaves called _Maniae_ baked at Aricia. Woollen effigies dedicated
at Rome to Mania, the Mother or Grandmother of Ghosts, at the
Compitalia. The loaves at Aricia perhaps sacramental bread made in
the likeness of the King of the Wood. Practice of putting up dummies
to divert the attention of ghosts or demons from living people.
254 See _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, i. 22.
255 Festus, ed. C. O. Müller, pp. 128, 129, 145. The reading of the last
passage is, however, uncertain (“_et Ariciae genus panni fieri; quod
manici † appelletur_”).
256 Varro, _De lingua latina_, ix. 61; Arnobius, _Adversus nationes_,
iii. 41; Macrobius, _Saturn._ i. 7. 35; Festus, p. 128, ed. C. O.
Müller. Festus speaks of the mother or grandmother of the _larvae_;
the other writers speak of the mother of the _lares_.
257 Macrobius, _l.c._; Festus, pp. 121, 239, ed. C. O. Müller. The
effigies hung up for the slaves were called _pilae_, not _maniae_.
_Pilae_ was also the name given to the straw-men which were thrown
to the bulls to gore in the arena. See Martial, _Epigr._ ii. 43. 5
_sq._; Asconius,_ In Cornel._ p. 55, ed. Kiessling and Schoell.
258 The ancients were at least familiar with the practice of sacrificing
images made of dough or other materials as substitutes for the
animals themselves. It was a recognised principle that when an
animal could not be easily obtained for sacrifice, it was lawful to
offer an image of it made of bread or wax. See Servius on Virgil,
_Aen._ ii. 116; compare Pausanias, x. 18. 5. Poor people who could
not afford to sacrifice real animals offered dough images of them
(Suidas, _s.v._ βοῦς ἕβδομος; compare Hesychius, _s.vv._ βοῦς,
ἕβδομος βοῦς). Hence bakers made a regular business of baking cakes
in the likeness of all the animals which were sacrificed to the gods
(Proculus, quoted and emended by Chr. A. Lobeck, _Aglaophamus_, p.
1079). When Cyzicus was besieged by Mithridates and the people could
not procure a black cow to sacrifice at the rites of Persephone,
they made a cow of dough and placed it at the altar (Plutarch,
_Lucullus_, 10). In a Boeotian sacrifice to Hercules, in place of
the ram which was the proper victim, an apple was regularly
substituted, four chips being stuck in it to represent legs and two
to represent horns (Julius Pollux, i. 30 _sq._). The Athenians are
said to have once offered to Hercules a similar substitute for an ox
(Zenobius, _Cent._ v. 22). And the Locrians, being at a loss for an
ox to sacrifice, made one out of figs and sticks, and offered it
instead of the animal (Zenobius, _Cent._ v. 5). At the Athenian
festival of the Diasia cakes shaped like animals were sacrificed
(Schol. on Thucydides, i. 126, p. 36, ed. Didot). We have seen above
(p. 25) that the poorer Egyptians offered cakes of dough instead of
pigs. The Cheremiss of Russia sometimes offer cakes in the shape of
horses instead of the real animals. See P. v. Stenin, “Ein neuer
Beitrag zur Ethnographie der Tscheremissen,” _Globus_, lviii. (1890)
pp. 203 _sq._ Similarly a North-American Indian dreamed that a
sacrifice of twenty elans was necessary for the recovery of a sick
girl; but the elans could not be procured, and the girl’s parents
were allowed to sacrifice twenty loaves instead. See _Relations des
Jésuites_, 1636, p. 11 (Canadian reprint, Quebec, 1858).
259 See _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, i. 55 _sqq._
M80 Tibetan custom of putting effigies at the doors of houses to deceive
demons.
260 L. A. Waddell, _The Buddhism of Tibet_ (London, 1895), pp. 484-486.
M81 Effigies buried with the dead in order to deceive their ghosts.
261 W. Ellis, _Polynesian Researches_, Second Edition (London,
1832-1836), i. 402.
262 M. J. van Baarda, “Fabelen, Verhalen en Overleveringen der
Galelareezen,” _Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van
Nederlandsch-Indië_, xlv. (1895) p. 539.
263 Rev. R. H. Codrington, _The Melanesians_ (Oxford, 1891), p. 275.
264 J. Kubary, “Die Religion der Pelauer,” in A. Bastian’s _Allerlei aus
Volks- und Menschenkunde_ (Berlin, 1888), i. 9.
265 W. M. Donselaar, “Aanteekeningen over het eiland Saleijer,”
_Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, i.
(1857) p. 290.
266 Le Comte C. N. de Cardi, “Ju-ju laws and customs in the Niger
Delta,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxix. (1899) p.
58.
267 A. B. Ellis, _The Yoruba-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast_
(London, 1894), p. 80.
268 Miss Mary H. Kingsley, _Travels in West Africa_ (London, 1897), p.
473.
M82 Fictitious burials to divert the attention of demons from the real
burials.
269 S. Crowther and J. C. Taylor, _The Gospel on the Banks of the Niger_
(London, 1859), pp. 250 _sq._
270 J. Macdonald, “East Central African Customs,” _Journal of the
Anthropological Institute_, xxii. (1893) pp. 114 _sq._; _id._, _Myth
and Religion_ (London, 1893), pp. 155 _sq._ (from MS. notes of Dr.
Elmslie).
271 B. Schwarz, _Kamerun_ (Leipsic, 1886), pp. 256 _sq._; E. Reclus,
_Nouvelle Géographie Universelle_, xiii. 68 _sq._
272 J. Fraser, “The Aborigines of New South Wales,” _Journal and
Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales_, xvi. (1882) p.
229; A. W. Howitt, _Native Tribes of South-East Australia_ (London,
1904), p. 467.
273 This I learned from Dr. Burton Brown (formerly of 3 Via Venti
Setembri, Rome), who lived for some time among the Nagas.
274 Strabo, xvii. 1. 23, p. 803; Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 18.
_ 275 Panjab Notes and Queries_, ii. p. 39, § 240 (December 1884).
M83 Effigies used to cure or prevent sickness by deluding the demons of
disease or inducing them to accept the effigies instead of the
persons.
276 Some examples of this vicarious use of images as substitutes for the
sick have been given in an earlier part of this work. See _Taboo and
the Perils of the Soul_, pp. 62 _sq._
277 N. Graafland, _De Minahassa_, (Rotterdam, 1869), i. 326.
278 P. J. Veth, _Borneo’s Wester-Afdeeling_ (Zaltbommel, 1854-56), ii.
309.
279 F. Grabowsky, “Ueber verschiedene weniger bekannte Opfer bei den
Oloh Ngadju in Borneo,” _Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie_,
i. (1888) pp. 132 _sq._
280 E. L. M. Kühr, “Schetsen uit Borneo’s Westerafdeeling,” _Bijdragen
tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië_, xlvii.
