524 On the custom of eating a god, see also a paper by Felix Liebrecht,

“Der aufgegessene Gott,” _Zur Volkskunde_ (Heilbronn, 1879), pp.

436-439; and especially W. R. Smith, article “Sacrifice,”

_Encyclopaedia Britannica_, Ninth Edition, vol. xxi. pp. 137 _sq._

On wine as the blood of a god, see _Taboo and the Perils of the

Soul_, pp. 248 _sqq._

525 Cicero, _De natura deorum_, iii. 16. 41.

M130 Hunting and pastoral tribes, as well as agricultural peoples, have

been in the habit of killing and eating the beings whom they

worship. The Californian Indians used solemnly to kill the great

buzzard which they adored; but they believed that though they slew

it annually, it always came to life again.

526 This does not refer to the Californian peninsula, which is an arid

and treeless wilderness of rock and sand.

527 Father Geronimo Boscana, “Chinigchinich; a historical account of the

origin, customs, and traditions of the Indians at the missionary

establishment of St. Juan Capistrano, Alta California,” appended to

Alfred Robinson’s _Life in California_ (New York, 1846), pp. 291

_sq._; H. H. Bancroft, _Native Races of the Pacific States_, iii.

168. The mission station of San Juan Capistrano is described by R.

H. Dana (_Two Years before the Mast_, chaps. xviii. and xxiv.). A

favourable picture of the missions is drawn by H. von Langsdorf

(_Reise um die Welt_, Frankfort, 1812, ii. pp. 134 _sqq._), by

Duflos de Mofras (“Fragment d’un Voyage en Californie,” _Bulletin de

la Société de Géographie_ (Paris), ii. Série, xix. (1843) pp. 9-13),

and by a writer (H. H.) in _The Century Magazine_, May, 1883, pp.

2-18. But the severe discipline of the Spanish monks is noticed by

other travellers. We are told that the Indians laboured during the

day in the fields to support their Spanish masters, were driven to

church twice or thrice a day to hear service in a language which

they did not understand, and at night were shut up in crowded and

comfortless barracks, without windows and without beds. When the

monks desired to make new proselytes, or rather to capture new

slaves, they called in the aid of the soldiery, who attacked the

Indian villages by night, lassoed the fugitives, and dragged them

back at their horses’ tails to slavery in the missions. See O. von

Kotzebue, _Reise um die Welt_ (Weimar, 1830), ii. 42 _sqq._; F. W.

Beechey, _Narrative of a Voyage to the Pacific and Beering’s Strait_

(London, 1831), ii. chap. i.; A. Schabelski, “Voyage aux colonies

russes de l’Amérique,” _Bulletin de la Société de Géographie_

(Paris), ii. Série, iv. (1835) pp. 216-218. A poet has described

with prosaic accuracy the pastoral crook by which these good

shepherds brought back their strayed lambs to the spiritual fold:—

“_Six horses sprang across the level ground_

_ As six dragoons in open order dashed;_

_ Above their heads the lassos circled round,_

_ In every eye a pious fervour flashed;_

_ They charged the camp, and in one moment more_

_ They lassoed six and reconverted four._”

(Bret Harte, _Friar Pedro’s Ride_.)

In the verses inscribed _The Angelus, heard at the Mission Dolores_,

1868, and beginning

“_Bells of the Past, whose long-forgotten music_

_ Still fills the wide expanse_,”

the same poet shews that he is not insensible to the poetical side

of those old Spanish missions, which have long passed away.

M131 Perhaps they hoped by the sacrifice of the individual bird to

preserve the species.

528 G. Turner, _Samoa_ (London, 1884), p. 21. Compare _id._, pp. 26, 61.

M132 Ancient Egyptian sacrifice of a ram at the festival of Ammon.

529 Herodotus, ii. 42. The custom has been already referred to above, p.

41.

530 Ed. Meyer, _Geschichte des Alterthums_,2 i. 2 (Stuttgart and Berlin,

1909), p. 73 § 180. Compare Sir J. G. Wilkinson, _Manners and

Customs of the Ancient Egyptians_ (London, 1878), iii. 1 _sqq._

531 Above, p. 36.

M133 Use of the skin of the sacrificed animal.

532 Above, p. 170; vol. i. p. 285.

533 The Italmens of Kamtchatka, at the close of the fishing season, used

to make the figure of a wolf out of grass. This figure they

carefully kept the whole year, believing that it wedded with their

maidens and prevented them from giving birth to twins; for twins

were esteemed a great misfortune. See G. W. Steller, _Beschreibung

von dem Lande Kamtschatka_ (Frankfort and Leipsic, 1774), pp. 327

_sq._ According to Chr. Hartknoch (_Dissertat. histor. de variis

rebus Prussicis_, p. 163; _Alt- und neues Preussen_, Frankfort and

Leipsic, 1684, p. 161) the image of the old Prussian god Curcho was

annually renewed. But see W. Mannhardt, _Die Korndämonen_ (Berlin,

1868), p. 27.

534 See _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, vol. ii. pp. 70

_sq._

M134 The sacred serpent of Issapoo in Fernando Po.

535 T. J. Hutchinson, _Impressions of Western Africa_ (London, 1858),

pp. 196 _sq._ The writer does not expressly state that a serpent is

killed annually, but his statement implies it.

536 Dr. Tautain, “Notes sur les croyances et pratiques religieuses des

Banmanas,” _Revue d’Ethnographie_, iii. (1885) p. 397. Compare

_Totemism and Exogamy_, ii. 543 _sq._

537 Varro in Priscian, x. 32, vol. i. p. 524, ed. Keil; Pliny, _Nat.

Hist._ vii. 14. Pliny’s statement is to be corrected by Varro’s.

M135 The killing of sacred turtles by the Zuni Indians.

538 When I wrote _The Golden Bough_ originally I said that in these

three cases “the animal slain probably is, or once was, a totem.”

But this seems to me less probable now than it did then. In regard

to the Californian custom in particular, there appears to be no good

evidence that within the area now occupied by the United States

totemism was practised by any tribes to the west of the Rocky

Mountains. See H. Hale, _United States Exploring Expedition,

Ethnography and Philology_ (Philadelphia, 1846), p. 199; George

Gibbs, in _Contributions to North American Ethnology_ (Washington,

1877), i. 184; S. Powers, _Tribes of California_ (Washington, 1877),

p. 5; A. S. Gatschet, _The Klamath Indians of South-western Oregon_

(Washington, 1890), vol. i. p. cvi. “California and Oregon seem

never to have had any gentes or phratries” (A. S. Gatschet in a

letter to me, dated November 5th, 1888). Beyond the very doubtful

case cited in the text, I know of no evidence that totemism exists

in Fernando Po.

M136 The return of the procession with the turtles.

M137 The turtle addressed as a dead relative. The turtle killed.

539 Frank H. Cushing, “My Adventures in Zuñi,” _The Century Illustrated

Monthly Magazine_, May 1883, pp. 45 _sq._

M138 In this custom is expressed a belief in the transmigration of human

souls into turtles. From a later account it appears that the custom

is a mode of interceding with the ancestral spirits for rain.

540 Mr. Cushing, indeed, while he admits that the ancestors of the Zuni

may have believed in transmigration, says, “Their belief, to-day,

however, relative to the future life is spiritualistic.” But the

expressions in the text seem to leave no room for doubting that the

transmigration into turtles is a living article of Zuni faith.

541 H. R. Schoolcraft, _Indian Tribes of the United States_

(Philadelphia, 1853-1856), iv. 86. On the totem clans of the Moquis,

see J. G. Bourke, _Snake-Dance of the Moquis of Arizona_ (London,

1884), pp. 116 _sq._, 334 _sqq._

542 For this information I am indebted to the kindness of the late

Captain J. G. Bourke, 3rd Cavalry, U.S. Army, author of the work

mentioned in the preceding note. In his letter Captain Bourke gave a

list of fourteen totem clans of Zuni, which he received on the 20th

of May 1881 from Pedro Dino (?), Governor of Zuni.

543 It should be observed, however, that Mr. Cushing omits to say

whether or not the persons who performed the ceremony described by

him had the turtle for their totem. If they had not, the ceremony

need not have had anything to do with totemism.

544 See _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second Edition, pp. 301-318.

545 Mrs. Matilda Coxe Stevenson, “The Zuñi Indians,” _Twenty-Third

Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology_ (Washington,

1904), pp. 148-162.

M139 Ambiguous attitude of the Aino towards the bear.

546 B. Scheube, “Der Baerencultus und die Baerenfeste der Ainos,”

_Mittheilungen der deutschen Gesellschaft b. S. und S. Ostasiens_

(Yokohama), Heft xxii. p. 45.

547 We are told that the Aino have gods for almost every conceivable

object, and that the word _kamui_ “has various shades of meaning,

which vary if used before or after another word, and according to

the object to which it is applied.” “When the term _kamui_ is

applied to good objects, it expresses the quality of usefulness,

beneficence, or of being exalted or divine. When applied to supposed

evil gods, it indicates that which is most to be feared and dreaded.

When applied to devils, reptiles, and evil diseases, it signifies

what is most hateful, abominable, and repulsive. When applied as a

prefix to animals, fish or fowl, it represents the greatest or

fiercest, or the most useful for food or clothing. When applied to

persons, it is sometimes expressive of goodness, but more often is a

mere title of respect and reverence.” See the Rev. J. Batchelor,

_The Ainu of Japan_ (London, 1892), pp. 245-251; _id._, _The Ainu

and their Folk-lore_ (London, 1901), pp. 581 _sq._ Thus the Aino

_kamui_ appears to mean nearly the same as the Dacotan _wakan_, as

to which see _Taboo and the Perils of the Soul_, p. 225, note.

548 W. Martin Wood, “The Hairy Men of Yesso,” _Transactions of the

Ethnological Society of London_, N.S., iv. (1866) p. 36.

549 J. J. Rein, _Japan_ (Leipsic, 1881-1886), i. 446.

550 H. von Siebold, _Ethnologische Studien über die Aino auf der Insel

Yesso_ (Berlin, 1881), p. 26.

551 Miss Isabella L. Bird, _Unbeaten Tracks in Japan_ (new edition,

1885), p. 275.

552 W. Martin Wood, _l.c._

553 Rev. J. Batchelor, _The Ainu and their Folk-lore_, p. 471.

554 Miss I. L. Bird, _op. cit._ p. 269.

555 B. Scheube, _Die Ainos_, p. 4 (reprinted from _Mittheilungen d.

deutsch. Gesell. b. S. und S. Ostasiens_, Yokohama).

556 B. Scheube, “Baerencultus,” etc., p. 45; W. Joest, in _Verhandlungen

der Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, Ethnologie und

Urgeschichte_, 1882, p. 188.

557 W. Martin Wood, _l.c._

558 Rev. J. Batchelor, _The Ainu and their Folk-lore_ (London, 1901),

pp. 476 _sq._ As to the _inao_ see below, p. 186, note.

559 Miss I. L. Bird, _op. cit._ p. 277.

560 B. Scheube, _Die Ainos_, p. 15; H. von Siebold, _op. cit._ p. 26; W.

Martin Wood, _l.c._; J. J. Rein, _Japan_, i. 447; Von Brandt, “The

Ainos and Japanese,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_,

iii. (1874) p. 134; Miss Bird, _op. cit._ pp. 275, 276; Rev. J.

Batchelor, _The Ainu and their Folk-lore_, pp. 495 _sq._

561 B. Scheube, _Die Ainos_, pp. 15, 16; Von Brandt, _l.c._; Rev. J.

Batchelor, _The Ainu and their Folk-lore_, pp. 352-354, 504 _sq._

562 B. Scheube, _Die Ainos_, p. 16.

563 Rev. J. Batchelor, _The Ainu and their Folk-lore_, pp. 8-10. E.

Reclus (_Nouvelle Géographie Universelle_, vii. 755) mentions a

(Japanese?) legend which attributes the hairiness of the Ainos to

the suckling of their first ancestor by a bear. But in the absence

of other evidence this is no proof of totemism.

M140 Aino custom of catching a bear cub, rearing it for several years,

and killing it at a solemn festival.

564 B. Scheube, “Der Baerencultus und die Baerenfeste der Ainos,” p. 45;

Rev. J. Batchelor, _The Ainu and their Folk-lore_, pp. 483-485. Mr.

Batchelor formerly doubted or denied that the Aino women suckle the

bear cubs (_The Ainu of Japan_, p. 173); but since then he has

repeatedly seen them do it. Once, while he was preaching, a cub was

being passed round among all the young women present and suckled by

each in turn.

565 J. J. Rein, _Japan_ (Leipsic, 1881-1886), i. 447.

566 B. Scheube, “Der Baerencultus und die Baerenfeste der Ainos,” p. 45;

Rev. J. Batchelor, _The Ainu and their Folk-lore_, pp. 485 _sq._

567 Rev. J. Batchelor, _The Ainu and their Folk-lore_, pp. 486-496. The

killing of the bear is described somewhat differently by Miss I. L.

Bird (_Unbeaten Tracks in Japan_, New Edition, 1885, pp. 276 _sq._),

but she did not witness the ceremony. She tells us that at Usu, on

Volcano Bay, when the bear is being killed, the Aino shout, “We kill

you, O bear! Come back soon into an Aino.” According to Dr. Siebold,

a very respectable authority, the bear’s own heart is frequently

offered to the dead beast to assure him that he is still in life

(_Ethnologische Studien über die Aino auf der Insel Yesso_, p. 26).

This, however, is denied by Dr. Scheube, who says that the heart is

eaten (“Baerencultus,” p. 50 note). The custom may vary in different

places.

M141 Dr. Scheube’s description of the Aino custom of killing of a bear

ceremonially.

568 B. Scheube, “Der Baerencultus und die Baerenfeste der Ainos,”

_Mittheilungen der deutschen Gesellschaft b. S. und S. Ostasiens_

(Yokohama), Heft xxii. pp. 46 _sqq._

569 B. Scheube, “Baerencultus,” etc., p. 46; _id._, _Die Ainos_, p. 15;

Miss I. L. Bird, _op. cit._ pp. 273 _sq._ As to these whittled wands

(_inao_), which are so conspicuous about the Aino huts, see the Rev.

J. Batchelor, _The Ainu and their Folk-lore_, pp. 89-95. He remarks

(p. 92): “I have often insisted both in my lectures and also in my

writings that the Ainu do not worship their _inao_, but that they

make them as offerings to the deities, and set them up as signs

showing reverence towards them. This, I must now remark, is true but

in part, for while some of the ordinary or less important kinds are

not worshipped, there are several others which are. Those _not_

worshipped may almost always be regarded as offerings and charms

pure and simple, while those which _are_ worshipped must generally

be regarded as messengers sent to the higher deities.” On the whole

Mr. Batchelor would describe the _inao_ as fetishes of various

degrees of power. See further P. Labbé, _Un bagne Russe, l’Isle de

Sakhaline_ (Paris, 1903), pp. 194 _sq._, who compares the use of

these whittled sticks to the use of holy candles among Roman

Catholics. In Borneo the search for camphor is attended by many

superstitions; among other things, when the searchers have found a

tree which promises to yield much camphor “they plant near their hut

a stake, whereof the outer surface has been cut into curled shavings

and tufts down the sides and at the top” (W. H. Furness, _Home-life

of Borneo Head-hunters_, Philadelphia, 1902, p. 168). According to

some ancient authorities, the old Italians worshipped peeled sticks

as gods or as the images of gods; however, the statement seems no

better than an etymological guess to explain the word _delubrum_.

See Festus, _s.v._ “Delubrum,” p. 73, ed. C. O. Müller; Servius on

Virgil, _Aen._ ii. 225.

