ABSTRACTION
As we have seen, the first stage or step in the process of Thought is
that called Perception, which we have considered in the preceding
chapter. Perception, as we have seen, is the process by which we gain
our first knowledge of the external world as reported to us by the
channels of sense. The Perceptive faculties interpret the material which
is presented to us by the senses. Following upon Perception we find the
processes resulting from the exercise of the group of faculties which
are classified under the general head of Understanding.
Understanding is the faculty, or faculties, of the mind by means of
which we intelligently examine and compare the various _percepts_,
either separating them by analysis, or else combining them by synthesis,
or both, and thus securing our general ideas, principles, laws, classes,
etc. There are several sub-phases of Understanding which are known to
psychologists and logicians as: (1) Abstraction; (2) Conception or
Generalization; (3) Judgment, and (4) Reasoning, respectively. In this
chapter we shall consider the first of these sub-phases or steps of
Understanding, which is known as "Abstraction."
Abstraction is that faculty of the mind by which we abstract or "draw
off," and then consider apart, the particular qualities, properties, or
attributes of an object, and thus are able to consider _them_ as
"things" or objects of thought. In order to form _concepts_ or general
ideas, from our _percepts_ or particular ideas, we must consider and
examine two common points or qualities which go to make up _differences
and resemblances_. The special examination or consideration of these
common points or qualities result in the exercise of Abstraction. In the
process of Abstraction we mentally "draw away" a quality of an object
and then consider it as a distinct object of thought. Thus in
considering a flower we may _abstract_ its qualities of fragrance,
color, shape, etc., and think of these as things independent of the
flower itself from which they were derived. We think of _redness_,
_fragrance_, etc., not only in connection with the particular flower
but as _general qualities_. Thus the qualities of redness, sweetness,
hardness, softness, etc., lead us to the abstract terms, _red_, _sweet_,
_hard_, _soft_, _etc._ In the same way courage, cowardice, virtue, vice,
love, hate, etc., are abstract terms. No one ever saw one of these
things--they are known only in connection with objects, or else as
"abstract terms" in the processes of Thought. They may be known as
qualities, and expressed as predicates; or they may be considered as
abstract things and expressed as nouns.
In the general process of Abstraction we first draw off and set aside
all the qualities which are _not common_ to the general class under
consideration, for the concept or general idea must comprise only the
qualities common to its class. Thus in the case of the general idea of
horse, size and color must be abstracted as non-essentials, for horses
are of various colors and sizes. But on the other hand, there are
certain qualities which _are common to all horses_, and these must be
abstracted and used in making up the concept or general idea.
So, you see, in general Abstraction we form two classes: (1) the unlike
and not-general qualities; and (2) the like or common qualities. As
Halleck says: "In the process of Abstraction, we draw our attention away
from a mass of confusing details, unimportant at the time, and attend
only to qualities common to the class. Abstraction is little else than
centering the power of attention on some qualities to the exclusion of
others.... While we are forming concepts, we abstract or draw off
certain qualities, either to leave them out of view or to consider them
by themselves. Our dictionaries contain such words as purity, whiteness,
sweetness, industry, courage, etc. No one ever touched, tasted, smelled,
heard, or saw purity or courage. We do not, therefore, gain our
knowledge of these through the senses. We have seen pure persons, pure
snow, pure honey; we have breathed pure air, tasted pure coffee. From
all these different objects we have abstracted the only like quality,
the quality of being pure. We then say we have an idea of _purity_, and
that idea is an abstract one. It exists only in the mind which formed
it. No one ever saw _whiteness_. He may have seen white clouds, snow,
cloth, blossoms, houses, paper, horses, but he never saw _whiteness_ by
itself. He simply abstracted that quality from various white objects."
In Abstraction we may either (1) abstract a quality and set it aside and
apart from the other qualities under consideration, as being
non-essential and not necessary; or we may (2) abstract a quality and
hold it in the mind as essential and necessary for the concept which we
are forming. Likewise, we may abstract (1) all the qualities of an
object _except one_, and set them aside that we may consider the _one_
quality by itself; or we may (2) abstract the one particular quality and
consider it to the exclusion of all its associated qualities. In all of
these aspects we have the same underlying process of considering a
quality apart from its object, and apart from its associated qualities.