(1897) pp. 60 _sq._ For another mode in which these same Dyaks seek
to heal sickness by means of an image, see _Taboo and the Perils of
the Soul_, pp. 55 _sq._
281 J. G. F. Riedel, _De sluik- en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes
en Papua_ (The Hague, 1886), p. 465.
282 H. Ling Roth, “Low’s Natives of Borneo,” _Journal of the
Anthropological Institute_, xxi. (1892) p. 117.
283 B. Hagen, “Beiträge zur Kenntniss der Battareligion,” _Tijdschrift
voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xxviii. (1883) p. 531.
284 M. Joustra, “Het leven, de zeden en gewoonten der Bataks,”
_Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_,
xlvi. (1902) pp. 413 _sq._
285 N. Annandale and H. C. Robinson, “Some Preliminary Results of an
Expedition to the Malay Peninsula,” _Journal of the Anthropological
Institute_, xxxii. (1902) p. 416.
M84 Effigies used to divert the attention of demons in Nias and various
parts of Asia.
286 Fr. Kramer, “Der Götzendienst der Niasser,” _Tijdschrift voor
Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xxxiii. (1890) p. 489.
287 A. Bastian, _Die Völkerstämme am Brahmaputra_ (Berlin, 1883), p. 73.
288 Sarat Chandra Das, _Journey to Lhasa and Central Tibet_ (London,
1902), p. 134.
289 Shway Yoe, _The Burman_ (London, 1882), ii. 138.
290 Pallegoix, _Description du Royaume Thai ou Siam_ (Paris, 1854), ii.
48 _sq._ Compare A. Bastian, _Die Völker des östlichen Asien_
(Leipsic and Jena, 1866-1871), iii. 293, 486; E. Young, _The Kingdom
of the Yellow Robe_ (Westminster, 1898), p. 121.
291 J. Moura, _Le Royaume du Cambodge_ (Paris, 1883), i. 176.
292 A. Woldt, “Die Kultus-Gegenstände der Golden und Giljaken,”
_Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie_, i. (1888) pp. 102 _sq._
M85 Effigies used to divert ghostly and other evil influence from people
in China.
293 J. J. M. de Groot, _The Religious System of China_, vi. (Leyden,
1910) pp. 1103 _sq._; for a description of the effigies or
“substitutes for a person” see _id._, vol. v. (Leyden, 1907) p. 920.
Can the monkish and clerical tonsure have been originally designed
in like manner to let out the evil influence through the top of the
head?
294 T. Watters, “Some Corean Customs and Notions,” _Folk-lore_, vi.
(1895) pp. 82 _sq._
M86 Effigies used as substitutes to save the lives of people among the
Abchases of the Caucasus and the Ewe negroes of West Africa.
295 N. v. Seidlitz, “Die Abchasen,” _Globus_, lxvi. (1894) p. 54.
296 J. Spieth, _Die Ewe-Stämme_ (Berlin, 1906), pp. 502-506, 512, 513,
838, 848, 910. It is a disputed point in Ewe theology whether there
are many spiritual mothers in heaven or only one. Some say that
there are as many spiritual mothers as there are individual men and
women; others doubt this and say that there is only one spiritual
mother, and that she is the wife of God (_Mawu_) and gave birth to
all spirits that live in heaven, both men and women.
297 G. Binetsch, “Beantwortung mehrerer Fragen über unser Ewe-Volk und
seine Anschauungen,” _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, xxxviii. (1906)
p. 37.
M87 Effigies used as substitutes to save the lives of people among the
Nishga Indians.
_ 298 The Illustrated Missionary News_, April 1st, 1891, pp. 59 _sq._
M88 Hence the woollen effigies hung out at the Compitalia in Rome were
probably offered as substitutes for living persons to the Mother or
Grandmother of Ghosts.
299 As to the custom see Varro, _De lingua latina_, v. 45; Ovid,
_Fasti_, v. 621 _sqq._; Dionysius Halicarnasensis, _Antiquit.
Roman._ i. 38; Plutarch, _Quaestiones Romanae_, 32 and 86. For
various explanations which have been proposed, see L. Preller,
_Römische Mythologie_,3 ii. 134 _sqq._; W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald-
und Feldkulte_, pp. 265 _sqq._; _Journal of Philology_, xiv. (1885)
p. 156 note; R. von Ihering, _Vorgeschichte der Indoeuropäer_, pp.
430-434; W. Warde Fowler, _The Roman Festivals of the Period of the
Republic_ (London, 1899), pp. 111 _sqq._; _id._, _The Religious
Experience of the Roman People_ (London, 1911), pp. 54 _sq._, 321
_sqq._; G. Wissowa, _Gesammelte Abhandlungen zur römischen
Religions- und Stadtgeschichte_ (Munich, 1904), pp. 211-229. The
ceremony was observed on the fifteenth of May.
300 See _The Golden Bough_, Second Edition, iii. 107.
301 Plutarch, _Quaest. Roman._ 86.
M89 The sacrifice of first-fruits to gods is probably later than the
custom of partaking of them sacramentally. First-fruits sometimes
presented to the king and often to the dead.
302 See above, vol. i. pp. 231 _sqq._
M90 Sacrifice of first-fruits among the Ovambo of South-West Africa.
303 H. Tönjes, _Ovamboland, Land, Leute, Mission_ (Berlin, 1911), p.
195.
M91 Sacrifices of first-fruits in South Africa.
304 Rev E. Casalis, _The Basutos_ (London, 1861), pp. 251 _sq._
_ 305 Ibid._ p. 252.
_ 306 Ibid._ pp. 252 _sq._ In the southern province of Ceylon “the
threshers behave as if they were in a temple of the gods when they
put the corn into the bags.” See C. J. R. Le Mesurier, “Customs and
Superstitions connected with the Cultivation of Rice in the Southern
Province of Ceylon,” _Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society_, N.S.
xvii. (1885), p. 371.
307 L. Decle, _Three Years in Savage Africa_ (London, 1898), p. 173.
308 G. McCall Theal, _Records of South-Eastern Africa_, vii. (1901) p.
397.
M92 Sacrifices of first-fruits in Central Africa.
309 “Der Muata Cazembe und die Völkerstämme der Maravis, Chevas,
Muembas, Lundas und andere von Süd-Afrika,” _Zeitschrift für
allgemeine Erdkünde_ (Berlin), vi. (1856) pp. 272, 273.
310 Rev. A. Hetherwick, “Some Animistic Beliefs among the Yaos of
British Central Africa,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_,
xxxii. (1902) pp. 94 _sq._
311 Rev. A. Hetherwick, _op. cit._ pp. 91-94.
312 Dr. J. A. Chisholm, “Notes on the Manners and Customs of the
Winamwanga and Wiwa,” _Journal of the African Society_, vol. ix. No.
