ASSOCIATION OF IDEAS
Having formed general ideas, or Concepts, it is important that we
associate them with other general ideas. In order to fully _understand_
a general idea we must know its associations and relations. The greater
the known associations or relations of an idea, the greater is our
degree of understanding of that idea. If we simply know many thousands
of separated general ideas, without also knowing their associations and
relations, we are in almost as difficult a position as if we merely knew
thousands of individual percepts without being able to classify them in
general concepts. It is necessary to develop the faculty of associating
ideas into groups, according to their relations, just as we group
particular ideas in classes. The difference, however, is that these
group-ideas do not form classes of a genus, but depend solely upon
associations of several kinds, as we shall see in a moment.
Halleck says: "All ideas have certain definite associations with other
ideas, and they come up in groups. There is always an association
between our ideas, although there are cases when we cannot trace it....
Even when we find no association between our ideas, we may be sure that
it exists.... An idea, then, never appears in consciousness unless there
is a definite reason why this idea should appear in preference to
others." Brooks says: "One idea or feeling in the mind calls up some
other idea or feeling with which it is in some way related. Our ideas
seem, as it were, to be tied together by the invisible thread of
association, so that as one comes out of unconsciousness, it draws
another with it. Thoughts seem to exist somewhat in clusters like the
grapes of a bunch, so that in bringing out one, we bring the entire
cluster with it. The law of association is thus the tie, the thread, the
golden link by which our thoughts are united in an act of reproduction."
The majority of writers confine their consideration of Association of
Ideas to its relation to Memory. It is true that the Laws of Association
play an important part in Memory Culture, but Association of Ideas also
form an important part of the general subject of Thought-Culture, and
especially in the phase of the latter devoted to the development of the
Understanding. The best authorities agree upon this idea and state it
positively. Ribot says: "The most fundamental law which regulates
psychological phenomena is the Law of Association. In its comprehensive
character it is comparable to the law of attraction in the physical
world." Mill says: "That which the law of gravitation is to astronomy,
that which the elementary properties of the tissues are to physiology,
the Law of Association of Ideas is to psychology."
There are two general principles, or laws, operative in the processes of
Association of Ideas, known as (1) Association by Contiguity; and (2)
Association by Similarity, respectively.
Association by Contiguity manifests particularly in the processes of
memory. In its two phases of (1) Contiguity of Time; and (2) Contiguity
of Space, respectively, it brings together before the field of
consciousness ideas associated with each by reason of their time or
space relations. Thus, if we remember a certain thing, we find it easy
to remember things which occurred immediately before, or immediately
after that particular thing. Verbal memory depends largely upon the
contiguity of time, as for instance, our ability to repeat a poem, or
passage from a book, if we can recall the first words thereof. Children
often possess this form of memory to a surprising degree; and adults
with only a limited degree of understanding may repeat freely long
extracts from speeches they have heard, or even arbitrary jumbles of
words. Visual memory depends largely upon contiguity of space, as for
instance our ability to recall the details of scenes, when starting from
a given point. In both of these forms of association by contiguity the
mental operation is akin to that of unwinding a ball of yarn, the ideas,
thus associated in the sequence of time or place, following each other
into the field of consciousness. Association by Contiguity, while
important in itself, properly belongs to the general subject of Memory,
and as we have considered it in the volume of this series devoted to the
last mentioned subject, we shall not speak of it further here.
Association by Similarity, however, possesses a special interest to
students of the particular subject of the culture of the Understanding.
If we were compelled to rely upon the association of contiguity for our
understanding of things, we would understand a thing merely in its
relations to that which went before or came after it; or by the things
which were near it in space--we would have to unwind the mental ball of
time and space relations in order to bring into consciousness the
associated relations of anything. The Association of Similarity,
however, remedies this defect, and gives us a higher and broader
association. Speaking of Association of Similarity, Kay says: "It is of
the utmost importance to us in forming a judgment of things, or in
determining upon a particular line of conduct, to be able to bring
together before the mind a number of instances of a _similar_ kind,
recent or long past, which may aid us in coming to a right
determination. Thus, we may judge of the nature or quality of an
article, and obtain light and leading in regard to any subject that may
be before us. In this way we arrange and classify and reason by
induction. _This is known as rational or philosophical association._"
Halleck says: "An eminent philosopher has said that man is completely at
the mercy of the association of his ideas. Every new object is seen in
the light of its associated ideas.... It is not the business of the
psychologist to state what power the association of ideas _ought_ to
have. It is for him to ascertain what power it _does_ have. When we
think of the bigotry of past ages, of the stake for the martyr and the
stoning of witches, we can realize the force of Prof. Ziehen's
statement: 'We cannot think as we _will_, but we _must_ think as just
those associations which happen to be present prescribe.' While this is
not literally true, it may serve to emphasize a deflecting factor which
is usually underestimated."