M142 Early Japanese account of the Aino festival of the bear.

570 “Ieso-Ki, ou description de l’île d’Iesso, avec une notice sur la

révolte de Samsay-in, composée par l’interprète Kannemon,” printed

in Malte-Brun’s _Annales des Voyages_, xxiv. (Paris, 1814) p. 154.

M143 The custom of rearing and killing bears among the Aino of Saghalien.

571 P. Labbé, _Un Bagne Russe, l’Isle de Sakhaline_ (Paris, 1903), pp.

227, 232-258. The Gilyaks of Saghalien similarly keep and sacrifice

bears; but the ceremonies are simpler, and they treat the animals

with less respect than the Aino. See P. Labbé, _op. cit._ pp.

261-267.

M144 Bear-festivals of the Gilyaks.

572 They inhabit the banks of the lower Amoor and the north of

Saghalien. See E. G. Ravenstein, _The Russians on the Amur_ (London,

1861), p. 389.

573 “Notes on the River Amur and the Adjacent Districts,” translated

from the Russian, _Journal of the Royal Geographical Society_,

xxviii. (1858) p. 396.

574 Compare the custom of pinching a frog before cutting off his head;

see _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 86. In Japan

sorceresses bury a dog in the earth, tease him, then cut off his

head and put it in a box to be used in magic. See A. Bastian, _Die

Culturländer des alten Amerika_ (Berlin, 1878), i. 475 note, who

adds “_wie im ostindischen Archipelago die Schutzseele gereizt

wird_.” He probably refers to the Batta _Pang-hulu-balang_. See H.

von Rosenberg, _Der Malayische Archipel_ (Leipsic, 1878), pp. 59

_sq._; W. Ködding, “Die Batakschen Götter,” _Allgemeine

Missions-Zeitschrift_, xii. (1885) pp. 478 sq.; J. B. Neumann, “Het

Pane-en Bila-stroomgebied op het eiland Sumatra,” in _Tijdschrift

van het Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig Genootschap_, Tweede Serie, dl.

iii. (1886) Afdeeling, meer uitgebreide artikelen, No. 2, p. 306;

Van Dijk, in _Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_,

xxxviii. (1895) pp. 307 _sq._

575 W. Joest, in B. Scheube, _Die Ainos_, p. 17; J. Deniker, “Les

Ghiliaks d’après les derniers renseignements,” _Revue

d’Ethnographie_, ii. (1883) pp. 307 _sq._ (on the authority of Mr.

Seeland); _Internationales Archiv für Ethnologie_, i. (1888) p. 102

(on the authority of Captain Jacobsen); _Archiv für Anthropologie_,

xxvi. (1900) p. 796 (abstract of a Russian work on the Gilyaks by

Dr. Seland or Seeland). What exactly is meant by “dancing as bears”

(“_tanzen beide Geschlechter Reigentänze, wie Bären_,” Joest,

_l.c._) does not appear.

M145 L. von Schrenck’s description of a bear-festival among the Gilyaks

of the Amoor. Bears led in procession about the village. Slaughter

of the bears.

M146 Treatment of the bears’ skins.

M147 Treatment of the bears’ flesh.

M148 Banquet on the bears’ flesh. Dance of the women. Disposal of the

skull and bones of the bear.

576 L. von Schrenck, _Reisen und Forschungen im Amur-lande_ (St.

Petersburg, 1891), iii. 696-731.

M149 Mr. L. Sternberg’s description of the bear-festivals of the Gilyaks.

577 L. Sternberg, “Die Religion der Giljaken,” _Archiv für

Religionswissenschaft_, viii. (1905) pp. 260-274.

M150 Bear-festivals of the Goldi.

578 E. G. Ravenstein, _The Russians on the Amur_ (London, 1861), pp. 379

_sq._; T. W. Atkinson, _Travels in the Regions of the Upper and

Lower Amoor_ (London, 1860), pp. 482 _sq._

M151 Bear-festivals of the Orotchis.

579 E. H. Fraser, “The Fish-skin Tartars,” _Journal of the China Branch

of the Royal Asiatic Society for the year 1891-1892_, New Series,

xxvi. 36-39. L. von Schrenck describes a bear-feast which he

witnessed in 1855 among the Oltscha (_Reisen und Forschungen im

Amur-lande_, iii. 723-728). The Oltscha are probably the same as the

Orotchis.

M152 Respect shewn by all these tribes for the bears which they kill and

eat.

_ 580 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 59 _sqq._

581 Rev. J. Batchelor, _The Ainu and their Folk-lore_, pp. 492, 493,

495, 496.

_ 582 Op. cit._ p. 482. Mr. Batchelor says “totem gods.”

_ 583 Op. cit._ pp. 580 _sqq._

584 See above, pp. 188 _sq._

585 This account of the attitude of the Gilyaks to the bear, and of

their reasons for holding the festival, is the one given by Mr. Leo

Sternberg. See his articles, “Die Religion der Giljaken,” _Archiv

für Religionswissenschaft_, viii. (1905) pp. 273 _sq._, 456-458. He

speaks of the bear as a minor deity (“_Er selbst ist ja eine

Gottheit, wenn auch eine kleine_”). Mr. Sternberg and Mr. Batchelor,

two of the best-informed writers on the subject, agree in denying

that the slaughter of the bear at the festival is a sacrifice to the

gods. See L. Sternberg, _op. cit._ p. 457; Rev. J. Batchelor, _The

Ainu and their Folk-lore_, p. 482. As to the belief of the Gilyaks

in evil spirits, which menace and destroy the life of man, see L.

Sternberg, _op. cit._ pp. 460 _sqq._

M153 Similar respect shewn by the Aino for the eagle-owls which they keep

in cages and kill.

586 Rev. J. Batchelor, _The Ainu and their Folk-lore_, pp. 410-415.

M154 Similar respect shewn by the Aino for the eagles and hawks which

they keep in cages and kill.

587 Rev. J. Batchelor, _op. cit._ pp. 432 _sq._

588 Rev. J. Batchelor, _op. cit._ p. 438.

M155 Advantages which the Aino hopes to reap from slaughtering the

worshipful animals.

589 See above, pp. 183, 184, 196.

590 Rev. J. Batchelor, _The Ainu and their Folk-lore_, p. 479.

591 Rev. J. Batchelor, _op. cit._ pp. 481, 482.

M156 The bear-festivals of these tribes are probably nothing but an

extension of the similar rites which the hunter performs over any

wild bear which he kills in the forest.

592 L. Sternberg, “Die Religion der Giljaken,” _Archiv für

Religionswissenschaft_, viii. (1905) p. 272.

M157 The apparent contradiction in the behaviour of these tribes to bears

is not so great as it seems to us at first sight. Savage logic.

M158 The savage believes that animals, like men, are endowed with souls

which survive the death of their bodies. The American Indians draw

no sharp distinction between animals and men.

593 E. F. im Thurn, _Among the Indians of Guiana_ (London, 1883), p.

350.

594 J. Mooney, “Myths of the Cherokee,” _Nineteenth Annual Report of the

Bureau of American Ethnology_, Part i. (Washington, 1900) p. 261.

595 Rev. John Heckewelder, “An Account of the History, Manners, and

Customs of the Indian Nations who once inhabited Pennsylvania and

the neighbouring States,” _Transactions of the Historical and

Literary Committee of the American Philosophical Society_, vol. i.

(Philadelphia, 1819) pp. 247 _sq._

596 J. J. M. de Groot, _The Religious System of China_, iv. (Leyden,

1901) pp. 157 _sq._

M159 Some savages apparently fail to distinguish clearly even the bodies

of animals from the bodies of men.

597 John Campbell, _Travels in South Africa, being a Narrative of a

Second Journey in the Interior of that Country_ (London, 1822), ii.

34.

598 L. Sternberg, “Die Religion der Giljaken,” _Archiv für

Religionswissenschaft_, viii. (1905) p. 248.

599 I. Petroff, _Report on the Population, Industries, and Resources of

Alaska_, p. 145.

600 Above, p. 141.

601 A. C. Haddon, “The Ethnography of the Western Tribe of Torres

Straits,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xix. (1890) p.

393; _id._, _Head-hunters_ (London, 1901), p. 133; _Reports of the

Cambridge Anthropological Expedition to Torres Straits_, v.

(Cambridge, 1904) p. 166.

602 Miss Alice C. Fletcher, _The Import of the Totem, a Study from the

Omaha Tribe_, p. 6 (paper read before the American Association for

the Advancement of Science, August 1897).

603 James Teit, “The Thompson Indians of British Columbia,” p. 356 (_The

Jesup North Pacific Expedition. Memoir of the American Museum of

Natural History_, April 1900).

604 K. von den Steinen, _Unter den Naturvölkern Zentral-Brasiliens_

(Berlin, 1894), pp. 352 _sq._, 512. The Chambioa Indians of Central

Brazil kept birds of the same species in captivity and used their

brilliant feathers to cover enormous head-dresses or masks, some six

feet high, which were worn by dancers in certain mystic dances. The

masks were guarded in a special hut of each village, and no woman

might see them under pain of death. See F. de Castelnau, _Expédition

dans les parties centrales de l’Amérique du Sud_ (Paris, 1850-1851),

i. 436 _sq._, 440, 449-451.

M160 Hence the savage attempts to propitiate the animals which he kills

and the other members of the species. Scruples entertained by the

Dyaks as to the killing of crocodiles.

605 However, many savages hunt the crocodile for the sake of its flesh,

which some of them even regard as a delicacy. See H. von Wissmann,

_My Second Journey through Equatorial Africa, from the Congo to the

Zambesi_ (London, 1891), p. 298; Ch. Partridge, _Cross River

Natives_ (London, 1905), p. 149; A. F. Mocler-Ferryman, _Up the

Niger_ (London, 1892), p. 222; Captain G. Burrows, _The Land of the

Pigmies_ (London, 1898), p. 247; R. E. Dennett, "Bavili Notes,"

_Folk-lore_, xvi. (1905) p. 399; J. Halkin, _Quelques Peuplades du

district de l’Uelé_, I. _Les Ababua_ (Liége, 1907), p. 33; H.

Reynolds, “Notes on the Azandé Tribe of the Congo,” _Journal of the

African Society_, No. xi. (April, 1904) p. 242; Brard, “Der

Victoria-Nyansa,” _Petermann’s Mittheilungen_, xliii. (1897) p. 78;

A. van Gennep, _Tabou et Totémisme à Madagascar_ (Paris, 1904), p.

209; G. Kurze, “Sitten und Gebräuche der Lengua-Indianer,”

_Mitteilungen der Geographischen Gesellschaft zu Jena_, xxiii.

(1905) p. 30; W. Barbrooke Grubb, _An unknown People in an unknown

Land_ (London, 1911), pp. 82 _sq._; _Census of India, 1901_, vol.

xxvi., _Travancore_ (Trivandrum, 1903), p. 353; Max Krieger,

_Neu-Guinea_ (Berlin, N.D.), p. 163; Spencer and Gillen, _Northern

Tribes of Central Australia_ (London, 1904), p. 770; W. E. Roth,

_Ethnological Studies among the North-West-Central Queensland

Aborigines_ (Brisbane and London, 1897), p. 94; N. W. Thomas,

_Natives of Australia_ (London, 1906), p. 106. In antiquity some of

the Egyptians worshipped crocodiles, but others killed and ate them.

See Herodotus, ii. 69; Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 50; Aelian, _De

natura animalium_, x. 21.

606 Rev. J. Perham, “Sea Dyak Religion,” _Journal of the Straits Branch

of the Royal Asiatic Society_, No. 10 (Singapore, 1883), p. 221.

Compare C. Hupe, “Korte verhandeling over de godsdienst zeden, enz.

der Dajakkers,” _Tijdschrift voor Neêrlands Indië_, 1846, dl. iii.

160; S. Müller, _Reizen en onderzoekingen in den Indischen Archipel_

(Amsterdam, 1857), i. 238; M. T. H. Perelaer, _Ethnographische

Beschrijving der Dajaks_ (Zalt-Bommel, 1870), p. 7.

M161 Ceremonies observed by the Dyaks at killing a crocodile.

607 F. Grabowsky, “Die Theogonie der Dajaken auf Borneo,”

_Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie_, ii. (1892) pp. 119 _sq._

608 H. Ling Roth, _The Natives of Sarawak and British North Borneo_

(London, 1896), i. 447 _sq._ Compare E. H. Gomes, _Seventeen years

among the Sea Dyaks of Borneo_ (London, 1911), pp. 56-60. Similarly

the Kenyahs, Kayans, and Ibans, three tribes of Sarawak, will not

kill crocodiles except in revenge for the death of one of their

people. See C. Hose and W. MacDougall, “The Relations between Men

and Animals in Sarawak,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_,

xxxi. (1901) pp. 186, 190, 199, compare _ib._ pp. 193 _sq._

M162 Ceremonies observed by the Minangkabauers of Sumatra at killing a

crocodile.

609 J. L. van der Toorn, “Het animisme bij den Minangkabauer der

Padangsche Bovenlanden,” _Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en

Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië_, xxxix. (1890) pp. 75 _sq._

M163 Belief in the kinship of men with crocodiles among the Malays.

610 Nelson Annandale, “Primitive Beliefs and Customs of the Patani

Fishermen,” _Fasciculi Malayenses, Anthropology_, i. (April, 1903)

pp. 76-78.

_ 611 Voyages of Captain James Cook round the World_ (London, 1809), ii.

316-319.

M164 Crocodiles respected in Africa.

612 Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_ (London, 1911), p. 336.

613 Rev. J. Roscoe, _op. cit._ pp. 318, 322, 335.

614 Fr. Stuhlmann, _Mit Emin Pascha ins Herz von Afrika_ (Berlin, 1894),

pp. 510 _sq._

615 A. Raffenel, _Voyage dans l’Afrique occidentale_ (Paris, 1846), pp.

84 _sq._

M165 Crocodiles respected in Madagascar.

616 J. Sibree, _The Great African Island_ (London, 1880), p. 269.

617 Father Abinal, “Croyances fabuleuses des Malgaches,” _Les Missions

Catholiques_, xii. (1880) p. 527; A. van Gennep, _Tabou et Totémisme

à Madagascar_ (Paris, 1904), pp. 283 _sq._

618 W. Ellis, _History of Madagascar_ (London, N.D.), i. 57 _sq._

M166 Tigers respected in Sumatra. Ceremonies at killing tigers in Sumatra

and Bengal.

619 W. Marsden, _History of Sumatra_ (London, 1811), p. 292.

620 J. L. van der Toorn, “Het animisme bij den Minangkabauer der

Padangsche Bovenlanden,” _Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en

Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch Indië_, xxxix. (1890) pp. 74, 75 _sq._

621 H. Ris, “De onderafdeeling Mandailing Oeloe en Pahantan en hare

Bevolking,” _Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van

Nederlandsch Indië_, xlvi. (1896) pp. 472 _sq._

622 G. G. Batten, _Glimpses of the Eastern Archipelago_ (Singapore,

1894), p. 86.

623 Th. Shaw, “On the Inhabitants of the Hills near Rajamahall,”

_Asiatic Researches_, Fourth Edition, iv. (London, 1807) p. 37.

_ 624 Annales de l’Association de la Propagation de la Foi_, v. (1831)

pp. 363 _sq._

M167 Snakes, especially rattlesnakes, respected by the North American

Indians.

625 J. Bricknell, _The Natural History of North Carolina_ (Dublin,

1737), p. 368.

626 W. Bartram, _Travels through North and South Carolina, Georgia, East

and West Florida_, etc. (London, 1792) pp. 258-261.