36 (July 1910), pp. 366 _sq._ Among the Winamwanga, as among the
Yaos, the human soul or spirit is called _muzimu_ (_op. cit._ p.
363).
313 C. Gouldsbury and H. Sheane, _The Great Plateau of Northern
Rhodesia_ (London, 1911), pp. 294 _sq._
M93 Sacrifices of first-fruits in East Africa.
314 C. W. Hobley, _Ethnology of A-Kamba and other East African Tribes_
(Cambridge, 1910), pp. 66, 85 _sq._
315 Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_ (London, 1911), p. 428.
_ 316 Annales de la Propagation de la Foi_, lx. (1888) p. 57. The account
is extracted from the letter of a Catholic priest, himself a Dinka.
The name of God, according to him, is _Den-dit_, meaning “Great
Rain.” The form of the name agrees closely, and the interpretation
of it agrees exactly, with the results of Dr. C. G. Seligmann’s
independent enquiries, according to which the name of the Dinka God
is _Dengdit_, “Great Rain,” the word for rain being _deng_. See Dr.
C. G. Seligmann, in Dr. J. Hastings’ _Encyclopaedia of Religion and
Ethics_, _s.v._ “Dinka,” vol. iv. (Edinburgh, 1911) p. 707.
317 “Coutumes étranges des indigènes du Djebel-Nouba (Afrique centrale),
notes communiquées par les missionnaires de Vérone,” _Les Missions
Catholiques_, xiv. (1882) p. 459. As to the Nubas and their pontiff
see further Stanislas Carceri, “Djebel-Nouba,” _Les Missions
Catholiques_, xv. (1883) pp. 448-452.
M94 Sacrifices of first-fruits in West Africa.
318 A. F. Mockler-Ferryman, _Up the Niger_ (London, 1892), pp. 141 _sq._
319 Ch. Partridge, _Cross River Natives_ (London, 1905), pp. 266 _sq._
320 J. Spieth, _Die Ewe-Stämme_ (Berlin, 1906), pp. 795 _sq._
321 J. Spieth, _op. cit._ p. 344. As to the goddess Mawu Sodza, see
_ibid._ pp. 424 _sq._
322 H. Klose, _Togo unter deutscher Flagge_ (Berlin, 1899), p. 504.
323 L. Conradt, “Das Hinterland der deutschen Kolonie Togo,” _Petermanns
Mittheilungen_, xlii. (1896) p. 18.
M95 First-fruits offered to kings in Madagascar and Burma.
324 G. A. Shaw, “The Betsileo,” _Antananarivo Annual and Madagascar
Magazine, Reprint of the First Four Numbers_ (Antananarivo, 1885),
p. 346.
325 J. Cameron, “On the Early Inhabitants of Madagascar,” _Antananarivo
Annual and Madagascar Magazine, Reprint of the First Four Numbers_
(Antananarivo, 1885), p. 263.
326 A. Bastian, _Die Völker des östlichen Asien_, ii. (Leipsic, 1866),
p. 105.
327 A. van Gennep, _Tabou et Totémisme à Madagascar_ (Paris, 1904), p.
97.
M96 Sacrifices of first-fruits in Assam and other parts of India.
Sacrifices of first-fruits among hill tribes of India. Sacrifices of
first-fruits in the Central Provinces of India. Sacrifices of
first-fruits in the Punjaub.
328 E. T. Dalton, _Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal_ (Calcutta, 1872), p.
91.
329 Major A. Playfair, _The Garos_ (London, 1909), p. 94.
330 E. T. Dalton, _op. cit._ p. 198; (Sir) H. H. Risley, _Tribes and
Castes of Bengal, Ethnographic Glossary_ (Calcutta, 1891-1892), ii.
104.
331 Rev. P. Dehon, S.J., _Religion and Customs of the Uraons_ (Calcutta,
1906), p. 137 (_Memoirs of the Asiatic Society of Bengal_, vol. i.
No. 9).
_ 332 North Indian Notes and Queries_, i. 57, No. 428, quoting Moorcroft
and Trebeck, _Travels in the Himalayan Provinces_, i. 317 _sq._
333 E. T. Atkinson, _The Himalayan Districts of the North-Western
Provinces of India_, ii. (Allahabad, 1884) p. 825. As to Bhumiya see
further W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern
India_ (Westminster, 1896), i. 105-107, who observes (pp. 106
_sq._): “To illustrate the close connection between this worship of
Bhûmiya as the soil godling with that of the sainted dead, it may be
noted that in some places the shrine of Bhûmiya is identified with
the Jathera, which is the ancestral mound, sacred to the common
ancestor of the village or tribe.”
334 Thomas Shaw, “The Inhabitants of the Hills near Rajamahall,”
_Asiatic Researches_, iv. (London, 1807) pp. 56 _sq._
_ 335 Panjab Notes and Queries_, i. p. 60, § 502 (February 1884).
_ 336 Central Provinces, Ethnographic Survey_, iii. _Draft Articles on
Forest Tribes_ (Allahabad, 1907) p. 45.
_ 337 Op. cit._ iii. 73.
_ 338 Op. cit._ v. (Allahabad, 1911) p. 66.
_ 339 Op. cit._ vii. (Allahabad, 1911) p. 102.
340 The practice is curiously unlike the custom of ancient Italy, in
most parts of which women were forbidden by law to walk on the
highroads twirling a spindle, because this was supposed to injure
the crops (Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xxviii. 28). The purpose of the
Indian custom may be to ward off evil influences from the field, as
Mr. W. Crooke suggests (_Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern
India_, ii. 305, “This forms a sacred circle which repels evil
influence from the crop”). Compare _The Magic Art and Evolution of
Kings_, i. 113 _sq._
341 D. C. J. Ibbetson, _Outlines of Panjab Ethnography_ (Calcutta,
1883), p. 119.
M97 Sacrifices of first-fruits among the ancient Hindoos.
_ 342 The Satapatha Brâhmana_, translated by Julius Eggeling, Part i.
(Oxford, 1882), pp. 369-373 (_Sacred Books of the East_, vol. xii.).
M98 Sacrifices of first-fruits in Burma and Corea.
343 (Sir) J. G. Scott and J. P. Hardiman, _Gazetteer of Upper Burma and
the Shan States_, Part i. vol. i. (Rangoon, 1900), pp. 425 _sq._
344 Rev. G. Whitehead, “Notes on the Chins of Burma,” _Indian
Antiquary_, xxxvi. (1907) p. 207.
345 A. Bourlet, “Les Thay,” _Anthropos_, ii. (1907) pp. 627-629.
346 Ch. Dallet, _Histoire de l’Eglise de Corée_ (Paris, 1874), i. p.
xxiv.
M99 Sacrifices of first-fruits in the East Indies.
347 Fr. Junghuhn, _Die Battaländer auf Sumatra_ (Berlin, 1847), ii. 312.
348 Spenser St. John, _Life in the Forests of the Far East_2 (London,
1863), i. 191.