The mind more commonly operates in the direction of abstracting one
quality and viewing it apart from object and associated qualities.
The importance of correct powers of Abstraction is seen when we realize
that all concepts or general ideas are but combinations of abstract
qualities or ideas. As Halleck says: "The difference between an
_abstract idea_ and a _concept_ is that a concept may consist of a
bundle of abstract ideas. If the class contains more than one common
quality, so must the concept; it must contain as many of these
abstracted qualities as are common to the class. The concept of the
class _whale_ would embody a large number of such qualities." As Brooks
says: "If we could not abstract, we could not _generalize_, for
abstraction is a condition of generalization." The last-mentioned
authority also cleverly states the idea as follows: "The products of
Abstraction are _abstract ideas_, that is, ideas of qualities in the
abstract. Such ideas are called _Abstracts_. Thus my idea of some
particular color, or hardness, or softness, is an abstract. Abstract
ideas have been wittily called 'the ghosts of departed qualities.' They
may more appropriately be regarded as the spirits of which the objects
from which they are derived are the bodies. In other words, they are,
figuratively speaking, 'the disembodied spirits of material things.'"
The cultivation of the faculty of Abstraction depends very materially,
in the first place, upon the exercise of Attention and Perception. Mill
holds that Abstraction is primarily a result of Attention. Others hold
that it is merely the mental process by which the attention is directed
exclusively to the consideration of one of several qualities,
properties, attributes, parts, etc. Hamilton says: "Attention and
Abstraction then are only the same process viewed in different
relations. They are, as it were, the positive and negative poles of the
same act." The cultivation of Attention is really a part of the process
of the cultivation of the faculty of Abstraction. Unless the Attention
be directed toward the object and its qualities we will be unable to
perceive, set aside, and separately consider the abstract quality
contained within it. In this process, as indeed in all other mental
processes, Attention is a prerequisite. Therefore, here, as in many
other places, we say to you: "Begin by cultivating Attention."
Moreover, the cultivation of the faculty of Abstraction depends
materially upon the cultivation of Perception. Not only must we _sense_
the existence of the various qualities in an object, but we must also
_perceive_ them in consciousness, just as we perceive the object itself.
In fact, the perception of the object is merely a perception of its
various qualities, attributes and properties, for the object itself is
merely a composite of these abstract things, at least so far as its
perception in consciousness is concerned. Try to think of _a horse_,
without considering its qualities, attributes and properties, and the
result is merely _an abstract horse_--something which belongs to the
realm of unreality. Try to think of _a rose_ without considering its
color, odor, shape, size, response to touch, etc., and you have simply
_an ideal rose_ which when analyzed is seen to be a _nothing_. Take away
the qualities, properties and attributes of anything, and you have left
_merely a name_, or else a transcendental, idealistic, something apart
from our world of sense knowledge. Thus it follows that in order to
_know_ the qualities of a thing in order to classify it, or to form a
general idea of it, we _must_ use the Perception in order to interpret
or translate the sense-impressions we have received regarding them.
Consequently the greater our power of Perception the greater must be
the possibility of our power of Abstraction.
Beyond the cultivation, use and exercise of the Attention and the
Perception, there are but few practical methods for cultivating the
faculty of Abstraction. Of course, _exercise_ of the faculty will
develop it; and _the furnishing of material for its activities_ will
give it the "nourishment" of which we have spoken elsewhere. Practice in
distinguishing the various qualities, attributes and properties of
objects will give a valuable training to the faculty.
Let the student take any object and endeavor to analyze it into its
abstract qualities, etc. Let him try to discover qualities hidden from
first sight. Let him make a list of these qualities, and write them
down; then try to add to the list. Two or more students engaging in a
friendly rivalry will stimulate the efforts of each other. In children
the exercise may be treated as a game. _Analysis of objects into their
component qualities, attributes and qualities--the effort to extract as
many adjectives applicable to the object_--this is the first step. The
second step consists in _transforming these adjectives into their
corresponding nouns_. As for instance, in a rose we perceive the
_qualities_ which we call "redness," "fragrance," etc. We speak of the
rose as being "red" or "fragrant"--then we think of "redness," or
"fragrance" as abstract qualities, or things, which we express as nouns.
Exercise and practice along these lines will tend to cultivate the
faculty of Abstraction. By knowing qualities, we know the things
possessing them.