627 H. R. Schoolcraft, _Indian Tribes of the United States_

(Philadelphia, 1853-1856), iii. 273.

628 Rev. John Heckewelder, “An Account of the History, Manners, and

Customs of the Indian Nations who once inhabited Pennsylvania and

the neighbouring States,” _Transactions of the Historical and

Literary Committee of the American Philosophical Society_, i.

(Philadelphia, 1819) p. 245.

629 W. Keating, _Narrative of an Expedition to the Source of St. Peter’s

River_ (London, 1825), i. 127.

630 J. Mooney, “Myths of the Cherokee,” _Nineteenth Annual Report of the

Bureau of American Ethnology_, Part i. (Washington, 1900) pp.

294-296. Compare _id._, pp. 456-458; J. Adair, _History of the

American Indians_ (London, 1775), pp. 237 _sq._

631 Henry, _Travels_, pp. 176-179, quoted by J. Mooney, _op. cit._ pp.

457 _sq._

632 C. Sapper, “Die Gebräuche und religiösen Anschauungen der

Kekchí-Indianer,” _Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie_, viii.

(1895) p. 204.

M168 Ceremonies observed in Kiziba at the killing of a snake.

633 H. Rehse, _Kiziba, Land und Leute_ (Stuttgart, 1910), pp. 130 _sq._

M169 Ceremonies observed by the North American Indians and others at the

killing of a wolf.

634 Fr. Boas, in _Eleventh Report on the North-Western Tribes of

Canada_, pp. 9 _sq._ (separate reprint from the _Report of the

British Association for 1896_).

635 Rev. J. Jetté, “On the Medicine-men of the Ten’a,” _Journal of the

Royal Anthropological Institute_, xxxvii. (1907) p. 158.

636 J. Mooney, “Myths of the Cherokee,” _Nineteenth Annual Report of the

Bureau of American Ethnology_, Part i. (Washington, 1900) p. 265.

637 T. de Pauly, _Description Ethnographique des Peuples de la Russie_

(St. Petersburg, 1862), _Peuples de la Sibérie Orientale_, p. 7.

638 Scholiast on Apollonius Rhodius, _Argonaut._ ii. 124.

M170 Certain birds respected.

639 “Coutumes étranges des indigènes du Djebel-Nouba,” _Les Missions

Catholiques_, xiv. (1882) p. 458.

640 C. B. Klunzinger, _Upper Egypt_ (London, 1878), pp. 402 _sq._

641 Caulin, _Historia Coro-graphica natural y evangelica dela Nueva

Andalucia_, p. 96: “_Reusan mucho matar qualquier animal no

comestibile que no sea nocibo_,” etc. Here _reusan_ appears to be a

misprint for _recusan_.

M171 Apologies offered by savages to the animals which they are obliged

to kill. Propitiation of slain bears by Kamtchatkans, Ostiaks,

Koryak, Finns, and Lapps.

642 G. W. Steller, _Beschreibung von dem Lande Kamtschatka_ (Frankfort

and Leipsic, 1774), pp. 85, 280, 331.

_ 643 Voyages au Nord_ (Amsterdam, 1727), viii. 41, 416; P. S. Pallas,

_Reise durch verschiedene Provinzen des russischen Reichs_ (St.

Petersburg, 1771-1776), iii. 64; J. G. Georgi, _Beschreibung aller

Nationen des russischen Reichs_ (St. Petersburg, 1776), p. 83.

644 A. Erman, _Travels in Siberia_ (London, 1848), ii. 43. For the

veneration of the polar bear by the Samoyedes, who nevertheless kill

and eat it, see ib_id._ pp. 54 _sq._

645 A. Bastian, _Der Mensch in der Geschichte_ (Leipsic, 1860), iii. 26.

646 W. Jochelson, _The Koryak_ (Leyden and New York, 1908), pp. 88 _sq._

(_The Jesup North Pacific Expedition_, vol. vi., _Memoir of the

American Museum of Natural History_).

647 Max Buch, _Die Wotjäken_ (Stuttgart, 1882), p. 139.

648 A. Featherman, _Social History of the Races of Mankind, Fourth

Division, Dravido-Turanians_, etc. (London, 1891) p. 422.

649 J. Scheffer, _Lapponia_ (Frankfort, 1673), pp. 233 _sq._ The Lapps

“have still an elaborate ceremony in hunting the bear. They pray and

chant to his carcase, and for several days worship before eating it”

(E. Rae, _The White Sea Peninsula_ (London, 1881), p. 276).

M172 Propitiation of slain bears by the North American Indians.

650 Charlevoix, _Histoire de la Nouvelle France_ (Paris, 1744), v. 173

_sq._; Chateaubriand, _Voyage en Amérique_, pp. 172-181 (Paris,

Michel Lévy, 1870).

_ 651 Lettres édifiantes et curieuses_, Nouvelle Édition, vi. (Paris,

1781) p. 171. L. H. Morgan states that the names of the Otawa totem

clans had not been obtained (_Ancient Society_, London, 1877, p.

167). From the _Lettres édifiantes_, vi. 168-171, he might have

learned the names of the Hare, Carp, and Bear clans, to which may be

added the Gull clan, as I learn from an extract from _The Canadian

Journal_ (Toronto) for March 1858, quoted in _The Academy_, 27th

September 1884, p. 203.

_ 652 A Narrative of the Adventures and Sufferings of John R. Jewitt_, p.

117 (Middletown, 1820), p. 133 (Edinburgh, 1824).

653 De Smet, _Western Missions and Missionaries_ (New York, 1863), p.

139.

654 A. P. Reid, “Religious Belief of the Ojibois Indians,” _Journal of

the Anthropological Institute_, iii. (1874) p. 111.

655 Henry’s _Travels_, pp. 143-145, quoted by J. Mooney, “Myths of the

Cherokee,” _Nineteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American

Ethnology_, Part i. (Washington, 1900), pp. 446 _sq._

656 A. Mackenzie, “Descriptive notes on certain implements, weapons,

etc., from Graham Island, Queen Charlotte Islands, B.C.,”

_Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada_, ix. (1891) section

ii. p. 58.

657 James Teit, _The Thompson Indians of British Columbia_, p. 347 (_The

Jesup North Pacific Expedition, Memoir of the American Museum of

Natural History_, April 1900). The Thompson Indians used to be known

as the Couteau or Knife Indians.

658 J. Teit, _The Lillooet Indians_ (Leyden and New York, 1906), p. 279

(_The Jesup North Pacific Expedition, Memoir of the American Museum

of Natural History_); _id._, _The Shuswap_ (Leyden and New York,

1909), pp. 602 _sq._ (_The Jesup North Pacific Expedition_).

M173 Propitiation of slain elephants in Africa.

659 Stephen Kay, _Travels and Researches in Caffraria_ (London, 1833),

p. 138.

660 L. Alberti, _De Kaffers aan de Zuidkust van Afrika_ (Amsterdam,

1810), p. 95. Alberti’s information is repeated by H. Lichtenstein

(_Reisen im südlichen Afrika_, Berlin, 1811-1812, i. 412) and by

Cowper Rose (_Four Years in Southern Africa_, London, 1829, p. 155).

The burial of the trunk is also mentioned by Kay, _l.c._

661 J. Shooter, _The Kafirs of Natal_ (London, 1857), p. 215.

662 Fr. Stuhlmann, _Mit Emin Pascha ins Herz von Afrika_ (Berlin, 1894),

p. 87.

663 Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_ (London, 1911), p. 447.

M174 Propitiation of lions in Africa.

664 Fr. Stuhlmann, _Mit Emin Pascha ins Herz von Afrika_ (Berlin, 1894),

p. 785.

665 J. Becker, _La Vie en Afrique_ (Paris and Brussels, 1887), ii. 298

_sq._, 305.

M175 Propitiation of slain leopards in Africa.

666 A. Bastian, _Die deutsche Expedition an der Loango-Küste_ (Jena,

1874-1875), ii. 243.

667 A. F. Mockler-Ferryman, _Up the Niger_ (London, 1892), p. 309.

668 Lieut. Herold, “Bericht betreffend religiöse Anschauungen und

Gebräuche der deutschen Ewe-Neger,” _Mittheilungen von

Forschungsreisenden und Gelehrten aus den deutschen Schutzgebieten_,

v. Heft 4 (Berlin, 1892), p. 156.

669 H. Spieth, “Jagdgebräuche in Avatime,” _Mitteilungen der

geographischen Gesellschaft zu Jena_, ix. (1890) pp. 18-20. Compare

H. Klose, _Togo unter deutscher Flagge_ (Berlin, 1899), pp. 145-147.

The ceremonies observed after the slaughter of a wild buffalo are of

the same general character with variations in detail.

M176 Propitiation of slain buffaloes and sheep in Uganda.

670 Rev. J. Roscoe, “Further Notes on the Manners and Customs of the

Baganda,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxii. (1902)

p. 54; _id._, _The Baganda_ (London, 1911), pp. 289, 448.

671 Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_ (London, 1911), pp. 288 _sq._ Another

curious notion which the Baganda have about sheep is that they give

health to cattle and prevent them from being struck by lightning.

Hence a sheep is often herded with cows to serve as a sort of

lightning-conductor. See J. Roscoe, _op. cit._ p. 421.

672 Rev. J. Roscoe, _op. cit._ pp. 423 _sq._ Further, “if a man’s dog

died in the house, his wife dared not touch it, because she feared

its ghost; she would call her husband to take it away” (op. cit. p.

425).

M177 Propitiation of dead whales among the Koryak.

673 W. Jochelson, _The Koryak_ (Leyden and New York, 1908), p. 66 (_The

Jesup North Pacific Expedition_, vol. vi., _Memoir of the American

Museum of Natural History_).

674 W. Jochelson, _The Koryak_ (Leyden and New York, 1908), pp. 66-76

(_The Jesup North Pacific Expedition_, vol. vi., _Memoir of the

American Museum of Natural History_).

M178 Propitiation of whales, hippopotamuses, ounces, and apes.

675 Captain W. F. W. Owen, _Narrative of Voyages to explore the Shores

of Africa, Arabia, and Madagascar_ (London, 1833), i. 170.

676 Rev. R. H. Nassau, _Fetichism in West Africa_ (London, 1904), p.

204.

677 A. Thevet, _La Cosmographie Universelle_ (Paris, 1575), ii. 936

[970] _sq._

678 A. d’Orbigny, _Voyage dans l’Amérique Méridionale_, iii. (Paris and

Strasburg, 1844) p. 202.

679 E. F. im Thurn, _Among the Indians of Guiana_ (London, 1883), p.

352.

M179 Propitiation of dead eagles. Deceiving the ghosts of spiders.

680 G. B. Grinnell, _Blackfoot Lodge Tales_ (London, 1893), p. 240.

681 A. Caulin, _Historia Coro-graphica natural y evangelica dela Nueva

Andalucia Guayana y Vertientes del Rio Orinoco_ (1779), p. 97.

682 J. Mooney, “Myths of the Cherokee,” _Nineteenth Annual Report of the

Bureau of American Ethnology_, Part i. (Washington, 1900) p. 282.

683 J. Owen Dorsey, “Teton Folklore Notes,” _Journal of American

Folklore_, ii. (1889) p. 134; _id._, “A Study of Siouan Cults,”

_Eleventh Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington,

1894), p. 479.

M180 The ceremonies of propitiation offered to slain animals vary with

the more or less dangerous character of the creature. Animals which,

without being feared, are valued for their flesh or their skin, are

also treated with respect.

684 H. Mouhot, _Travels in the Central Parts of Indo-China_ (London,

1864), i. 252; J. Moura, _Le Royaume du Cambodge_ (Paris, 1883), i.

422.

685 H. R. Schoolcraft, _Indian Tribes of the United States_

(Philadelphia, 1853-1856), v. 420.

M181 Respect shewn to dead sables. Bones of sables and beavers kept out

of reach of dogs, lest the spirits of the dead animals should be

offended.

686 J. G. Gmelin, _Reise durch Sibirien_ (Göttingen, 1751-1752), ii.

278.

687 L. von Schrenck, _Reisen und Forschungen im Amur-lande_, iii. 564.

688 W. Dall, _Alaska and its Resources_ (London, 1870), p. 89; _id._, in

_The Yukon Territory_ (London, 1898), p. 89.

689 Fr. Boas, in _Sixth Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada_,

p. 92 (separate reprint from the _Report of the British Association

for 1890_).

690 A. G. Morice, “Notes, archæological, industrial, and sociological,

on the Western Dénés,” _Transactions of the Canadian Institute_, iv.

(1892-93) p. 108.

691 A. G. Morice, _Au pays de l’Ours Noir, chez les sauvages de la

Colombie Britannique_ (Paris and Lyons, 1897), p. 71.

692 L. Hennepin, _Description de la Louisiane_ (Paris, 1683), pp. 97

_sq._

_ 693 Relations des Jésuites_, 1634, p. 24 (Canadian reprint, Quebec,

1858). Nets are regarded by the Indians as living creatures who not

only think and feel but also eat, speak, and marry wives. See F.

Gabriel Sagard, _Le Grand Voyage du Pays des Hurons_, p. 256 (pp.

178 _sq._ of the reprint, Librairie Tross, Paris, 1865); S. Hearne,

_Journey to the Northern Ocean_ (London, 1795), pp. 329 _sq._;

_Relations des Jésuites_, 1636, p. 109; _ibid._ 1639, p. 95;

Charlevoix, _Histoire de la Nouvelle France_ (Paris, 1744), v. 225;

Chateaubriand, _Voyage en Amérique_, pp. 140 _sqq._ The Hebrews

sacrificed and burned incense to their nets (Habakkuk i. 16). In

some of the mountain villages of Annam the people, who are great

hunters, sacrifice fowls, rice, incense, and gilt paper to their

nets at the festival of the New Year. See Le R. P. Cadière,

“Coutumes populaires de la vallée du Nguôn-So’n,” _Bulletin de

l’École Française d’Extrême-Orient_, ii. (Hanoi, 1902) p. 381. When

a net has caught little or nothing, the Ewe negroes think that it

must be hungry; so they call in the help of a priest, who commonly

feeds the hungry net by sprinkling maize-flour and fish, moistened

with palm oil, on its meshes. See G. Härtter, “Der Fischfang im

Evheland,” _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, xxxviii. (1906) p. 55.

694 Chateaubriand, _Voyage en Amérique_, pp. 175, 178 (Paris, Michel

Lévy Frères, 1870). They will not let the blood of beavers fall on

the ground, or their luck in hunting them would be gone (_Relations

des Jésuites_, 1633, p. 21). Compare the rule about not allowing the

blood of kings to fall on the ground. See _Taboo and the Perils of

the Soul_, pp. 241 _sqq._

M182 Deer, elk, and elan treated by the American Indians with ceremonious

respect.

695 L. Hennepin, _Nouveau voyage d’un pais plus grand que l’Europe_

(Utrecht, 1698), pp. 141. _sq._; _Relations des Jésuites_, 1636, p.

109; F. Gabriel Sagard, Le _Grand Voyage du Pays des Hurons_, p. 255

(p. 178 of the reprint, Libraire Tross, Paris, 1865). Not quite

consistently the Canadian Indians used to kill every elan they could

overtake in the chase, lest any should escape to warn their fellows

(Sagard, _l.c._).

696 A. de Herrera, _General History of the vast Continent and Islands of

America_, translated by Capt. John Stevens (London, 1725-1726), iv.

142.

_ 697 Lettres édifiantes et curieuses_, Nouvelle Édition, viii. (Paris,

1781) p. 339.