349 B. F. Matthes, _Beknopt Verslag mijner reizen in de Binnenlanden van
Celebes, in de jaren 1857 en 1861_, p. 5 (_Verzameling van Berigten
betreffende de Bijbelverspreiding_, Nos. 96-99).
350 N. Graafland, _De Minahassa_ (Rotterdam, 1869), i. 165.
351 J. G. F. Riedel, _De sluik- en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes
en Papua_ (The Hague, 1886), p. 107.
352 Riedel, _op. cit._ pp. 281, 296 _sq._
353 Fr. Valentyn, _Oud en nieuw Oost-Indiën_ (Dordrecht and Amsterdam,
1724-1726), iii. 10.
354 C. M. Pleyte, “Ethnographische Beschrijving der Kei-Eilanden,”
_Tijdschrift van het Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig Genootschap_,
Tweede Serie, x. (1893) p. 801.
355 Fr. Kramer, “Der Götzendienst der Niasser,” _Tijdschrift voor
Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xxxiii. (1890) p. 482.
356 C. Semper, _Die Philippinen und ihre Bewohner_ (Würzburg, 1869), p.
56.
357 F. Blumentritt, “Das Stromgebiet des Rio Grande de Mindano,”
_Petermanns Mittheilungen_, xxxvii. (1891) p. 111.
M100 Sacrifices of first-fruits in New Guinea.
358 Stefan Lehner, “Bukaua,” in R. Neuhauss’s _Deutsch Neu-Guinea_, iii.
(Berlin, 1911) pp. 434-436.
M101 Sacrifices of first-fruits in Fiji and the New Hebrides.
359 Rev. Lorimer Fison, “The Nanga, or Sacred Stone Enclosure, of
Wainimala, Fiji,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xiv.
(1885) p. 27.
360 J. E. Erskine, _Journal of a Cruise among the Islands of the Western
Pacific_ (London, 1853), p. 252.
361 G. Turner, _Samoa_ (London, 1884), pp. 318 _sq._
M102 Sacrifices of first-fruits in the Solomon Islands.
362 Rev. R. H. Codrington, _The Melanesians_ (Oxford, 1891), pp. 132
_sq._
363 C. M. Woodford, _A Naturalist among the Head-hunters, being an
Account of Three Visits to the Solomon Islands_ (London, 1890), pp.
26-28.
364 Rev. R. H. Codrington, _The Melanesians_, p. 138.
M103 Sacrifices of first-fruits in the Kingsmill Islands.
365 Horatio Hale, _United States Exploring Expedition, Ethnology and
Philology_ (Philadelphia, 1846), p. 97.
M104 Sacrifices of first-fruits in the Tonga Islands.
M105 The first-fruits of the yams deposited on the grave of the last
Tooitonga (divine chief).
366 The _malái_ is “a piece of ground, generally before a large house,
or chief’s grave, where public ceremonies are principally held” (W.
Mariner, _Tonga Islands, Vocabulary_).
367 The _mataboole_ is “a rank next below chiefs or nobles” (_ibid._).
368 W. Mariner, _Account of the Natives of the Tonga Islands_, Second
Edition (London, 1818), ii. 78, 196-203. As to the divine chief
Tooitonga see _Taboo and the Perils of the Soul_, p. 21.
M106 Significance of the presentation of first-fruits to the divine chief
at the grave of his predecessor.
M107 Sacrifices of first-fruits in Samoa and other parts of Polynesia.
369 Ch. Wilkes,. _Narrative of the United States Exploring Expedition_,
New Edition (New York, 1851), ii. 133.
370 G. Turner, _Samoa_, pp. 70 _sq._
371 W. Ellis, _Polynesian Researches_, Second Edition (London,
1832-1836), i. 350.
372 D. Tyerman and G. Bennet, _Journal of Voyages and Travels_ (London,
1831), i. 284.
373 Geiseler, _Die Oster-Insel_ (Berlin, 1883), p. 31.
374 E. Tregear, “The Maoris of New Zealand,” _Journal of the
Anthropological Institute_, xix. (1890) p. 110; R. Taylor, _Te Ika A
Maui, or New Zealand and its Inhabitants_, Second Edition (London,
1870), pp. 165 _sq._; _Old New Zealand_, by a Pakeha Maori (London,
1884), pp. 103 _sq._
M108 Sacrifices of first-fruits among the old Prussians, Greeks, and
Romans.
375 Chr. Hartknoch, _Alt und neues Preussen_ (Frankfort and Leipsic,
1684), p. 161; _id._, _Dissertationes historicae de variis rebus
Prussicis_, p. 163 (appended to his edition of P. de Dusburg’s
_Chronicon Prussiae_, Frankfort and Leipsic, 1679). Compare W.
Mannhardt, _Die Korndämonen_ (Berlin, 1868), p. 27.
376 See above, vol. i. pp. 53 _sqq._
377 Plutarch, _Theseus_, 6.
378 Hyginus, _Fabulae_, 130.
379 Festus, _s.v._ “Sacrima,” p. 319, ed. C. O. Müller; Pliny, _Nat.
Hist._ xviii. 8.
380 Varro, _De lingua Latina_, vi. 16, ed. C. O. Müller.
M109 Sacrifices of first-fruits among the Indians of America.
Chateaubriand’s description of the harvest festival among the
Natchez.
381 James Teit, _The Thompson Indians of British Columbia_, p. 345 (_The
Jesup North Pacific Expedition, Memoir of the American Museum of
Natural History_, May, 1900).
382 C. Hill Tout, “Report on the Ethnology of the Okanaken of British
Columbia,” _Journal of the R. Anthropological Institute_, xli.
(1911) p. 132.
383 Brasseur de Bourbourg, _Histoire des Nations civilisées du Mexique
et de l’Amérique-Centrale_ (Paris, 1857-1859), ii. 566.
_ 384 Annales de l’Association de la Propagation de la Foi_, i. (Paris
and Lyons, 1826) p. 386.
385 Above, pp. 77 _sqq._
386 Chateaubriand, _Voyage en Amérique_, pp. 130-136 (Michel Lévy,
Paris, 1870).
M110 Custom of killing and eating the corn-spirit sacramentally. Belief
of the savage that by eating an animal or man he acquires the
qualities of that animal or man.
387 See _The Dying God_, pp. 9 _sqq._
M111 Beliefs of the American Indians as to the homoeopathic magic of the
flesh of animals.
388 James Adair, _History of the American Indians_ (London, 1775), p.
133.
389 Alfred Simson, _Travels in the Wilds of Ecuador_ (London, 1887), p.
168; _id._, in _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, vii.
(1878) p. 503.
390 A. Thevet, _Les Singularitez de la France Antarctique, autrement
nommée Amerique_ (Antwerp, 1558), p. 55; _id._, _La Cosmographie
Universelle_ (Paris, 1575), ii. pp. 929, [963], 940 [974]; J.