Locke says: "The connection in our minds of ideas, in themselves loose
and independent of one another, has such an influence, and is of so
great force, to set us awry in our actions, as well moral as natural,
passions, reasonings, and notions themselves, that, perhaps, there is
not any one thing that deserves more to be looked after." Stewart says:
"The bulk of mankind, being but little accustomed to reflect and to
generalize, associate their ideas chiefly according to their more
obvious relations, and above all to the casual relations arising from
contiguity in time and place; whereas, in the mind of a philosopher
ideas are commonly associated according to those relations which are
brought to light in consequence of particular efforts of attention, such
as the relations of cause and effect, or of premises and conclusion.
Hence, it must necessarily happen that when he has occasion to apply to
use his acquired knowledge, time and reflection will be requisite to
enable him to recollect it."
This Association by Similarity, or the "rational and philosophical
association of ideas," may be developed and cultivated by a little care
and work. The first principle is that of _learning the true relations of
an idea_--its various logical associations. Perhaps the easiest and best
method is that adopted and practiced by Socrates, the old Greek
philosopher, often called "the Socratic method"--the Method of
Questioning. By questioning oneself, or others, regarding a thing, the
mind of the person answering tends to unfold its stores of information,
and to make new and true associations. Kays says: "Socrates, Plato, and
others among the ancients and some moderns, have been masters of this
art. The principle of asking questions and obtaining answers to them may
be said to characterize all intellectual effort.... The great thing is
to ask the right questions, and to obtain the right answers." Meiklejohn
says: "This art of questioning possessed by Dr. Hodgson was something
wonderful and unique, and was to the minds of most of his pupils a truly
obstetric art. He told them little or nothing, but showed them how to
find out for themselves. 'The Socratic method,' he said, 'is the true
one, especially with the young.'"
But this questioning must be done logically, and orderly, and not in a
haphazard way. As Fitch says: "In proposing questions it is very
necessary to keep in view the importance of arranging them in the exact
order in which the subject would naturally develop itself in the mind of
a logical and systematic thinker." A number of systems have been
formulated by different writers on the subject, all of which have much
merit. The following System of Analysis, designed for the use of
students desiring to acquire correct associations, was given in the
volume of this series, entitled "Memory," and is reproduced here because
it is peculiarly adapted to the cultivation and development of the
faculty of discovering and forming correct associations and relations
between ideas:
SYSTEM OF ANALYSIS
When you wish to discover what you really _know_ regarding a thing, ask
yourself the following questions about it, examining each point in
detail, and endeavoring to bring before the mind _your full knowledge_
regarding that particular point. Fill in the deficiencies by reading
some good work of reference, an encyclopedia for instance; or consulting
a good dictionary, or both:
I. Where did it come from, or originate?
II. What caused it?
III. What history or record has it?
IV. What are its attributes, qualities or characteristics?
V. What things can I most readily associate with it? What is it most
like?
VI. What is it good for--how may it be used--what can I do with it?
VII. What does it prove--what can be deduced from it?
VIII. What are its natural results--what happens because of it?
IX. What is its future; and its natural or probable end or finish?
X. What do I think of it, on the whole--what are my general
impressions regarding it?
XI. What do I know about it, in the way of general information?
XII. What have I heard about it, and from whom, and when?
The following "Query Table," from the same volume, may be found useful
in the same direction. It is simpler and less complicated than the
system given above. It has well been called a "Magic Key of Knowledge,"
and it opens many a mental door:
QUERY TABLE
Ask yourself the following questions regarding the thing under
consideration. It will draw out many bits of information and associated
knowledge in your mind:
I. What?
II. Whence?
III. Where?
IV. When?
V. How?
VI. Why?
VII. Whither?
Remember, always, that the greater the number of associated and related
ideas that you are able to group around a concept, the richer, fuller
and truer does that concept become to you. The concept is a _general
idea_, and its attributes of "generality" depend upon the associated
facts and ideas related to it. The greater the number of the view points
from which a concept may be examined and considered, the greater is the
degree of knowledge concerning that concept. It is held that everything
in the universe is related to every other thing, so that if we knew
_all_ the associated ideas and facts concerning a thing, we would not
only know that particular thing _absolutely_, but would, besides, know
_everything_ in the universe. The chain of Association is infinite in
extent.