698 C. Sapper, “Die Gebräuche und religiösen Anschauungen der

Kekchí-Indianer,” _Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie_, viii.

(1895) pp. 195 _sq._

699 J. Mooney, “Cherokee Theory and Practice of Medicine,” _American

Journal of Folk-lore_, iii. (1890) pp. 45 _sq._; _id._, “Sacred

Formulas of the Cherokees,” _Seventh Annual Report of the Bureau of

Ethnology_ (Washington, 1891), pp. 320 _sq._, 347; _id._, “Myths of

the Cherokee,” _Nineteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American

Ethnology_, Part i. (Washington, 1900) pp. 263 _sq._

700 J. G. Bourke, “Religion of the Apache Indians,” _Folk-lore_, ii.

(1891) p. 438.

701 L. Hennepin, _Description de la Louisiane_ (Paris, 1683), pp. 80

_sq._

702 James Teit, _The Thompson Indians of British Columbia_, pp. 346 sq.

(_The Jesup North Pacific Expedition, Memoir of the American Museum

of Natural History_, April 1900).

703 James Teit, _The Lillooet Indians_ (Leyden and New York, 1906), pp.

281 sq. (_The Jesup North Pacific Expedition, Memoir of the American

Museum of Natural History_).

_ 704 Relations des Jésuites_, 1634, p. 26 (Canadian reprint, Quebec,

1858).

M183 Porcupines, turtles, and mice treated by American Indians with

ceremonious respect.

705 Fr. Boas, in “Ninth Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada,”

_Report of the British Association for 1894_, PP. 459 sq.

706 H. R. Schoolcraft, _Indian Tribes of the United States_

(Philadelphia, 1853-1856), iii. 230.

707 Charlevoix, _Histoire de la Nouvelle France_ (Paris, 1744), v. 443.

M184 Dead foxes, turtles, deer, and pigs treated with ceremonious

respect.

708 W. Bogaras, _The Chuckchee_ (Leyden and New York, 1904-1909), p. 409

(_The Jesup North Pacific Expedition_, vol. vii., _Memoir of the

American Museum of Natural History_).

709 J. Spieth, _Die Ewe-Stämme_ (Berlin, 1906), pp. 389 _sq._

710 J. A. Jacobsen, _Reisen in die Inselwelt des Banda-Meeres_ (Berlin,

1896), p. 234.

711 A. C. Kruijt, “Een en ander aangaande het geestelijk en

maatschappelijk leven van den Poso-Alfoer,” _Mededeelingen van wege

het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, xli. (1897) pp. 4 _sq._

M185 Ghost of ostrich outwitted.

712 W. Barbrooke Grubb, _An Unknown People in an Unknown Land_ (London,

1911), pp. 125 _sq._

M186 Esquimau propitiation of the spirit who controls reindeer.

Ceremonious treatment of sea-beasts by the Esquimaux.

713 L. M. Turner, “Ethnology of the Ungava District, Hudson Bay

Territory,” _Eleventh Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_

(Washington, 1894), pp. 200 _sq._

714 Fr. Boas, “The Central Eskimo,” _Sixth Annual Report of the Bureau

of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1888), p. 595; _id._, “The Eskimo of

Baffin Land and Hudson Bay,” _Bulletin of the American Museum of

Natural History_, xv. (1901) pp. 119 _sqq._ As to the antagonism

which these Esquimaux suppose to exist between marine and

terrestrial animals, see above, p. 84; and with regard to the taboos

observed by these Esquimaux after the slaughter of sea-beasts, see

_Taboo and the Perils of the Soul_, pp. 205 _sqq._

715 D. Crantz, _History of Greenland_ (London, 1767), i. 216.

M187 Annual ceremony of returning the bladders of the sea-beasts to the

sea in order that the animals may come to life again.

716 E. W. Nelson, “The Eskimo about Bering Strait,” _Eighteenth Annual

Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology_, Part i. (Washington,

1899), pp. 379-393, 437. Compare A. Woldt, _Captain Jacobsen’s Reise

an der Nordwestküste Americas 1881-1883_ (Leipsic, 1884), pp.

289-291. In the text the ceremony has been described mainly as it

was witnessed by Mr. E. W. Nelson at Kushunuk, near Cape Vancouver,

in December, 1879. As might have been expected, the ritual varies in

details at different places.

M188 Fish treated with respect by fishing tribes. The Peruvian Indians

worshipped the various sorts of fish which they caught. Fish treated

with respect by the North American Indians. Herring respected by

European fishermen. Compensation made to fish for catching them.

717 Garcilasso de la Vega, _Royal Commentaries of the Yncas_, translated

by C. R. Markham, First Part, bk. i. ch. 10, vol. i. pp. 49 _sq._

(Hakluyt Society, London, 1869-1871). Compare _id._, vol. ii. p.

148.

718 Fr. Boas, in _Sixth Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada_,

pp. 61 _sq._ (separate reprint from the _Report of the British

Association for 1890_); _id._, _Kwakiutl Texts_, ii. pp. 303 _sq._,

305 _sq._, 307, 317 (_Jesup North Pacific Expedition, Memoir of the

American Museum of Natural History_, December, 1902).

_ 719 Relations des Jésuites_, 1667, p. 12 (Canadian reprint, Quebec,

1858).

720 F. Gabriel Sagard, _Le Grand Voyage du Pays des Hurons_, pp. 255

_sqq._ (pp. 178 _sqq._ of the reprint, Libraire Tross, Paris, 1865).

721 B. Hagen, _Unter den Papuas_ (Wiesbaden, 1899), p. 270.

722 Rev. J. Batchelor, _The Ainu and their Folk-lore_ (London, 1901),

pp. 529 _sq._

_ 723 A Narrative of the Adventures and Sufferings of John R. Jewitt_

(Middletown, 1820), p. 116.

724 M. J. Schleiden, _Das Salz_ (Leipsic, 1875), p. 47. For this

reference I am indebted to my late friend W. Robertson Smith.

725 Hugh Miller, _Scenes and Legends of the North of Scotland_, ch.

xvii. pp. 256 _sq._ (Edinburgh, 1889).

726 M. Martin, “Description of the Western Islands of Scotland,” in

Pinkerton’s _Voyages and Travels_, iii. (London, 1809) p. 620.

727 W. Powell, _Wanderings in a Wild Country_ (London, 1883), pp. 66

_sq._

728 C. Lumholtz, _Unknown Mexico_ (London, 1903), i. 403.

729 R. Taylor, _Te Ika a Maui, or New Zealand and its Inhabitants_,

Second Edition (London, 1870), p. 200; A. S. Thomson, _The Story of

New Zealand_ (London, 1859), i. 202; E. Tregear, “The Maoris of New

Zealand,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xix. (1890) p.

109.

730 Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_ (London, 1911), p. 395.

M189 Ceremonious treatment of the first fish of the season.

731 A. G. Morice, _Au pays de l’Ours Noir_ (Paris and Lyons, 1897), p.

28.

732 Sir John Lubbock, _Origin of Civilisation_4 (London, 1882), p. 277,

quoting _Metlahkatlah_, p. 96.

733 W. Dall, _Alaska and its Resources_ (London, 1870), p. 413.

734 Fr. Boas, in “Ninth Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada,”

_Report of the British Association for 1894_, p. 461. Compare J.

Teit, _The Lillooet Indians_ (Leyden and New York, 1906), pp. 280

_sq._ (_The Jesup North Pacific Expedition, Memoir of the American

Museum of Natural History_); C. Hill Tout, in _Journal of the

Anthropological Institute_, xxxv. (1905) p. 140; _id._, _The Far

West, the Home of the Salish and Déné_ (London, 1907), pp. 170-172.

735 Fr. Boas, in _Sixth Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada_,

pp. 16 _sq._ (separate reprint from the _Report of the British

Association for 1890_).

_ 736 Id._, in _Fifth Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada_, p.

51 (separate reprint from the _Report of the British Association for

1889_).

737 Stephen Powers, _Tribes of California_ (Washington, 1877), pp. 31

_sq._

738 Alex. Ross, _Adventures of the First Settlers on the Oregon or

Columbia River_ (London, 1849), p. 97.

739 Ch. Wilkes, _Narrative of the United States Exploring Expedition_,

New Edition (New York, 1851), iv. 324, v. 119, where it is said, “a

dog must never be permitted to eat the heart of a salmon; and in

order to prevent this, they cut the heart of the fish out before

they sell it.”

740 H. C. St. John, “The Ainos,” _Journal of the Anthropological

Institute_, ii. (1873) p. 253; _id._, _Notes and Sketches from the

Wild Coasts of Nipon_, pp. 27 _sq._ Similarly it is a rule with the

Aino to bring the flesh of bears and other game into the house, not

by the door, but by the window or the smoke-hole. See Rev. J.

Batchelor, _The Ainu and their Folk-lore_ (London, 1901), p. 123; P.

Labbé, _Un Bagne Russe_ (Paris, 1903), pp. 255 _sq._

_ 741 Archiv für Anthropologie_, xxvi. (1900) p. 796 (as to the Gilyak of

the Amoor); J. Scheffer, _Lapponia_ (Frankfort, 1673), pp. 242

_sq._; C. Leemius, _De Lapponibus Finmarchiae eorumque lingua, vita,

et religione pristina commentatio_ (Copenhagen, 1767), p. 503;

_Revue d’Ethnographie_, ii. (1883) pp. 308 _sq._; _Journal of the

Anthropological Institute_, vii. (1878) p. 207; Fr. Boas, “The

Central Eskimo,” in _Sixth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_

(Washington, 1888), p. 595; _id._, “The Eskimo of Baffin Land and

Hudson Bay,” _Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History_,

xv. (1901) p. 148; A. G. Morice, in _Transactions of the Canadian

Institute_, iv. (1892-93) p. 108.

M190 Some savages preserve the bones of the animals they kill in order

that the animals may come to life again.

742 E. James, _Expedition from Pittsburgh to the Rocky Mountains_

(London, 1823), i. 257.

743 D. G. Brinton, _Myths of the New World_2 (New York, 1876), p. 278.

744 W. H. Keating, _Expedition to the Source of St. Peter’s River_

(London, 1825), i. 452.

745 Fr. Boas, “The Eskimo of Baffin Land and Hudson Bay,” _Bulletin of

the American Museum of Natural History_, xv. (1901) p. 161.

746 A. d’Orbigny, _Voyage dans l’Amérique Méridionale_, iii. (Paris and

Strasburg, 1844) p. 201. However, in this case a belief in the

resurrection of the animals is not expressly affirmed, and the

practice of burning the bones seems inconsistent with it.

747 E. J. Jessen, _De Finnorum Lapponumque Norwegicorum religione pagana

tractatus singularis_, pp. 46 _sq._, 52 _sq._, 65 (bound with C.

Leem’s _De Lapponibus Finmarchiae eorumque lingua, vita et religione

pristina commentatio_, Copenhagen, 1767). Compare Leem’s work, pp.

418-420, 428 _sq._; J. Acerbi, _Travels through Sweden, Finnland,

and Lapland_ (London, 1802), ii. 302.

748 G. W. Steller, _Beschreibung von dem Lande Kamtschatka_ (Frankfort

and Leipsic, 1774), p. 269; S. Krascheninnikow, _Beschreibung des

Landes Kamtschatka_ (Lemgo, 1766), p. 246.

749 See A. Erman, referred to above, p. 223; J. G. Gmelin, _Reise durch

Sibirien_ (Göttingen, 1751-1752), i. 274, ii. 182 _sq._, 214; H.

Vambery, _Das Türkenvolk_ (Leipsic, 1885), pp. 118 _sq._ When a fox,

the sacred animal of the Conchucos in Peru, had been killed, its

skin was stuffed and set up (A. Bastian, _Die Culturländer des alten

Amerika_, i. 443). Compare the _bouphonia_, above, pp. 4 _sqq._

750 At the annual sacrifice of the White Dog, the Iroquois were careful

to strangle the animal without shedding its blood or breaking its

bones; the dog was afterwards burned (L. H. Morgan, _League of the

Iroquois_, Rochester, 1851, p. 210). It is a rule with some of the

Australian blacks that in killing the native bear they may not break

his bones. They say that the native bear once stole all the water of

the river, and that if they were to break his bones or take off his

skin before roasting him, he would do so again (R. Brough Smyth,

_Aborigines of Victoria_, i. 447 _sqq._). Some of the Queensland

aborigines believe that if the bones or skulls of dugong were not

put away in a heap or otherwise preserved, no more dugong would be

caught (W. E. Roth, _North Queensland Ethnography_, Bulletin No. 5,

Brisbane, 1903, p. 27). When the Tartars whom Carpini visited killed

animals for eating, they might not break their bones but burned them

with fire (Carpini, _Historia Mongalorum_ (Paris, 1838), cap. iii. §

i. 2, p. 620). North American Indians might not break the bones of

the animals which they ate at feasts (Charlevoix, _Histoire de la

Nouvelle France_, vi. 72). In the war feast held by Indian warriors

after leaving home, a whole animal was cooked and had to be all

eaten. No bone of it might be broken. After being stripped of the

flesh the bones were hung on a tree (_Narrative of the Captivity and

Adventures of John Tanner_, London, 1830, p. 287). On St. Olaf’s Day

(29th July) the Karels of Finland kill a lamb, without using a

knife, and roast it whole. None of its bones may be broken. The lamb

has not been shorn since spring. Some of the flesh is placed in a

corner of the room for the house-spirits, some is deposited on the

field and beside the birch-trees which are destined to be used as

May-trees next year (W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, pp.

160 _sq._, note). Some of the Esquimaux in skinning a deer are

careful not to break a single bone, and they will not break the

bones of deer while walrus are being hunted (Fr. Boas, “The Central

Eskimo,” _Sixth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_

(Washington, 1888), pp. 595 _sq._). The Innuit (Esquimaux) of Point

Barrow, Alaska, carefully preserve unbroken the bones of the seals

which they have caught and return them to the sea, either leaving

them in an ice-crack far out from the land or dropping them through

a hole in the ice. By doing so they think they secure good fortune

in the pursuit of seals (_Report of the International Expedition to

Point Barrow, Alaska_ (Washington, 1885), p. 40). In this last

custom the idea probably is that the bones will be reclothed with

flesh and the seals come to life again. The Mosquito Indians of

Central America carefully preserved the bones of deer and the shells

of eggs, lest the deer or chickens should die or disappear (H. H.

Bancroft, _Native Races of the Pacific States_, i. 741). In Syria at

the present time people offer a sacrifice for a boy when he is seven

days old, and they will not break a bone of the victim, “because

they fear that if a bone of the sacrifice should be broken, the

child’s bones would be broken, too” (S. I. Curtiss, _Primitive

Semitic Religion To-day_, Chicago, etc., 1902, p. 178). This last

may be a later misinterpretation of the old custom. For West African

cases of refusal to break the bones of sacrificial victims, see J.

Spieth, _Die Ewe-Stämme_ (Berlin, 1906), pp. 458, 466, 480, 527,

712, 796, 824. Amongst the Narrinyeri of South Australia, when an

animal was being cut up, the bystanders used to leap and yell as

often as a bone was broken, thinking that if they did not do so

their own bones would rot within them (A. W. Howitt, _Native Tribes

of South-East Australia_, p. 763).

_ 751 Relations des Jésuites_, 1634, p. 25 (Canadian reprint, Quebec,

1858); A. Mackenzie, _Voyages through the Continent of America_

(London, 1801), p. civ.; J. Dunn, _History of the Oregon Territory_

(London, 1844), p. 99; F. Whymper, in _Journal of the Royal

Geographical Society_, xxxviii. (1868) p. 228; _id._, in

_Transactions of the Ethnological Society_, N.S., vii. (1869) p.