Lerius, _Historia Navigationis in Brasiliam, quae et America
dicitur_ (1586), pp. 126 _sq._
391 Rochefort, _Histoire Naturelle et Morale des Iles Antilles_, Seconde
Edition (Rotterdam, 1665), p. 465.
392 C. Cuny, “De Libreville au Cameroun,” _Bulletin de la Société de
Géographie_ (Paris), vii. Série, xvii. (1896) p. 342.
393 R. Southey, _History of Brazil_, ii. (London, 1817) p. 373; _id._,
iii. (London, 1819) p. 164.
394 P. Lozano, _Descripcion Chorographica del Gran Chaco_ (Cordova,
1733), p. 90.
395 M. Dobrizhoffer, _Historia de Abiponibus_ (Vienna, 1784), i. 289
_sq._
396 J. Teit, _The Thompson Indians of British Columbia_, p. 348 (_The
Jesup North Pacific Expedition, Memoir of the American Museum of
Natural History_, April, 1900).
M112 Bushman beliefs as to the homoeopathic magic of the flesh of
animals.
397 W. H. I. Bleek and C. L. Lloyd, _Specimens of Bushman Folklore_
(London, 1911), pp. 271-275.
M113 Other African beliefs as to the homoeopathic magic of the flesh of
animals. Ancient beliefs as to the homoeopathic magic of the flesh
of animals.
398 A. Bertrand, _The Kingdom of the Barotsi, Upper Zambezia_ (London,
1899), p. 277, quoting the description given by the French
missionary M. Coillard.
399 Theophilus Hahn, _Tsuni-Goam, the Supreme Being of the Khoi-Khoi_
(London, 1881), p. 106.
400 W. H. I. Bleek and L. C. Lloyd, _Specimens of Bushman Folklore_
(London, 1911), p. 373.
401 Rev. H. Cole, “Notes on the Wagogo of German East Africa,” _Journal
of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxii. (1902) p. 318.
402 Sir Harry Johnston, _The Uganda Protectorate_, Second Edition
(London, 1904), ii. 787.
403 Rev. J. Macdonald, _Light in Africa_, Second Edition (London, 1890),
p. 174; _id._, in _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xix.
(1890) p. 282.
404 Rev. H. Callaway, _Religious System of the Amazulu_, p. 438, note
16.
405 O. Baumann, _Usambara und seine Nachbargebiete_ (Berlin, 1891), p.
128.
406 Sir H. H. Johnston, _British Central Africa_ (London, 1897), p. 438;
J. Buchanan, _The Shire Highlands_, p. 138.
407 M. W. H. Beech, _The Suk, their Language and Folklore_ (Oxford,
1911), p. 11.
408 J. Shooter, _The Kafirs of Natal and the Zulu Country_ (London,
1857), p. 399.
409 A. B. Ellis, _The Ewe-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast of West
Africa_ (London, 1890), p. 99.
410 M. Merker, _Rechtsverhältnisse und Sitten der Wadschagga_ (Gotha,
1902), p. 38 (_Petermanns Mitteilungen, Ergänzungsheft_, No. 138).
411 Rev. H. Callaway, _Nursery Tales, Traditions, and Histories of the
Zulus_ (Natal and London, 1868), p. 175 note.
412 Ovid, _Metam._ vii. 271 _sqq._ As to the supposed longevity of deer
and crows, see L. Stephani, in _Compte Rendu de la Commission
Archéologique_ (St. Petersburg), 1863, pp. 140 _sq._, and my note on
Pausanias, viii. 10. 10.
413 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ viii. 119.
414 Porphyry, _De Abstinentia_, ii. 48: οἱ γοῦν ζώων μαντικῶν ψυχὰς
δέξασθαι βουλόμενοι εἰς ἑαυτούς, τὰ κυριώτατα μόρια καταπιόντες,
οἷον καρδίας κοράκων ἢ ἀσπαλάκων ἢ ἱεράκων, ἔχουσι παριοῦσαν τὴν
ψυχὴν καὶ χρηματίζουσαν ὡς θεὸν καὶ εἰσιοῦσαν εἰς αὐτοὺς ἄμα τῇ
ἐνθέσει τῇ τοῦ σώματος. Pliny also mentions the custom of eating the
heart of a mole, raw and palpitating, as a means of acquiring skill
in divination (_Nat. Hist._ xxx. 19).
M114 Beliefs of the Dyaks and Aino as to the homoeopathic magic of the
flesh of animals.
415 Spenser St. John, _Life in the Forests of the Far East_, Second
Edition (London, 1863), i. 186, 206.
416 W. H. Furness, _Home-life of Borneo Head-hunters_ (Philadelphia,
1902), p. 71; compare _id._, pp. 166 _sq._
417 Rev. J. Batchelor, _The Ainu and their Folk-lore_ (London, 1901),
pp. 511-513.
418 Rev. J. Batchelor, _op. cit._ p. 337.
419 W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India_
(Westminster, 1896), i. 279.
M115 Beliefs as to the homoeopathic magic of the flesh of dogs, tigers,
etc.
420 Bossu, _Nouveaux Voyages aux Indes occidentales_ (Paris, 1768), i.
112.
421 H. R. Schoolcraft, _Indian Tribes of the United States_, ii.
(Philadelphia, 1853) pp. 79 _sq._
422 J. G. F. Riedel, _De sluik- en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes
en Papua_ (The Hague, 1886), pp. 10, 262.
423 James Chalmers, _Pioneering in New Guinea_ (London, 1887), p. 166.
_ 424 Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxiv. (1895) p. 179.
425 E. T. Dalton, _Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal_ (Calcutta, 1872), p.
33.
_ 426 Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society_, N.S., viii. (1886)
p. 307.
427 J. Henderson, “The Medicine and Medical Practice of the Chinese,”
_Journal of the North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society_,
New Series, i. (Shanghai, 1865) pp. 35 _sq._ Compare Mrs. Bishop,
_Korea and her Neighbours_ (London, 1898), i. 79.
428 Mrs. S. S. Allison, “Account of the Similkameen Indians of British
Columbia,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxi. (1892)
p. 313.
M116 Beliefs as to the homoeopathic magic of the flesh of wolves, bears,
and serpents.
429 P. E. Müller on Saxo Grammaticus, _Historia Danica_ (Copenhagen,
1839-1858), vol. ii. p. 60.
_ 430 Die Edda_, übersetzt von K. Simrock8 (Stuttgart, 1882), pp. 180,
309.
431 Pliny, _Hist. Natur._ x. 137, xxix. 72.
432 Philostratus, _Vita Apollonii_, i. 20, iii. 9.
433 Saxo Grammaticus, _Historia Danica_, ed. P. E. Müller (Copenhagen,
1839-1858), i. 193 _sq._
434 P. E. Müller, note in his edition of Saxo Grammaticus, vol. ii. p.
146.
435 A. Wuttke, _Der deutsche Volksaberglaube_2 (Berlin, 1869), p. 110, §
153; J. V. Grohmann, _Aberglauben und Gebräuche aus Böhmen und
Mähren_ (Prague and Leipsic, 1864), p. 230, § 1658.
436 Grimm, _Kinder- und Hausmärchen_, No. 17; _id._, _Deutsche Sagen_2
(Berlin, 1865-1866), No. 132 (vol. i. pp. 174-176); A. Kuhn und W.
Schwartz, _Norddeutsche Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche_ (Leipsic,
1848), p. 154; A. Waldau, _Böhmisches Märchenbuch_ (Prague, 1860),
pp. 13 _sqq._; Von Alpenburg, _Mythen und Sagen Tirols_ (Zurich,
1857), pp. 302 _sqq._; W. von Schulenburg, _Wendische Volkssagen und
Gebräuche aus dem Spreewald_ (Leipsic, 1880), p. 96; P. Sébillot,
_Traditions et Superstitions de la Haute-Bretagne_ (Paris, 1882),
ii. 224; W. Grant Stewart, _The Popular Superstitions and Festive
Amusements of the Highlanders of Scotland_, New Edition (London,
1851), pp. 53, 56; J. F. Campbell, _Popular Tales of the West
Highlands_, New Edition (Paisley and London, 1890), No. 47, vol. ii.
pp. 377 _sqq._; E. Prym und A. Socin, _Syrische Sagen und Maerchen_
(Göttingen, 1881), pp. 150 _sq._ On the serpent in relation to the
acquisition by men of the language of animals, see further my
article, “The Language of Animals,” _The Archaeological Review_, i.
(1888) pp. 166 _sqq._ Sometimes serpents have been thought to impart
a knowledge of the language of animals voluntarily by licking the
ears of the seer. See Apollodorus, _Bibliotheca_, i. 9. 11 _sq._;
Porphyry, _De abstinentia_, iii. 4.
M117 Various beliefs as to the homoeopathic magic of the flesh of
animals.
437 A. Leared, _Morocco and the Moors_ (London, 1876), p. 281.
438 M. Quedenfelt, “Aberglaube und halb-religiöse Bruderschaft bei den
Marokkanarn,” _Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft für
Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte_, 1886, p. 682 (bound up
with the _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, xviii. 1886).
439 H. Vambery, _Das Türkenvolk_ (Leipsic, 1885), p. 218.
440 Charlevoix, _Histoire de la Nouvelle France_ (Paris, 1744), vi. 8.
441 P. J. Veth, “De leer der Signatuur,” _Internationales Archiv für
Ethnographie_, vii. (1894) pp. 140 _sq._
442 R. W. Felkin, “Notes on the For Tribe of Central Africa,”
_Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh_, xiii. (1884-1886)
p. 218.
M118 The flesh and blood, but especially the hearts, of dead men eaten or
drunk for the sake of acquiring the good qualities of the dead.
443 Rev. J. Macdonald, “Manners, Customs, etc., of the South African
Tribes,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xx. (1891) p.
116; _id._, _Light in Africa_ (London, 1890), p. 212. Compare Rev.
E. Casalis, _The Basutos_ (London, 1861), pp. 257 _sq._; Dudley
Kidd, _The Essential Kafir_ (London, 1904), p. 309.
444 Rev. J. Macdonald, in _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_,
xx. (1891) p. 138; _id._, _Light in Africa_, p. 220.
445 H. Schinz, _Deutsch Südwest-Afrika_ (Oldenburg and Leipsic, preface
dated 1891), p. 320.
446 J. Macdonald, “East Central African Customs,” _Journal of the
Anthropological Institute_, xxii. (1893) p. 111. Compare J.
Buchanan, _The Shire Highlands_, p. 138; Sir H. H. Johnston,
_British Central Africa_ (London, 1897), p. 438.
447 A. C. Hollis, _The Nandi_ (Oxford, 1909), p. 27.
448 Rev. H. Cole, “Notes on the Wagogo of German East Africa,” _Journal
of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxii. (1902) p. 318.
449 Rev. J. L. Wilson, _Western Africa_ (London, 1856), pp. 167 _sq._
450 A. B. Ellis, _The Ewe-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast_ (London,
1890), pp. 99 _sq._
451 A. B. Ellis, _The Yoruba-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast_
(London, 1894), p. 69.
452 A. Caulin, _Historia Coro-graphica natural y evangelica dela Nueva
Andalucia_ (1779), p. 98.
453 A. de Herrera, _General History of the vast Continent and Islands of
America_, translated by Capt. J. Stevens (London, 1725-1726), vi.
187.
454 F. de Castelnau, _Expédition dans les parties centrales de
l’Amérique du Sud_ (Paris, 1850-1851), iv. 382.
455 James Adair, _History of the American Indians_ (London, 1775), p.
135.
456 Rev. J. Roscoe, “Notes on the Manners and Customs of the Baganda,”
_Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxi. (1901) pp. 129
_sq._; _id._, “Further Notes on the Manners and Customs of the
Baganda,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxii. (1902)
p. 45.
457 E. W. Nelson, “The Eskimo about Bering Strait,” _Eighteenth Annual
Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology_, Part i. (Washington,
1899) p. 328.
458 E. Clement, “Ethnographical Notes on the Western Australian
Aborigines,” _Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie_, xvi. (1904)
p. 8.
M119 Other parts than the heart are eaten for the purpose of acquiring
the virtues of the deceased.
459 O. Opigez, “Aperçu général sur la Nouvelle-Calédonie,” _Bulletin de
la Société de Géographie_ (Paris), vii. Série, vii. (1886) p. 433.
460 A. W. Howitt, _Native Tribes of South-East Australia_ (London,
1904), p. 753.
461 A. W. Howitt, _op. cit._ p. 752.
462 S. Gason, in _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxiv.
(1895) p. 172.
463 Rev. W. Ridley, _Kamilaroi_ (Sydney, 1875), p. 160.
_ 464 Annales de la Propagation de la Foi_, xi. (Lyons, 1838-1839) p.
258.
465 J. Henderson, “The Medicine and Medical Practice of the Chinese,”
_Journal of the North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society_,
New Series, i. (Shanghai, 1865) pp. 35 _sq._
466 A. C. Kruyt, “Het koppensnellen der Toradja’s van Midden-Celebes, en
zijne Beteekenis,” _Verslagen en Mededeelingen der koninklijke
Akademie van Wetenschappen_, Afdeeling Letterkunde, Vierde Reeks,
iii. (Amsterdam, 1899) p. 201.
467 N. Adriani en A. C. Kruijt, “Van Posso naar Mori,” _Mededeelingen
van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, xliv. (1900) p.
162.