174; A. P. Reid, “Religious Belief of the Ojibois Indians,” _Journal

of the Anthropological Institute_, iii. (1874) p. 111; Fr. Boas,

“The Central Eskimo,” _Sixth Annual Report of the Bureau of

Ethnology_ (Washington, 1888), p. 596; _id._, “The Eskimo of Baffin

Land and Hudson Bay,” _Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural

History_, xv. (1901) p. 123; E. W. Nelson, “The Eskimo about Bering

Strait,” _Eighteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American

Ethnology_, Part i. (Washington, 1899) pp. 438 _sq._ For more

examples see above, pp. 225, 238 _sqq._, 242 _sq._, 246. After a

meal the Indians of Costa Rica gather all the bones carefully and

either burn them or put them out of reach of the dogs. See W. M.

Gabb, _On the Indian Tribes and Languages of Costa Rica_ (read

before the American Philosophical Society, 20th Aug. 1875), p. 520

(Philadelphia, 1875). The custom of burning the bones to prevent the

dogs getting them does not necessarily contradict the view suggested

in the text. It may be a way of transmitting the bones to the

spirit-land. The aborigines of Australia burn the bones of the

animals which they eat, but for a different reason; they think that

if an enemy got hold of the bones and burned them with charms, it

would cause the death of the person who had eaten the animal

(_Native Tribes of South Australia_, Adelaide, 1879, pp. 24, 196).

M191 Some savages preserve or destroy the bones of men in order to assist

or prevent their resurrection.

752 See _Taboo and the Perils of the Soul_, pp. 279 _sqq._

753 A. de Herrera, _General History of the vast Continent and Islands of

America_, translated by Capt. John Stevens (London, 1725-1726), iv.

126.

754 Baldwin Spencer and F. J. Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central

Australia_ (London, 1899), p. 475.

M192 Unquestioning faith of savages in the immortality of animals. The

savage faith in human immortality is commonly supposed to be deduced

from a primitive theory of dreams.

M193 But can a theory of dreams account for the savage belief in the

immortality of animals?

M194 Apparently the savage conceives life as an indestructible form of

energy. Analogy of the conception to the modern scientific

conception of the conservation of energy.

755 For this suggestion I am indebted to a hint thrown out in

conversation by my friend Professor G. F. Stout.

756 See _The Dying God_, p. 1.

757 The principle of the conservation of energy is clearly stated and

illustrated by Balfour Stewart in his book _The Conservation of

Energy_, Fourth Edition (London, 1877). The writer does not

countenance the view that life is a form of energy distinct from and

independent of physical and chemical forces; he regards a living

being simply as a very delicately constructed machine in which the

natural forces are in a state of unstable equilibrium. To avoid

misapprehension it may be well to add that I do not pretend to argue

either for or against the theory of life which appears to be

implicitly adopted by the savage; my aim is simply to explain, not

to justify or condemn, the mental attitude of primitive man towards

these profound problems.

M195 The resurrection of the body in tales and legends.

758 W. Mannhardt, _Germanische Mythen_ (Berlin, 1858), pp. 57-74; _id._,

_Baumkultus_, p. 116; C. L. Rochholz, _Deutscher Glaube und Brauch_

(Berlin, 1867), i. 219 _sqq._; J. Curtin, _Myths and Folk-lore of

Ireland_ (London, N.D.), pp. 45 _sq._; E. Cosquin, _Contes

populaires de Lorraine_ (Paris, N.D.), ii. 25; E. S. Hartland, “The

Physicians of Myddfai,” _Archaeological Review_, i. (1888) pp. 30

_sq._ In folk-tales, as in primitive custom, the blood is sometimes

not allowed to fall on the ground. See E. Cosquin, _l.c._

759 W. Mannhardt, _Germanische Mythen_, p. 66.

760 Jamblichus, _Vita Pythag._ 92, 135, 140; Porphyry, _Vita Pythag._

28.

761 Pindar, _Olymp._ i. 37 _sqq._, with the Scholiast.

762 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xxviii. 34.

763 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 18. This is one of the sacred stories

which the pious Herodotus (ii. 48) concealed and the pious Plutarch

divulged.

M196 The sinew of the thigh regularly cut out and thrown away by some

American Indians.

764 Adam Hodgson, _Letters from North America_ (London, 1824), i. 244.

765 J. Adair, _History of the American Indians_ (London, 1775), pp. 137

_sq._ This writer, animated by a curious though not uncommon passion

for discovering the ten lost tribes of Israel, imagined that he

detected the missing Hebrews disguised under the red skins and

beardless faces of the American Indians.

M197 Story told by the Indians to explain the custom.

766 É. Petitot, _Monographie des Dènè-Dindjie_ (Paris, 1867), pp. 77, 81

_sq._; _id._, _Traditions indiennes du Canada Nord-ouest_ (Paris,

1886), pp. 132 _sqq._, compare pp. 41, 76, 213, 264. The story is

told in a briefer form, though without any reference to the custom,

by another French missionary. See the letter of Mgr. Tache, in

_Annales de la Propagation de la Foi_, xxiv. (1852) pp. 336 _sq._

M198 The custom of cutting out the sinew of the thigh in animals seems to

be based on the principle of sympathetic magic.

767 The first part of this suggestion is due to my friend W. Robertson

Smith. See his _Lectures on the Religion of the Semites_2 (London,

1894), p. 380, note 1. The Faleshas, a Jewish sect of Abyssinia,

after killing an animal for food, “carefully remove the vein from

the thighs with its surrounding flesh.” See Halévy, “Travels in

Abyssinia,” in _Publications of the Society of Hebrew Literature_,

Second Series, vol. ii. p. 220. Caffre men will not eat the sinew of

the thigh; “it is carefully cut out and sent to the principal boy at

the kraal, who with his companions consider it as their right.” See

Col. Maclean, _Kafir Laws and Customs_ (Cape Town, 1866), p. 151.

Gallas who pride themselves on their descent will not eat the flesh

of the biceps; the reasons assigned for the custom are inconsistent

and unsatisfactory. See Ph. Paulitschke, _Ethnographie

Nordost-Afrikas: die materielle Cultur der Danâkil, Galla und Somâl_

(Berlin, 1893), p. 154. When the Bushmen kill a hare, they cut out a

sinew of the thigh and will not eat it, alleging as their reason

that the hare was once a man, and that this particular sinew is

still human flesh. See W. H. I. Bleek and L. C. Lloyd. _Specimens of

Bushman Folklore_ (London, 1911), pp. xxxix., 60 _sq._, 63.

768 J. Mooney, “Sacred Formulas of the Cherokees,” _Seventh Annual

Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1891), p. 323.

Compare _id._, “Myths of the Cherokee,” _Nineteenth Annual Report of

the Bureau of American Ethnology_, Part i. (Washington, 1900) pp.

267, 447. In the last of these passages the writer quotes Buttrick,

_Antiquities_, p. 12, as follows: “The Indians never used to eat a

certain sinew in the thigh.... Some say that if they eat of the

sinew they will have cramp in it on attempting to run. It is said

that once a woman had cramp in that sinew, and therefore none must

eat it.”

769 See above, pp. 138 _sqq._

M199 Some hunters hamstring the dead game in order to lame the ghosts of

the animals. Some savages put out the eyes of dead game in order

perhaps to blind the ghosts of the animals.

770 É. Aymonier, _Notes sur le Laos_ (Saigon, 1885), p. 23.

771 E. W. Nelson, “The Eskimo about Bering Strait,” _Eighteenth Annual

Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology_, Part i. (Washington,

1899) p. 423.

772 Rev. J. Batchelor, _The Ainu and their Folk-lore_ (London, 1901), p.

504.

773 L. von Schrenck, _Reisen und Forschungen im Amur-Lande_, iii. 546.

774 P. S. Pallas, _Reise durch verschiedene Provinzen des Russischen

Reichs_ (St. Petersburg, 1771-1776), iii. 70.

775 Rev. J. Macdonald, _Light in Africa_, Second Edition (London, 1890),

p. 171.

776 J. Teit, _The Thompson Indians cf British Columbia_, p. 317 (_The

Jesup North Pacific Expedition, Memoir of the American Museum of

Natural History_, April, 1900).

777 So among the Esquimaux of Bering Strait a girl at puberty is

considered unclean. “A peculiar atmosphere is supposed to surround

her at this time, and if a young man should come near enough for it

to touch him it would render him visible to every animal he might

hunt, so that his success as a hunter would be gone.” See E. W.

Nelson, “The Eskimo about Bering Strait,” _Eighteenth Annual Report

of the Bureau of American Ethnology_, Part i. (Washington, 1899) p.

291.

778 P. Dobell, _Travels in Kamtchatka and Siberia_ (London, 1830), i.

19.

M200 The custom of cutting out the tongues of dead animals may sometimes

be intended to prevent their ghosts from telling tales. Tongues of

animals cut out in order to confer superhuman knowledge or power on

their possessors.

779 Rev. J. Owen Dorsey, “Omaha Sociology,” _Third Report of the Bureau

of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1884), pp. 289 _sq._

780 J. G. Kohl, _Kitschi-Gami_ (Bremen, 1859), ii. 251 sq.; Charlevoix,

_Histoire de la Nouvelle France_, v. 173; Chateaubriand, _Voyage en

Amérique_, pp. 179 _sq._, 184.

781 For examples of the incident, see J. F. Bladé, _Contes populaires

recueillis en Agenais_ (Paris, 1874), pp. 12, 14; G. W. Dasent,

_Popular Tales from the Norse_ (Edinburgh, 1859), pp. 133 sq.

(“Shortshanks”); Aug. Schleicher, _Litauische Märchen_ (Weimar,

1857), p. 58; Sepp, _Altbayerischer Sagenschatz_ (Munich, 1876), p.

114; R. Köhler, on L. Gonzenbach’s _Sicilianische Märchen_ (Leipsic,

1870), ii. 230; Apollodorus, _Bibliotheca_, iii. 13. 3; Schol. on

Apollonius Rhodius, _Argonaut._ i. 517; W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald-

und Feldkulte_, p. 53; J. C. Poestion, _Lappländische Märchen_

(Vienna, 1876), pp. 231 sq.; A. F. Chamberlain, in _Eighth Report on

the North-Western Tribes of Canada_, p. 35 (separate reprint from

the _Report of the British Association for 1892_); I. V. Zingerle,

_Kinder und Hausmärchen aus Tirol_2 (Gera, 1870), No. 25, p. 127; A.

Kuhn und W. Schwartz, _Norddeutsche Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche_

(Leipsic, 1848), p. 342; S. Grundtvig, _Dänische Volksmärchen_,

übersetzt von W. Leo (Leipsic, 1878), p. 289; A. Leskien und K.

Brugmann, _Litauische Volkslieder und Märchen_ (Strasburg, 1882),

pp. 405 _sq._, 409 _sq._; A. und A. Schott, _Walachische Maerchen_

(Stuttgart and Tübingen), No. 10, p. 142; Chr. Schneller, _Märchen

und Sagen aus Wälschtirol_ (Innsbruck, 1867), No. 39, pp. 116 _sq._;

G. Basile, _Pentamerone_, übertragen von F. Liebrecht (Breslau,

1846), i. 99; P. Sébillot, _Contes Populaires de la Haute-Bretagne_

(Paris, 1885), No. 11, p. 80; E. Cosquin, _Contes Populaires de

Lorraine_ (Paris, N.D.), i. p. 61; J. Haltrich, _Deutsche

Volksmärchen aus dem Sachsenlande in Siebenbürgen_4 (Vienna and

Hermannstadt, 1885), No. 24, pp. 104 _sqq._; Grimm, _Household

Tales_, No. 60. The incident often occurs in the type of tale

analysed by Mr. E. S. Hartland in his _Legend of Perseus_ (vol. i.

pp. 12, 17, 18, etc.; vol. iii. pp. 6, 7, 8, etc.).

782 Fr. Boas, in _Fifth Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada_,

p. 58 (separate reprint from the _Report of the British Association

for 1889_); _id._, in _Journal of American Folk-lore_, i. (1888) p.

218.

783 See W. H. Dall, “Masks and Labrets,” _Third Annual Report of the

Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1884), pp. 111 _sq._ Compare

_id._, _Alaska and its Resources_ (London, 1870), p. 425; Ivan

Petroff, _Report on the Population, Industries, and Resources of

Alaska_, p. 176.

784 Ph. Paulitschke, _Ethnographie Nordost-Afrikas: die Geistige Cultur

der Danâkil, Galla und Somâl_ (Berlin, 1896), p. 47.

785 Ph. Paulitschke, _op. cit._ p. 156; _id._, _Ethnographie

Nordost-Afrikas: die materielle Cultur_, etc. (Berlin, 1893), p.

226.

786 J. V. Grohmann, _Aberglauben und Gebräuche aus Böhmen und Mähren_

(Prague and Leipsic, 1864), p. 54, § 354.

787 L. Strackerjan, _Aberglaube und Sagen aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg_

(Oldenburg, 1867), ii. 94, § 381; E. Monseur, in _Revue de

l’Histoire des Religions_, xxxi. (1895) pp. 297 _sq._

788 J. V. Grohmann, _op. cit._ p. 81, § 576.

789 Homer, _Od._ iii. 332, 341.

790 Scholiast on Aristophanes, _Plutus_, 1110; Athenaeus, i. 28, p. 16

B; _Paroemiographi Graeci_, ed. Leutsch et Schneidewin, i. 415, No.

100.

791 See further H. Gaidoz, “Les Langues coupées,” _Mélusine_, iii.

(1886-87) coll. 303-307; E. Monseur, _loc. cit._

M201 Bechuana custom of mutilating a sacrificial ox in order to inflict

corresponding mutilations on the enemy. Mutilation of the corpses of

enemies or other dangerous persons for the purpose of maiming their

ghosts. Disabling the ghost by mutilating his dead body.

792 T. Arbousset et F. Daumas, _Relation d’un Voyage d’Exploration au

Nord-est de la Colonie du Cap de Bonne-Espérance_ (Paris, 1842), pp.

562-564.

793 Rev. J. Roscoe, “Further Notes on the Manners and Customs of the

Baganda,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxii. (1902)

p. 60. This custom appears not to be mentioned by the writer in his

book _The Baganda_ (London, 1911).

794 A. Oldfield, “On the Aborigines of Australia,” _Transactions of the

Ethnological Society of London_, N.S. iii. (1865) p. 287.

795 E. M. Curr, _The Australian Race_ (Melbourne and London, 1886), i.

348, 381.

796 R. Southey, _History of Brazil_, vol. i. Second Edition (London,

1822), p. 231.

797 E. W. Nelson, “The Eskimo about Bering Strait,” _Eighteenth Annual

Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology_, part i. (Washington,

1899) p. 423.

798 Rev. S. Mateer, _The Land of Charity_ (London, 1871), pp. 203 _sq._

799 Rev. J. Owen Dorsey, “A Study of Siouan Cults,” _Eleventh Annual

Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1894), p. 420.

800 C. Gouldsbury and H. Sheane, _The Great Plateau of Northern

Rhodesia_ (London, 1911), p. 126.

M202 Propitiation of the vermin which infest crops and cattle in Europe.

801 J. B. Holzmayer, “Osiliana,” _Verhandlungen der gelehrten Estnischen

Gesellschaft zu Dorpat_, vii. Heft 2 (Dorpat, 1872), p. 105 note.

802 G. A. Heinrich, _Agrarische Sitten und Gebräuche unter den Sachsen

Siebenbürgens_ (Hermannstadt, 1880), pp. 15 _sq._

803 R. F. Kaindl, _Die Huzulen_ (Vienna, 1894), pp. 79, 103; _id._,

“Viehzucht und Viehzauber in den Ostkarpaten,” _Globus_, lxix.