468 F. Blumentritt, “Der Ahnencultus und die religiösen Anschauungen der
Malaien des Philippinen-Archipels,” _Mittheilungen der Wiener
Geograph. Gesellschaft_, 1882, p. 154; _id._, _Versuch einer
Ethnographie der Philippinen_ (Gotha, 1882), p. 32 (_Petermann’s
Mittheilungen, Ergänzungsheft_, No. 67).
469 Ch. Keysser, “Aus dem Leben der Kaileute,” in R. Neuhauss’s _Deutsch
Neu-Guinea_, iii. (Berlin, 1911) p. 131.
470 L. Magyar, _Reisen in Süd-Afrika in den Jahren 1849-1857_
(Buda-Pesth and Leipsic, 1859), pp. 273-276.
471 Rev. J. Shooter, _The Kafirs of Natal_ (London, 1857), p. 216.
472 Rev. H. Callaway, _Nursery Tales, Traditions and Histories of the
Zulus_ (Natal and London, 1868), p. 163 note.
473 A. C. Haddon, “The Ethnography of the Western Tribe of Torres
Straits,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xix. (1890) p.
414, compare p. 312; _Reports of the Cambridge Anthropological
Expedition to Torres Straits_, v. (Cambridge, 1904) p. 301.
474 A. C. Haddon, _op. cit._ p. 420; _Reports of the Cambridge
Anthropological Expedition to Torres Straits_, v. (Cambridge, 1904)
pp. 301 _sq._
475 S. J. Hickson, _A Naturalist in North Celebes_ (London, 1889), p.
216.
476 R. Taylor, _Te Ika a Maui, or New Zealand and its Inhabitants_,
Second Edition (London, 1870), p. 352. Compare _ibid._ p. 173; W.
Ellis, _Polynesian Researches_, Second Edition (London, 1831-1836),
i. 358; J. Dumont D’Urville, _Voyage autour du Monde et à la
recherche de la Pérouse sur la corvette Astrolabe_ (Paris,
1832-1833), ii. 547; E. Tregear, “The Maoris of New Zealand,”
_Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xix. (1890) p. 108.
M120 Moral virtues of the dead acquired through simple contact with their
bones.
477 A. C. Kruyt, “Het koppensnellen der Toradja’s van Midden-Celebes, en
zijne Beteekenis,” _Verslagen en Mededeelingen der koninklijke
Akademie van Wetenschappen_, Afdeeling Letterkunde, Vierde Reeks,
iii. (Amsterdam, 1899) p. 166.
_ 478 The Spectator_, No. 316, March 3, 1712; Gibbon, _Decline and Fall_,
ch. lxvii.
479 Ph. Paulitschke, _Ethnographie Nordost-Afrikas: die geistige Cultur
der Danâkil, Galla und Somâl_ (Berlin, 1896), p. 56.
M121 Savages sometimes seek to form a covenant of friendship with their
dead foes by drinking their blood.
480 For examples of the blood-covenant see H. C. Trumbull, _The Blood
Covenant_ (London, 1887). The custom is particularly common in
Africa.
481 Rev. J. H. Bernau, _Missionary Labours in British Guiana_ (London,
1847), pp. 57 _sq._; R Schomburgk, _Reisen in Britisch-Guiana_
(Leipsic, 1847-1848), ii. 497.
482 A. C. Hollis, _The Nandi_ (Oxford, 1909), p. 27.
483 A. G. Leonard, _The Lower Niger and its Tribes_ (London, 1906), pp.
180, 181 _sq._
484 Mrs. Leslie Milne, _Shans at Home_ (London, 1910), p. 192.
M122 Blood-covenant formed by manslayers with the ghosts of their
victims.
485 The Kukis of north-eastern India believe that the ghost of an animal
as well as of a man will haunt its slayer and drive him mad unless
he performs a ceremony called _ai_. For example, a man who has
killed a tiger must dress himself up as a woman, put flints into the
tiger’s mouth, and eat eggs himself, after which he makes a speech
to the tiger and gives it three cuts over the head with a sword.
During this performance the principal performer must keep perfectly
grave. Should he accidentally laugh, he says, “The porcupine
laughed,” referring to a real porcupine which he carries in his arms
for the purpose. See Lieut.-Colonel J. Shakespeare, “The Kuki-Lushai
Clans,” _Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute_, xxxix.
(1909) pp. 380 _sq._
486 J. Dumont D’Urville, _Voyage autour du Monde et à la recherche de la
Pérouse_ (Paris, 1832-1833), iii. 305.
487 Vincenzo Dorsa, _La Tradizione greco-latina negli usi e nelle
credenze popolari della Calabria Citeriore_ (Cosenza, 1884), p. 138.
488 F. de Castelnau, _Expédition dans les parties centrales de
l’Amérique du Sud_ (Paris, 1850-1851), iv. 382.
489 Some of the evidence has already been cited by me in _Psyche’s
Task_, pp. 56-58.
M123 Communion with the dead by swallowing their ashes.
490 A. R. Wallace, _Travels on the Amazon and Rio Negro_, Second Edition
(London, 1889), ch. xvii. pp. 346 _sq._
491 R. Southey, _History of Brazil_, iii. (London, 1819) p. 722.
492 R. Southey, _op. cit._ iii. 204.
493 A. de Herrera, _The General History of the Vast Continent and
Islands of America_, translated by Capt. John Stevens (London,
1725-1726), iv. 45.
494 A. Reich und F. Stegelmann, “Bei den Indianern des Urubamba und des
Envira,” _Globus_, lxxxiii. (1903) p. 137. On similar custom
practised by the American Indians see further De la Borde, _Relation
de l’Origine, Mœurs, Coustumes, Religion, Guerres et Voyages des
Caraibes Sauvages_, p. 37 (forming part of the _Recueil de divers
Voyages faits en Afrique et en l’Amerique_, Paris, 1684); J. F.
Lafitau, _Mœurs des Sauvages Ameriquains_ (Paris, 1724), ii.
444-446; A. N. Cabeça de Vaca, _Relation et Naufrages_ (Paris,
1837), p. 109 (in Ternaux Compans’ _Voyages, Relations et Mémoires
originaux pour servir à l’Histoire de la Découverte de l’Amérique_);
R. Southey, _History of Brazil_, i. (Second Edition, London, 1822),
Supplemental Notes, p. xxxvi.; F. de Castelnau, _Expédition dans les
parties centrales de l’Amérique du Sud_ (Paris, 1850-1851), iv. 380;
J. G. Müller, _Geschichte der amerikanischen Urreligionen_ (Bâle,
1867), pp. 289 _sq._; H. A. Coudreau, _La France Équinoxiale_
(Paris, 1887), ii. 173; Theodor Koch, “Die Anthropophagie der
südamerikanischen Indianer,” _Internationales Archiv für
Ethnographie_, xii. (1899) pp. 78-110; Th. Koch-Grünberg, _Zwei
Jahre unter den Indianern_ (Berlin, 1909-1910), ii. 152. Some
Indians of Guiana rubbed their limbs with water in which the ashes
of their dead were mingled. See A. Biet, _Voyage de la France
Equinoxiale en l’Isle de Cayenne_ (Paris, 1664), p. 392.