(1906) p. 387.

804 E. Krause, “Abergläubische Kuren und sonstiger Aberglaube in

Berlin,” _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, xv. (1883) p. 93.

M203 Similar attempts made to propitiate vermin by savages.

805 L. Decle, _Three Years in Savage Africa_ (London, 1898), p. 160.

806 Vetter, “Aberglaube unter dem Jabim-Stamme in Kaiser-Wilhelmsland,”

_Mitteilungen der Geographischen Gesellschaft zu Jena_, xii. (1893)

pp. 95 _sq._

807 E. Modigliani, _Un Viaggio a Nías_ (Milan, 1890), p. 626.

808 W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern India_

(Westminster, 1896), ii. 303.

809 M. Merker, “Rechtsverhältnisse und Sitten der Wadschagga,”

_Petermanns Mitteilungen, Ergänzungsheft_ No. 113 (Gotha, 1902), pp.

35 _sq._

810 Rev. H. Cole, “Notes on the Wagogo of German East Africa,” _Journal

of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxii. (1902) p. 320.

M204 Sometimes in dealing with vermin the farmer aims at a judicious mean

between undue severity and weak indulgence.

_ 811 Geoponica_, xiii. 5. According to the commentator, the field

assigned to the mice is a neighbour’s, but it may be a patch of

waste ground on the farmer’s own land. The charm is said to have

been employed formerly in the neighbourhood of Paris (A. de Nore,

_Coutumes, Mythes et Traditions des Provinces de France_, Paris and

Lyons, 1846, p. 383).

812 A. Meyrac, _Traditions, Coutumes, Légendes et Contes des Ardennes_

(Charleville, 1890), p. 176.

_ 813 American Journal of Folk-lore_, xi. (1898) p. 161.

814 G. Maan, “Eenige mededeelingen omtrent de zeden en gewoonten der

Toerateya ten opzichte van den rijstbouw,” _Tijdschrift voor

Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xlvi. (1903) pp. 329 _sq._

815 Rev. J. Batchelor, _The Ainu and their Folk-lore_ (London, 1901), p.

509.

M205 Sometimes a few of the vermin are treated with high distinction,

while the rest are pursued with relentless rigour. Mock lamentations

of women for insects which destroy the crops.

816 R. van Eck, “Schetsen van het eiland Bali,” _Tijdschrift voor

Nederlandsch-Indië_, N.S., viii. (1879) p. 125.

817 J. L. van Gennep, “Bijdrage tot de kennis van den Kangean-Archipel,”

_Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van

Nederlandsch-Indië_, xlvi. (1896) p. 101.

818 C. Hose and W. McDougall, “The Relations between Men and Animals in

Sarawak” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxi. (1901)

pp. 198 _sq._

819 J. V. Grohmann, _Aberglauben und Gebräuche aus Böhmen und Mähren_

(Prague and Leipsic, 1864), p. 60, § 405.

820 J. G. von Hahn, _Albanesische Studien_ (Jena, 1854), Heft i. p. 157.

821 Lagarde, _Reliquiae juris ecclesiastici antiquissimae_, p. 135. For

this passage I am indebted to my late friend W. Robertson Smith, who

kindly translated it for me from the Syriac. It occurs in the Canons

of Jacob of Edessa, of which a German translation has been published

by C. Kayser (_Die Canones Jacob’s von Edessa übersetzt und

erläutert_, Leipsic, 1886; see pp. 25 _sq._).

822 W. R. S. Ralston, _Songs of the Russian People_ (London, 1872), p.

255.

823 Dudley Kidd, _Savage Childhood, a Study of Kafir Children_ (London,

1906), p. 292.

M206 Ceremony performed by Baronga women to drive insects from the crops.

824 H. A. Junod, _Les Ba-ronga_ (Neuchatel, 1898), pp. 419 _sq._ As to

the rain-making ceremony among the Baronga, see _The Magic Art and

the Evolution of Kings_, i. 267 _sq._

M207 Images made of vermin as a charm to get rid of them.

825 J. Malalas, _Chronographia_, ed. L. Dindorf (Bonn, 1831), p. 264.

826 D. Comparetti, _Vergil in the Middle Ages_ (London, 1895), p. 265. I

have to thank Mr. J. D. May of Merton College, Oxford, for this and

the following references to Comparetti’s book.

827 D. Comparetti, _op. cit._ pp. 259, 293, 341.

828 E. Doutté, _Magie et Religion dans l’Afrique du Nord_ (Algiers,

1908), p. 144.

_ 829 Encyclopaedia Biblica_, iv. (London, 1903) col. 4395.

830 Grégoire de Tours, _Histoire Ecclésiastique des Francs_, traduction

de M. Guizot, Nouvelle Édition (Paris, 1874), viii. 33, vol. i. p.

514. For some stories of the same sort, see J. B. Thiers, _Traité

des Superstitions_ (Paris, 1679), pp. 306-308.

831 1 Samuel vi. 4-18. The passage in which the plague of mice is

definitely described has been omitted in the existing Hebrew text,

but is preserved in the Septuagint (1 Samuel v. 6, καὶ μέσον τῆς

χώρας αὐτῆς ἀνεφύησαν μύες). See Dean Kirkpatrick’s note on 1 Samuel

v. 6 (_Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges_).

832 Numbers xxi. 6-9.

M208 Greek gods who took titles from vermin. Mouse (Smintheus) Apollo.

833 Homer, _Iliad_, i. 39, with the Scholia and the comment of

Eustathius; Strabo, xiii. 1. 48 and 63; Aelian, _Nat. Anim._ xii. 5;

Clement of Alexandria, _Protrept._ ii. 39, p. 34, ed. Potter;

Pausanias, x. 12. 5.

834 Strabo, xiii. 1. 64; Pausanias, i. 24. 8.

835 Strabo, xiii. 1. 64; Eustathius, on Homer, _Iliad_, i. 39, p. 34;

Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 No. 609 (vol. ii.

p. 386).

836 Strabo and Eustathius, _ll.cc._

837 Professor W. Ridgeway has pointed out that the epithet Bassareus

applied to Dionysus (Cornutus, _Theologiae Graecae Compendium_, 30)

appears to be derived from bassara, “a fox.” See J. Tzetzes, _Schol.

on Lycophron_, 771; W. Ridgeway, in _The Classical Review_, x.

(1896) pp. 21 _sqq._; S. Reinach, _Cultes, Mythes, et Religions_,

ii. (Paris, 1906) pp. 106 _sqq._

838 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ x. 75; Pausanias, v. 14. 1, viii. 26. 7; Clement

of Alexandria, _Protrept._ ii. 38, p. 33, ed. Potter.

_ 839 Robigo_ or personified as _Robigus_. See Varro, _Rerum rusticarum_,

i. 1. 6; _id._, _De lingua latina_, vi. 16; Ovid, _Fasti_, iv. 905

_sqq._; Tertullian, _De spectaculis_, 5; Augustine, _De civitate

Dei_, iv. 21; Lactantius, _Divin. Instit._ i. 20; L. Preller,

_Römische Mythologie_3 (Berlin, 1881-1883), ii. 43 _sqq._; W. Warde

Fowler, _The Roman Festivals of the Period of the Republic_ (London,

1899), pp. 88 _sqq._

840 Aristotle, _Hist. Anim._ vi. 37, p. 580 b 15 _sqq._; Aelian, _Nat.

Anim._ xvii. 41; W. Warde Fowler, in _The Classical Review_ vi.

(1892) p. 413. In Laos, a province of Siam, the ravages committed by

rats are terrible. From time to time whole armies of these

destructive rodents appear and march across the country in dense

columns and serried ranks, devouring everything as they go, and

leaving famine, with all its horrors, in their train. See

Lieut.-Col. Tournier, _Notice sur le Laos Français_ (Hanoi, 1900),

pp. 104, 135. So in Burma, the rats multiply in some years to such

an extent that they cause a famine by destroying whole crops and

granaries. See Max and Bertha Ferrars, _Burma_ (London, 1900), pp.

149 _sq._

841 Polemo, cited by a scholiast on Homer, _Iliad_, i. 39 (ed. Im.

Bekker). Compare Eustathius on Homer, _Iliad_, i. 39.

842 Aelian, _Nat. Anim._ xii. 5.

843 Aelian, _l.c._

844 See above, p. 279.

845 E. Aymonier, “Les Tchames et leurs religions,” _Revue de l’Histoire

des Religions_, xxiv. (1891) p. 236.

M209 Wolfish Apollo.

846 Λύκειος or Λύκιος, Pausanias, i. 19. 3 (with my note), ii. 9. 7, ii.

19. 3, viii. 40. 5; Lucian, _Anacharsis_, 7; Im. Bekker, _Anecdota

Graeca_ (Berlin, 1814-1821), i. 277, lines 10 _sq._

847 Pausanias, ii. 9. 7; Scholiast on Demosthenes, xxiv. 114, p. 736.

848 Sophocles, _Electra_, 6.

849 Scholiast on Demosthenes, xxiv. 114, p. 736.

850 Pausanias, ii. 9. 7.

851 P. Einhorn, _Reformatio gentis Letticae in Ducatu Curlandiae_,

reprinted in _Scriptores rerum Livonicarum_, vol. ii. (Riga and

Leipsic, 1848) p. 621. The preface of Einhorn’s work is dated 17th

July 1636.

M210 Many savages spare certain animals because they believe the souls of

their dead to be lodged in them. Examples of this belief among the

American Indians.

852 A. Biet, _Voyage de la France Equinoxiale en l’Isle de Cayenne_

(Paris, 1664), p. 361.

853 J. Chaffanjon, _L’Orénoque et le Caura_ (Paris, 1889), p. 203.

854 Levrault, “Rapport sur les provinces de Canélos et du Napo,”

_Bulletin de la Société de Géographie_ (Paris), Deuxième Série, xi.

(1839) p. 75.

855 G. Osculati, _Esplorazione delle regioni equatorali lungo il Napo ed

il fiume delle Amazzoni_ (Milan, 1850), p. 114.

856 J. B. Ambrosetti, “Los Indios Caingua del alto Paraná (misiones),”

_Boletin del Instituto Geografico Argentino_, xv. (Buenos Ayres,

1895) p. 740.

857 Ch. Wiener, _Pérou et Bolivie_ (Paris, 1880), p. 369.

_ 858 Lettres édifiantes et curieuses_, Nouvelle Édition, viii. (Paris,

1781) pp. 335 _sqq._

859 Fr. Coreal, _Voyages aux Indes occidentales_ (Amsterdam, 1722), ii.

132.

860 H. R. Schoolcraft, _Indian Tribes of the United States_

(Philadelphia, 1853-1856), v. 215 _sq._

861 H. R. Schoolcraft, _op. cit._ iii. 113.

M211 Belief of the transmigration of human souls into animals in Africa.

862 Rev. J. L. Wilson, _Western Africa_ (London, 1856), p. 210.

863 J. C. Reichenbach, “Étude sur le royaume d’Assinie,” _Bulletin de la

Société de Géographie_ (Paris), vii. Série, xi. (1890) pp. 322 _sq._

864 D. Livingstone, _Missionary Travels and Researches in South Africa_

(London, 1857), p. 615.

865 Miss A. Werner, _The Natives of British Central Africa_ (London,

1906), p. 64.

866 C. Gouldsbury and H. Sheane, _The Great Plateau of Northern

Rhodesia_ (London, 1911), p. 200.

867 Rev. J. Roscoe, “The Bahima,” _Journal of the Royal Anthropological

Institute_, xxxvii. (1907) pp. 101 _sq._ Compare Major J. A. Meldon,

“Notes on the Bahima of Ankole,” _Journal of the African Society_,

No. 22 (January, 1907), p. 151.

868 M. Merker, _Die Masai_ (Berlin, 1894), p. 202. The belief that the

human dead are turned into serpents is common in Africa; and the

practice of offering milk to the reptiles appears to be not

infrequent. See _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_,2 pp. 71 _sq._

869 J. Halkin, _Quelques Peuplades du district de l’Uelé_ (Liége, 1907),

p. 102; _Notes Analytiques sur les Collections Ethnographiques du

Musée du Congo, La Religion_ (Brussels, 1906), p. 162.

870 Father Courtois, “Scènes de la vie Cafre,” _Les Missions

Catholiques_, xv. (1883) p. 593. For more evidence of similar

beliefs in Africa, see Father Courtois, “À travers le haut Zambèze,”

_Les Missions Catholiques_, xvi. (1884) p. 299 (souls of the dead in

guinea-fowl); Father Lejeune, “Dans la forêt,” _Les Missions

Catholiques_, xxvii. (1895) p. 248 (souls of the dead in apes, owls,

etc.).

M212 Belief in the transmigration of human souls into animals in

Madagascar.

871 Father Abinal, “Croyances fabuleuses des Malgaches,” _Les Missions

Catholiques_, xii. (1880) pp. 549-551. A somewhat different account

of the Betsileo belief in the transmigration of souls is given by

another authority. See G. A. Shaw, “The Betsileo,” _Antananarivo

Annual and Madagascar Magazine, Reprint of the First Four Numbers_

(Antananarivo, 1885), p. 411. Compare A. van Gennep, _Tabou et

Totémisme à Madagascar_ (Paris, 1904), pp. 272 _sq._, 283, 291.

872 Rev. J. Sibree, _The Great African Island_ (London, 1880), p. 270.

873 “Das Volk der Tanala,” _Globus_, lxxxix. (1906) p. 362.

M213 Belief in the transmigration of human souls into animals in Assam,

Burma, and Cochin China.

874 W. H. Furness, “The Ethnography of the Nagas of Eastern Assam,”

_Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxii. (1902) p. 463.

875 T. C. Hodson, _The Naga Tribes of Manipur_ (London, 1911), p. 159.

876 (Sir) J. George Scott and J. P. Hardiman, _Gazetteer of Upper Burma

and the Shan States_ (Rangoon, 1900-1901), Part ii. vol. i. p. 26.

877 Guerlach, “Chez les sauvages de la Cochinchine Orientale, Bahnar,

Reungao, Sédang,” _Les Missions Catholiques_, xxvi. (1894) pp. 143

_sq._

878 E. Aymonier, “Les Tchames et leurs religions,” _Revue de l’histoire

des Religions_, xxiv. (1891) p. 267. Compare D. Grangeon, “Les Cham

et leurs superstitions,” _Les Missions Catholiques_, xxviii. (1896)

p. 46. According to the latter writer, white horses are specially

set apart to serve as domiciles for these domestic deities. After

its dedication such a horse is carefully tended and never mounted

again.

M214 Belief in the transmigration of human souls into animals in the

Philippines, the Sandwich Islands, and the Pelew Islands.

879 F. Blumentritt, “Der Ahnencultus und die religiösen Anschauungen der

Malaien des Philippinen-Archipels,” _Mittheilungen der Wiener Geogr.

Gesellschaft_, 1882, p. 164; _id._, _Versuch einer Ethnographie der

Philippinen_ (Gotha, 1882), p. 29 (_Petermanns Mittheilungen,

Ergänzungsheft_, No. 67).

880 L. de Freycinet, _Voyage autour du Monde_, ii. (Paris, 1829) pp. 595

_sq._

881 K. Semper, _Die Palau-Inseln im Stillen Ocean_ (Leipsic, 1873), pp.

87 _sq._, 193. These sacred animals were called _kalids_. A somewhat

different account of the _kalids_ of the Pelew Islanders is given by

J. Kubary (“Die Religion der Pelauer,” in A. Bastian’s _Allerlei aus

Volks- und Menschenkunde_, Leipsic, 1888, i. 5 _sqq._).

M215 Transmigration of human souls into tigers in Sumatra.

882 W. D. Helderman, “De tijger en het bijgeloof der Bataks,”

_Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xxxiv.

(1891) pp. 170-175. The account which this writer gives of the

reception of a dead tiger by the Battas agrees with, and is probably

the source of, Mr. Batten’s account cited above (pp. 216 _sq._).

M216 Belief in the transmigration of human souls into animals in Borneo.

883 C. Hose, “The Natives of Borneo,” _Journal of the Anthropological

Institute_, xxiii. (1894) p. 165. Compare A. W. Nieuwenhuis, _In

Centraal Borneo_ (Leyden, 1900), i. 148; _id._, _Quer durch Borneo_

(Leyden, 1904-1907), i. 105. According to the latter writer the

Kayans or Bahaus in general abstain from the flesh both of deer and

of grey apes, because they think that the souls of the dead may be

in them.

884 Ch. Hose and W. McDougall, “The Relations between Men and Animals in

Sarawak,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxi. (1901)

p. 193.

885 E. H. Gomes, _Seventeen Years among the Sea Dyaks of Borneo_

(London, 1911), p. 143.

M217 Belief in the transmigration of human souls into animals in New

Guinea.

886 F. S. A. de Clercq, “De West en Noordkust van Nederlandsch

Nieuw-Guinea,” _Tijdschrift van het Koninklijk Nederlandsch

Aardrijkskundig Genootschap_, Tweede Serie, x. (1893) p. 635.

887 Max Krieger, _Neu-Guinea_ (Berlin, N.D.), p. 404.

888 K. Vetter, _Komm herüber und hilf uns!_ iii. (Barmen, 1898) p. 22.

Compare _id._, in _Nachrichten über Kaiser Wilhelms-Land_, 1897, pp.

87 _sq._; B. Hagen, _Unter den Papuas_ (Wiesbaden, 1899), p. 225.

889 H. Zahn, “Die Jabim,” in R. Neuhauss, _Deutsch Neu-Guinea_, iii.

(Berlin, 1911) p. 310.

890 R. Parkinson, “Die Berlinhafen Section, ein Beitrag zur Ethnographie

der Neu-Guinea Küste,” _Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie_,

xiii. (1900) p. 40.

891 Ch. Keysser, “Aus dem Leben der Kaileute,” in R. Neuhauss, _Deutsch

Neu-Guinea_, iii. (Berlin, 1911) pp. 150 _sq._

M218 Belief in the transmigration of human souls into animals in the

Solomon Islands.

892 Mr. Sleigh of Lifu, quoted by Prof. E. B. Tylor, in _Journal of the

Anthropological Institute_, xxviii. (1898) p. 147.

893 R. H. Codrington, _The Melanesians_ (Oxford, 1891), pp. 179 _sq._

894 R. H. Codrington, _op. cit._ p. 177.

895 R. H. Codrington, _op. cit._ p. 33. East Indian evidence of the

belief in transmigration into animals is collected by G. A. Wilken

(“Het animisme bij de volken van den Indischen Archipel,” _De

Indische Gids_, June 1884, pp. 988 _sqq._), who argues that this

belief supplies the link between ancestor-worship and totemism.

Compare the same writer’s article “Iets over de Papoewas van de

Geelvinksbaai,” pp. 24 _sqq._ (separate reprint from _Bijdragen tot

de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van Ned. Indië_, 5e Volgreeks ii.).

Wilken’s view on this subject is favoured by Professor E. B. Tylor

(_Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxviii. (1898) pp. 146

_sq._). See further, _Totemism and Exogamy_, iv. 45 _sqq._

M219 The doctrine of the transmigration of human souls into animals in

ancient India. The doctrine of transmigration in Buddhism.

_ 896 The Laws of Manu_, ii. 201.

_ 897 Id._, v. 164.

_ 898 Id._, xi. 25.

_ 899 Id._, xii. 39-78.

900 Sir Monier Monier-Williams, _Buddhism_, Second Edition (London,

1890), pp. 111 _sq._ Full, if not always authentic, particulars of

the Buddha’s manifold transmigrations are contained in the

_Jatakas_, a large collection of stories which has been completely

translated into English by the late Professor E. B. Cowell, Dr. W.

H. D. Rouse, and other scholars (6 volumes, Cambridge, 1895-1907).

M220 The doctrine of the transmigration of souls taught in ancient Greece

by Pythagoras and Empedocles.

901 Diodorus Siculus, x. 6. 1-3; Jamblichus, _De Pythagorica vita_, xiv.

63; Porphyry, _Vita Pythag._ 26 _sq._; Ovid, _Metamorph._ xv. 160

_sqq._ According to Heraclides Ponticus, the philosopher remembered

his personal identity in four different human lives before he was

born into the world as Pythagoras (Diogenes Laertius, _Vit.

Philosoph._ viii. 1. 4 _sq._). See further E. Rohde, _Psyche_3

(Leipsic and Tübingen, 1903), ii. 417 _sqq._

902 Diogenes Laertius, _Vit. Philosoph._ viii. 1. 4 and 36.

903 Jamblichus, _De Pythagorica vita_, xxiv. 107-109; Sextus Empiricus,

ix. 127-130; Aulus Gellius, iv. 11.

904 Diogenes Laertius, _Vit. Philosoph._ viii. 2. 77; H. Diels, _Die

Fragmente der Vorsokratiker_,2 i. (Berlin, 1906) p. 208, frag. 117.

905 Sextus Empiricus, ix. 129; H. Diels, _op. cit._ i. pp. 213 _sq._,

frag. 137.

906 Compare Sextus Empiricus, ix. 127-130.

907 Plutarch, _Quaest. Conviv._ iii. 1. 2. 7; Aulus Gellius, iv. 11. 9;

H. Diels, _op. cit._ i. p. 214, fragments 140, 141.

M221 The doctrine of transmigration used by Pythagoras and Empedocles

mainly to inculcate certain ethical precepts. The pessimism of

Empedocles unlike the ordinary Greek view of life; its similarity to

Buddhism.

908 As to Pythagoras in this respect, see E. Rohde, _Psyche_3 (Tübingen

and Leipsic, 1903), ii. 161 _sqq._

909 Plutarch, _De exilio_, 17; _id._, _De esu carnium_, i. 7. 4; Clement

of Alexandria, _Strom._ iv. 4. 12, p. 569 ed. Potter; Hippolytus,

_Refutatio omnium Haeresium_, vii. 29, p. 388 ed. L. Duncker and F.

G. Schneidewin; H. Diels, _op. cit._ i. pp. 207 _sq._, fragments

115, 119.

910 Porphyry, _De antro nympharum_, 8.

911 H. Diels, _op. cit._ i. pp. 208 _sq._, frag. 121.

912 Clement of Alexandria, _Strom._ iii. 3. 14, iv. 23. 152, v. 14. 123,

pp. 516 _sq._, 632, 722 ed. Potter; H. Diels, _Die Fragmente der

Vorsokratiker_,2 i. (Berlin, 1906) pp. 207, 209, 215 _sq._,

fragments 115, 124, 144-147.

913 Empedocles is cited by Aristotle as an example of the melancholy

which he believed to be characteristic of men of genius. See

Aristotle, _Problem_. 30, p. 953 a 27 ed. Im. Bekker.

914 Stobaeus, _Eclogae_, i. 41. 60 (vol. i. p. 331 ed. A. Meineke);

Plutarch, _De esu carnium_ ii. 4. 4; H. Diels, _op. cit._ i. p. 210,

frag. 126.

915 It seems to be fairly certain that Buddha died and Empedocles was

born somewhere about the year 480 B.C. Hence it is difficult to

suppose that the ideas of the former should have percolated from

India to Greece, or rather to Sicily, in the lifetime of the latter.

As to their respective dates see H. Oldenberg, _Buddha_5 (Stuttgart

and Berlin, 1906), pp. 115, 227; E. Zeller, _Die Philosophie der

Griechen_, i.4 (Leipsic, 1876) p. 678 note 1.

M222 Analogy of the physical speculations of Empedocles to those of

Herbert Spencer.

916 Plutarch, _Adversus Coloten_, 10; Aristotle, _De Xenophane_, 2, p.

975 a 39-b 4 ed. Im. Bekker; H. Diels, _op. cit._ i. pp. 175, 176,

fragments 8 and 12.

917 The evidence, consisting of the testimonies of ancient authorities

and the fragments of Empedocles’s own writings, is fully collected

by H. Diels in his excellent work _Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker_,

Zweite Auflage, i. (Berlin, 1906) pp. 158 _sqq._, 173 _sqq._ Compare

_Fragmenta Philosophorum Graecorum_, ed. F. G. A. Mullach, i.

(Paris, 1875) pp. 1 _sqq._; H. Ritter et L. Preller, _Historia

Philosophiae Graecae et Latinae ex fontium locis contexta_, Editio

Quinta (Gothae, 1875), pp. 91 _sqq._; E. Zeller, _Die Philosophie

der Griechen_, i.4 (Leipsic, 1876) pp. 678 _sqq._

M223 Herbert Spencer’s theory of alternate periods of concentration and

dissipation of matter.

918 Herbert Spencer, _First Principles_, Third Edition (London, 1875),

pp. 536 _sq._

M224 Evolution or dissolution.

919 On the discovery of the atomic disintegration of certain chemical

elements, and the general question (Evolution or Dissolution?)

raised by that discovery, see W. C. D. Whetham, “The Evolution of

Matter,” in _Darwin and Modern Science_ (Cambridge, 1909), pp.

565-582, particularly his concluding paragraph: “In the strict sense

of the word, the process of atomic disintegration revealed to us by

the new science of radio-activity can hardly be called evolution. In

each case radio-active change involves the breaking up of a heavier,

more complex atom into lighter and simpler fragments. Are we to

regard this process as characteristic of the tendencies in accord

with which the universe has reached its present state, and is

passing to its unknown future? Or have we chanced upon an eddy in a

backwater, opposed to the main stream of advance? In the chaos from

which the present universe developed, was matter composed of large

highly complex atoms, which have formed the simpler elements by

radio-active or rayless disintegration? Or did the primaeval

substance consist of isolated electrons, which have slowly come

together to form the elements, and yet have left here and there an

anomaly such as that illustrated by the unstable family of uranium

and radium, or by some such course are returning to their state of

primaeval simplicity?”

M225 Empedocles as a forerunner of Darwin.

920 H. Diels, _Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker_,2 i. (Berlin, 1906) pp.

190 _sqq._; _Fragmenta Philosophorum Graecorum_, ed. F. G. A.

Mullach, i. (Paris, 1875) pp. 8 _sqq._; H. Ritter und L. Preller,

_Historia Philosophiae Graecae et Latinae ex fontium locis

contexta_5 (Gothae, 1875), pp. 102 _sq._; E. Zeller, _Die

Philosophie der Griechen_, i.4 (Leipsic, 1876) pp. 718 _sqq._

921 Aristotle, _Physic. Auscult._ ii. 8, p. 198 b 29 _sqq._, ed. Im.

Bekker; ὅπου μὲν οὖν ἅπαντα συνέβη ὥσπερ κὰν εἰ ἔνεκά του ἐγίνετο,

ταῦτα μὲν ἐσωθη ἀπὸ τοῦ αὐτομάτου συστάντα ἐπιτηδείως; ὅσα δὲ μὴ

οὕτως, ἀπώλετο καὶ ἀπόλλυται, καθάπερ Ἐμπεδοκλῆς λέγει τὰ βουγενῆ

ἀνδρόπρῳρα. This passage is quoted by Darwin in the “Historical

Sketch” prefixed to _The Origin of Species_ with the remark, “We

here see the principle of natural selection shadowed forth, but how

little Aristotle fully comprehended the principle, is shown by his

remarks on the formation of the teeth.” Darwin omits Aristotle’s

reference to Empedocles, apparently deeming it irrelevant or

unimportant. Had he been fully acquainted with the philosophical

speculations of Empedocles, we can scarcely doubt that Darwin would

have included him among the pioneers of evolution.

M226 Empedocles as a pretender to divinity.

922 Diogenes Laertius, _Vit. Philosoph._ viii. 2. 62; H. Diels, _Die

Fragmente der Vorsokratiker_,2 i. (Berlin, 1906) p. 205, frag. 112.

Compare _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, i. 390.

M227 The doctrine of the transmigration of souls in Plato.

923 Plato, _Phaedo_, pp. 81 B-84 C; _Republic_, x. pp. 617 D-620 D;

_Timaeus_, pp. 41 D-42 D; _Phaedrus_, p. 249 B.

924 This is the view of E. Zeller (_Die Philosophie der Griechen_, ii.3

Leipsic, 1875, pp. 706 _sqq._), Sir W. E. Geddes (on Plato,

_Phaedo_, p. 81 E), and J. Adam (on Plato, _Republic_, x. p. 618 A).

We have no right, with some interpreters ancient and modern, to

dissolve the theory into an allegory because it does not square with

our ideas.

925 In our own time the theory of transmigration is favoured by Dr.

McTaggart, who argues that human beings may have lived before birth

and may live many, perhaps an infinite number of, lives after death.

Like Plato he further suggests that the nature of the body into

which a person transmigrates at death may be appropriate to and

determined by his or her character in the preceding life. See J.

McT. Ellis McTaggart, _Some Dogmas of Religion_ (London, 1906), pp.

112-139. However, Dr. McTaggart seems only to contemplate the

transmigration of human souls into human bodies; he does not discuss

the possibility of their transmigration into animals.

M228 The ambiguous behaviour of the Aino and the Gilyaks towards bears

explained.

M229 Two forms of the worship of animals.

926 This is known, for example, of the Yuchi Indians, for among them

“members of each clan will not do violence to wild animals having

the form and name of their totem. For instance, the Bear clan people

never molest bears.” See F. G. Speck, _Ethnology of the Yuchi

Indians_ (Philadelphia, 1909), p. 70. But in spite of the attention

which has been paid to American totemism, we possess very little

information as to the vital point of the system, the relation

between a man and his totemic animal. Compare _Totemism and

Exogamy_, iii. 88 _sq._, 311.

927 See _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, i. 85 _sqq._

However, Collins reports that among the natives of New South Wales

the women were “compelled to sit in their canoe, exposed to the

fervour of the mid-day sun, hour after hour, chaunting their little

song, and inviting the fish beneath them to take their bait” (D.

Collins, _An Account of the English Colony in New South Wales_,

London, 1804, p. 387). This may have been a form of conciliation

like that employed by the American Indians towards the fish and

game. But the account is not precise enough to allow us to speak

with confidence. It is sometimes reported that the Australians

attempt to appease the kangaroos which they have killed, assuring

the animals of their affection and begging them not to come back

after death to torment them. But the writer who mentions the report

disbelieves it. See Dom Théophile Bérengier, in _Les Missions

Catholiques_, x. (1878) p. 197.

928 G. Catlin, _O-Kee-pa, a Religious Ceremony, and other Customs of the

Mandans_ (London, 1867), Folium reservatum; Lewis and Clarke,

_Travels to the Source of the Missouri River_ (London, 1815), i. 205

_sq._

M230 Two types of animal sacrament, the Egyptian and the Aino type.

M231 Examples of animal sacraments among pastoral tribes. Aino or

expiatory type of animal sacrament among the Abchases and Kalmucks.

929 A. Bastian, in _Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft für

Anthropologie, Ethnologie, und Urgeschichte_, 1870-71, p. 59. J.