495 Aulus Gellius, _Noctes Atticae_, x. 18; Valerius Maximus, iv. 6. 5.
496 C. Gouldsbury and H. Sheane, _The Great Plateau of Northern
Rhodesia_ (London, 1911), p. 55.
497 See above, p. 154 _sqq._
M124 Savages attempt to inoculate themselves with moral and other virtues
by making cuts in their bodies and inserting in the cuts the ashes
of animals and plants which they suppose to be endowed with the
virtues in question.
498 Rev. E. Casalis, _The Basutos_, (London, 1861), pp. 256 _sq._
499 E. Holub, _Sieben Jahre in Süd Afrika_ (Vienna, 1881), ii. 361.
500 See above, p. 148.
501 J. Macdonald, “Manners, Customs, etc., of South African Tribes,”
_Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xx. (1891) p. 133. The
Barolong, a Bechuana tribe, observe a custom of this sort. See W.
Joest, “Bei den Barolong,” _Das Ausland_, 16th June 1884, p. 464.
502 Col. Maclean, _A Compendium of Kafir Laws and Customs_ (Cape Town,
1866), p. 82.
503 Father Porte, “Les reminiscences d’un missionnaire du Basutoland,”
_Les Missions Catholiques_, xxviii. (1896) p. 149.
504 Dudley Kidd, _Savage Childhood_ (London, 1906), p. 70, compare p.
43.
505 Lieut. H. Pope-Hennessy, “Notes on the Jukos and other Tribes of the
Middle Benue,” _Anthropological Reviews and Miscellanea_, p. (30);
appended to _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxx. (1900).
M125 The Zulus think they can inoculate themselves with celestial power.
Some Caffres inoculate themselves against lightning.
506 Rev. H. Callaway, _Religious System of the Amazulu_, pp. 380-382.
507 Col. Maclean, _A Compendium of Kafir Laws and Customs_ (Cape Town,
1866), pp. 83 _sq._
508 Du Tertre, _Histoire generale des Isles de S. Christophe, de la
Guadeloupe, de la Martinique et autres dans l’Amerique_ (Paris,
1654), pp. 417 _sq._; _id._, _Histoire generale des Antilles_
(Paris, 1667-1671), ii. 377; Rochefort, _Histoire Naturelle et
Morale des Iles Antilles_2 (Rotterdam, 1665), p. 556.
M126 Some savages attempt to acquire the physical and mental qualities of
the dead by anointing themselves with their remains. The juices of
animals are sometimes similarly applied for the same purpose.
509 R. Brough Smith, _Aborigines of Victoria_ (Melbourne and London,
1878), i. p. xxix., ii. 313; A. W. Howitt, _Native Tribes of
South-East Australia_ (London, 1904), pp. 367 _sqq._
510 Rev. W. Ridley, _Kamilaroi_ (Sydney, 1875), p. 160.
511 A. W. Howitt, _Native Tribes of South-East Australia_ (London,
1904), pp. 467, 468.
512 J. Chalmers and W. W. Gill, _Work and Adventure in New Guinea_
(London, 1885), pp. 130, 265, 308; J. G. F. Riedel, _De sluik- en
kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua_ (The Hague, 1886), p.
308; Rev. J. Sibree, _The Great African Island_ (London, 1880), p.
241. Other or the same peoples sometimes drink the juices of the
decaying bodies of their kinsfolk, doubtless for a similar reason.
See _Reports of the Cambridge Anthropological Expedition to Torres
Straits_, vi. (Cambridge, 1906) p. 159; J. Chalmers and W. Gill,
_op. cit._ pp. 27, 265; Ch. Wilkes, _Narrative of the United States
Exploring Expedition_, New Edition (New York, 1851), ii. 139; J. G.
F. Riedel, _op. cit._ p. 267; A. Bastian, _Indonesien_, ii. (Berlin,
1885) p. 95; _id._, _Die Völker des Ostlichen Asien_, v. (Jena,
1869) p. 91; P. J. Veth, _Borneo’s Westerafdeeling_ (Zaltbommel,
1854-1856), ii. 270; J. Jacobs, _Eenigen Tijd onder de Baliers_
(Batavia, 1883), p. 53.
513 Rev. J. L. Wilson, _Western Africa_ (London, 1856), p. 394.
514 Mgr. Le Roy, “Les Pygmées,” _Les Missions Catholiques_, xxix. (1897)
p. 210.
515 “Mourning for the Dead among the Digger Indians,” _Journal of the
Anthropological Institute_, iii. (1874) p. 530.
516 E. H. Man, _Aboriginal Inhabitants of the Andaman Islands_, p. 66.
517 Jerome Becker, _La Vie en Afrique_ (Paris and Brussels, 1887), ii.
366.
518 Th. Koch-Grünberg, _Zwei Jahre unter den Indianern_ (Berlin,
1909-1910), ii. 153.
519 T. Arbousset et F. Daumas, _Voyage d’Exploration au Nord-est de la
Colonie du Cap de Bonne-Espérance_ (Paris, 1842), pp. 349 _sq._
520 Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central Australia_ (London,
1899), pp. 204 _sq._ Men of other totem clans also partake of their
totems sacramentally at these _Intichiuma_ ceremonies (Spencer and
Gillen, _op. cit._ pp. 202-206). As to the _Intichiuma_ ceremonies,
see _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, i. 85 _sqq._ Another
Central Australian mode of communicating qualities by external
application is seen in the custom of beating boys on the calves of
their legs with the leg-bone of an eagle-hawk; strength is supposed
to pass thereby from the bone into the boy’s leg. See Spencer and
Gillen, _op. cit._ p. 472; _Report on the Work of the Horn
Scientific Expedition to Central Australia_, Part iv. (London and
Melbourne, 1896), p. 180.
M127 Magical ointment used by Mexican priests.
_ 521 Manuscrit Ramirez, Histoire de l’Origine des Indiens qui habitent
la Nouvelle Espagne selon leurs traditions_, publié par D. Charnay
(Paris, 1903), pp. 171-173; J. de Acosta, _Natural and Moral History
of the Indies_ (Hakluyt Society, London, 1880), ii. 364-367; E.
Seler, _Altmexikanische Studien_, ii. (Berlin, 1899), pp. 43 _sq._
(_Veröffentlichungen aus dem königlichen Museum für Völkerkunde_).
M128 Qualities of a person, animal, or thing imparted by fumigation.
522 Dudley Kidd, _Savage Childhood_ (London, 1906), pp. 12 _sq._
523 Dudley Kidd, _op. cit._ pp. 20 _sq._
M129 The savage custom of eating a god. Cicero on transubstantiation.