Reinegg (_Beschreibung des Kaukasus_, Gotha, St. Petersburg, and

Hildesheim, 1796-97, ii. 12 sq.) describes what seems to be a

sacrament of the Abghazses (Abchases). It takes place in the middle

of autumn. A white ox called Ogginn appears from a holy cave, which

is also called Ogginn. It is caught and led about amongst the

assembled men (women are excluded) amid joyful cries. Then it is

killed and eaten. Any man who did not get at least a scrap of the

sacred flesh would deem himself most unfortunate. The bones are then

carefully collected, burned in a great hole, and the ashes buried

there.

930 A. Bastian, _Die Völker des östlichen Asien_, vi. (Jena, 1871) pp.

632, note. On the Kalmucks as a people of shepherds and on their

diet of mutton, see J. G. Georgi, _Beschreibung aller Nationen des

russischen Reichs_ (St. Petersburg, 1776), pp. 406 _sq._, compare p.

207; B. Bergmann, _Nomadische Streifereien unter den Kalmücken_

(Riga, 1804-5), ii. 80 _sqq._, 122; P. S. Pallas, _Reise durch

verschiedene Provinzen des russischen Reichs_ (St. Petersburg,

1771-1776), i. 319, 325. According to Pallas, it is only rich

Kalmucks who commonly kill their sheep or cattle for eating;

ordinary Kalmucks do not usually kill them except in case of

necessity or at great merry-makings. It is, therefore, especially

the rich who need to make expiation.

M232 Egyptian type of animal sacrament among the Todas and Madi.

931 W. E. Marshall, _Travels amongst the Todas_ (London, 1873), pp. 129

_sq._

932 W. E. Marshall, _op. cit._ pp. 80 _sq._, 130.

933 R. W. Felkin, “Notes on the Madi or Moru Tribe of Central Africa,”

_Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh_, xii. (1882-84) pp.

336 _sq._

934 Mutton appears to be now eaten by the tribe as a regular article of

food (R. W. Felkin, _op. cit._ p. 307), but this is not inconsistent

with the original sanctity of the sheep.

935 See W. R. Smith, _Religion of the Semites_2 (London, 1894), pp. 344

_sqq._ As to communion by means of an external application, see

above, pp. 162 _sqq._

M233 Form of communion with a sacred animal by taking it from house to

house. Effigy of a snake carried from house to house by members of

the Snake tribe.

936 See above, pp. 190, 192.

_ 937 Panjab Notes and Queries_, ii. p. 91, § 555 (March 1885).

M234 “Hunting the Wren” in Europe. Sacred character of the wren in

popular superstition.

938 See Ch. Vallancey, _Collectanea de rebus Hibernicis_, iv. (Dublin,

1786) p. 97; J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_ (London, 1882-1883),

iii. 195 _sq._ (Bohn’s ed.); Rev. C. Swainson, _Folk-lore of British

Birds_ (London, 1886), p. 36; E. Rolland, _Faune populaire de la

France_, ii. 288 _sqq._ The names for the bird are βασιλίσκος,

_regulus_, _rex avium_ (Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ viii. 90, x. 203), _re

di siepe_, _reyezuelo_, _roitelet_, _roi des oiseaux_, _Zaunkönig_,

etc. On the custom of hunting the wren see further N. W. Thomas,

“The Scape-Goat in European Folklore,” _Folk-lore_, xvii. (1906) pp.

270 _sqq._, 280; Miss L. Eckstein, _Comparative Studies in Nursery

Rhymes_ (London, 1906), pp. 172 _sqq._ Miss Eckstein suggests that

the killing of the bird called “the king” may have been a mitigation

of an older custom of killing the real king.

939 J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, iii. 194.

940 R. Chambers, _Popular Rhymes of Scotland_, New Edition (London and

Edinburgh, N.D.), p. 188.

_ 941 Ibid._ p. 186.

942 P. Sébillot, _Traditions et Superstitions de la Haute-Bretagne_

(Paris, 1882), ii. 214.

943 A. Bosquet, _La Normandie Romanesque et Merveilleuse_ (Paris and

Rouen, 1845), p. 221; E. Rolland, _op. cit._ ii. 294 _sq._; P.

Sébillot, _l.c._; Rev. C. Swainson, _op. cit._ p. 42.

M235 Hunting the Wren in the Isle of Man.

944 G. Waldron, _Description of the Isle of Man_ (reprinted for the Manx

Society, Douglas, 1865), pp. 49 _sqq._; J. Train, _Account of the

Isle of Man_ (Douglas, 1845), ii. 124 _sqq._, 141.

945 In _The Morning Post_ of Wednesday, 27th December 1911, we read that

“the observance of the ancient and curious custom known as ‘the hunt

of the wren’ was general throughout the Isle of Man yesterday.

Parties of boys bearing poles decked with ivy and streamers went

from house to house singing to an indescribable tune a quaint ballad

detailing the pursuit and death of the wren, subsequently demanding

recompense, which is rarely refused. Formerly boys actually engaged

in the chase, stoning the bird to death with the object of

distributing the feathers ‘for luck.’ ” From this account we may

gather that in the Isle of Man the hunting of the wren is now merely

nominal and that the pretence of it is kept up only as an excuse for

collecting gratuities. It is thus that the solemnity of ritual

dwindles into the pastime of children. I have to thank Mrs. J. H.

Deane, of 41 Iverna Court, Kensington, for kindly sending me the

extract from _The Morning Post_.

M236 Hunting the Wren in Ireland and England.

946 Ch. Vallancey, _Collectanea de rebus Hibernicis_, iv. (Dublin, 1786)

p. 97; J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, iii. 195.

947 G. H. Kinahan, “Notes on Irish Folk-lore,” _Folk-lore Record_, iv.

(1881) p. 108; Rev. C. Swainson, _Folk-lore of British Birds_, pp.

36 _sq._; E. Rolland, _Faune populaire de la France_, ii. 297;

Professor W. Ridgeway, in _Academy_, 10th May 1884, p. 332; T. F.

Thiselton Dyer, _British Popular Customs_ (London, 1876), p. 497; L.

L. Duncan, “Further Notes from County Leitrim,” _Folk-lore_, v.

(1894) p. 197. The custom is still, or was down to a few years ago,

practised in County Meath, where the verses sung are practically the

same as those in the text. Wrens are scarce in that part of the

country, “but as the boys go round more for the fun of dressing up

and collecting money, the fact that there is no wren in their basket

is quite immaterial.” These particulars I learn from a letter of

Miss A. H. Singleton, dated Appey-Leix, Ireland, 24th February 1904.

948 W. Henderson, _Folk-lore of the Northern Counties_ (London, 1879),

p. 125.

949 Rev. C. Swainson, _op. cit._ pp. 40 _sq._

M237 Hunting the Wren in France.

950 Madame Clément, _Histoire des Fêtes civiles et religieuses_, etc.,

_de la Belgique Méridionale_ (Avesnes, 1846), pp. 466-468; A. De

Nore, _Coutumes, Mythes et Traditions des provinces de France_

(Paris and Lyons, 1846), pp. 77 _sqq._; E. Rolland, _Faune populaire

de la France_, ii. 295 _sq._; J. W. Wolf, _Beiträge zur deutschen

Mythologie_, ii. (Göttingen, 1857) pp. 437 _sq._ The ceremony was

abolished at the revolution of 1789, revived after the restoration,

and suppressed again after 1830.

951 E. Rolland, _op. cit._ ii. 296 _sq._

952 C. S. Sonnini, _Travels in Upper and Lower Egypt_, translated from

the French (London, 1800), pp. 11 _sq._; J. Brand, _Popular

Antiquities_, iii. 198. The “hunting of the wren” may be compared

with a Swedish custom. On the 1st of May children rob the magpies’

nests of both eggs and young. These they carry in a basket from

house to house in the village and shew to the housewives, while one

of the children sings some doggerel lines containing a threat that,

if a present is not given, the hens, chickens, and eggs will fall a

prey to the magpie. They receive bacon, eggs, milk, etc., upon which

they afterwards feast. See L. Lloyd, _Peasant Life in Sweden_

(London, 1870), pp. 237 _sq._ The resemblance of such customs to the

“swallow song” and “crow song” of the ancient Greeks (on which see

Athenaeus, viii. 59 _sq._, pp. 359, 360) is obvious and has been

remarked before now. Probably the Greek swallow-singers and

crow-singers carried about dead swallows and crows or effigies of

them. The “crow song” is referred to in a Greek inscription found in

the south of Russia ἕξ δεκάδας λυκάβας κεκορώνικα. See _Compte

Rendu_ of the Imperial Archaeological Commission, St. Petersburg,

1877, pp. 276 _sqq._ In modern Greece and Macedonia it is still

customary for children on 1st March to go about the streets singing

spring songs and carrying a wooden swallow, which is kept turning on

a cylinder. See J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 ii. 636; A.

Witzschel, _Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen_ (Vienna,

1878), p. 301; G. F. Abbott, _Macedonian Folk-lore_ (Cambridge,

1903), p. 18; J. C. Lawson, _Modern Greek Folklore and ancient Greek

Religion_ (Cambridge, 1910), p. 35. The custom of making the image

of the swallow revolve on a pivot, which is practised in Macedonia

as well as Greece, may be compared with the pirouetting of the girl

in the Servian rain-making ceremony. The meaning of these

revolutions is obscure. See _The Magic Art and the Evolution of

Kings_, i. 273, 275.

M238 Religious processions with sacred animals. Ceremony of beating a man

clad in a cow’s skin in the Highlands of Scotland.

953 S. Johnson, _A Journey to the Western Islands of Scotland_, pp. 128

_sq._ (_The Works of Samuel Johnson, LL.D._, edited by the Rev. R.

Lynam, London, 1825, vol. vi.).

954 John Ramsay, _Scotland and Scotsmen in the Eighteenth Century_

(Edinburgh and London, 1888), ii. 438 _sq._ The custom is clearly

referred to in the “Penitential of Theodore,” quoted by Kemble,

_Saxons in England_, i. 525; Ch. Elton, _Origins of English History_

(London, 1882), p. 411: “_Si quis in Kal. Januar. in cervulo vel

vitula vadit, id est in ferarum habitus se communicant, et

vestiuntur pellibus pecudum et assumunt capita bestiarum_,” etc.

M239 Another description of the Highland custom.

955 J. G. Campbell, _Witchcraft and Second Sight in the Highlands and

Islands of Scotland_ (Glasgow, 1902), pp. 230-232. Shinty is the

Scotch name for hockey: the game is played with a ball and curved

sticks or clubs.

956 R. Chambers, _Popular Rhymes of Scotland_, New Edition (London and

Edinburgh, N.D.), pp. 166 _sq._

957 See above, vol. i. pp. 246 _sq._

M240 Processions of men disguised as animals, in which the animal seems

to represent the corn-spirit. The Shrovetide Bear in Bohemia.

958 W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_ (Berlin, 1877), p. 183.

959 O. Freiherr von Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Fest- Kalender aus Böhmen_

(Prague, N.D., preface dated 1861), pp. 49-52. Compare E. Cortet,

_Essai sur les Fêtes Religieuses_ (Paris, 1867), p. 83. Similar

processions with a Shrovetide Bear take place among some of the

German peasantry of Moravia, though there the mummer is said to be

wrapt in skins and furs rather than in straw and to personate

Winter. See W. Müller, _Beiträge zur Volkskunde der Deutschen in

Mähren_ (Vienna and Olmütz, 1893), p. 431. This latter

interpretation may be due to a misunderstanding of the old custom.

960 On this custom see _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, i.

137 _sqq._

961 Real bears and other animals were formerly promenaded about both

town and country with rags of coloured cloth attached to them.

Scraps of these cloths and hairs of the animals were given, rather

perhaps sold, to all who asked for them as preservatives against

sickness and the evil eye. The practice was condemned by the Council

of Constance. See J. B. Thiers, _Traité des Superstitions_ (Paris,

1679), pp. 315 _sq._ We need not suppose that these animals

represented the corn-spirit.

M241 The Oats-goat, the Pease-bear, etc. The Yule-goat in Sweden.

962 W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, pp. 183 _sq._

963 See above, vol. i. pp. 281 _sqq._

964 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ p. 190.

965 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ p. 188.

966 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ pp. 191-193.

967 L. Lloyd, _Peasant Life in Sweden_ (London, 1870), pp. 184 _sq._; W.

Mannhardt, _op. cit._ pp. 196 _sq._

968 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ p. 196.

969 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ pp. 197 _sq._

970 See above, vol. i. pp. 275, 298 _sqq._

M242 The Straw-bear at Whittlesey.

971 Letter of Professor G. C. Moore Smith, dated The University,

Sheffield, 13th January, 1909.

M243 The ceremonies of Plough Monday in England.

972 R. Chambers, _The Book of Days_ (London and Edinburgh, 1886), i. 94

_sq._; J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, New Edition (London, 1883),

i. 506 _sqq._; T. F. Thiselton Dyer, _British Popular Customs_

(London, 1876), pp. 37 _sqq._; O. Freiherr von

Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Das festliche Jahr_ (Leipsic, 1863), pp. 27

_sq._ Compare W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_ (Berlin, 1875), pp. 557

_sq._; T. Fairman Ordish, “English Folk-drama,” _Folk-lore_, iv.

(1893) pp. 163 _sqq._; _Folk-lore_, viii. (1897) p. 184; E. K.

Chambers, _The Mediaeval Stage_ (Oxford, 1903), i. 208-210; H. Munro

Chadwick, _The Origin of the English Nation_ (Cambridge, 1907), p.

238. Counties in which the custom of Plough Monday is reported to

have been observed are Norfolk, Cambridgeshire, Huntingdonshire,

Northamptonshire, Lincolnshire, Leicestershire, Nottinghamshire,

Derbyshire, Cheshire, and Yorkshire. Thus the custom would seem to

have been characteristic of a group of counties in the centre of

England. In January 1887, I witnessed the ceremony in the streets of

Cambridge. Wooden ploughs of a primitive sort were dragged about by

bands of young men who were profusely decked with scarves and

ribbons. They ran at a good pace, and beside them ran a companion

with a money-box collecting donations. Amongst them I did not

observe any woman or man in female attire. Compare _The Folk-lore

Journal_, v. (1887) p. 161.

M244 The object of the dances on Plough Monday is probably to ensure the

growth of the corn.

M245 The Straw-bear a representative of the corn-spirit.

M246 The rites of Plough Monday resemble the rites at the end of the

Carnival in Thrace. Similar rites are performed at the same time by

the Bulgarian peasants of Thrace. The intention of the rites is

clearly to fertilise the ground.

973 See above, vol. i. pp. 25 _sqq._

974 G. Kazarow, “Karnevalbräuche in Bulgarien,” _Archiv für

Religionswissenschaft_, xi. (1908) pp. 407 _sq._

M247 Similar customs are observed at the Carnival in Bulgaria.

975 G. Kazarow, “Karnevalbräuche in Bulgarien,” _Archiv für

Religionswissenschaft,_ xi. (1908) pp. 408 _sq._

M248 In all these cases the ceremonial ploughing and sowing are probably

charms to ensure the growth of the crops.

M249 Such rites no doubt date from a remote antiquity.

M250 Effigy of a horse in a harvest festival of the Garos.

976 Major A. Playfair, _The Garos_ (London, 1909), pp. 94 _sq._

M251 Major Playfair’s description of the festival.

M252 Dance of a man wearing the mask of a horse’s head.

M253 The effigy of the horse at rice-harvest perhaps represents the

spirit of the rice.

977 See above, p. 21.

978 See my note on Pausanias, viii. 37. 3 (vol. iv. pp. 375 _sqq._).