31.7 knots by patent log, with a mean of 29 knots at full power and
24.5 or so at three-quarter power. For her trials the _Lion_ burned
coal only, and this at the seemingly enormous rate of 950 tons a day,
which worked out at approximately about a ton and a quarter per mile.
This consumption, heavy though it seems, really pans out at about the
usual “ton a mile,” as the ship developed horse-power far in excess
of the contract. At the same time it necessarily draws attention to
the enormous increase in coal stores required for supplying modern
warships. It is unfortunately by no means clear that the question of
the very great increase in coal required for modern warships has been
thoroughly realised by the authorities. The amount provided may be said
to be what ships needed in the pre-Dreadnought era. It is now an open
secret that at the time of the “war scare” with Germany in 1911, the
British Home Fleet was unable to proceed to sea owing to a shortage
of coal supply, many ships being a thousand tons short and no proper
arrangements for rapid remedy existing. This state of affairs, at
one time alleged to be merely a newspaper _canard_, is not likely to
occur again; but it is an indication of how difficult it is adequately
to realise the problem of coal supply to ships of ever-increasing
horse-power.
During the _Lion’s_ trials it was found that the heat from the fore
funnel was so great that the fire-control station (then carried on
a tripod mast placed immediately over the forward funnel) was so
intense as to render that position practically impossible. On the
navigating bridge also, instruments were badly affected by the heat.
The ship was consequently further delayed in order to effect essential
modifications. These included the abolition of the tripod mast,
shifting the fore funnel back a long way, and enormously increasing the
height of all funnels.
The principal item of the Estimates of 1910–11 was five armoured ships.
Of these, four, the _King George V_ class, are slightly improved
replicas of the _Orion_, while the remaining vessel, the _Queen Mary_,
is a battle-cruiser of the _Lion_ type.
Ships of the _George V_ class are as follows:--
================+===============+==============
Name. | Built at. | Machinery by.
----------------+---------------+--------------
_King George V_ | Portsmouth Y. | Hawthorn
_Centurion_ | Devonport Y. | Hawthorn
_Ajax Scotts_ | Scotts | Scotts
_Audacious_ | Cammell-Laird | Cammell-Laird
================+===============+==============
The over-all length is increased to 596ft., and the horse-power to
31,000. All were laid down during 1911, with a view to launching during
1912 and completion in 1913. The displacement of these ships is 23,000
tons odd.
The _Queen Mary_, laid down at Palmers’ early in 1911, and engined by
Clydebank, is virtually a sister to the _Lion_, differing from her
merely in a slight variation of the lines, and some increase in length.
Save for these items, and a small difference in the arrangement of the
anti-torpedo armament, the ship belongs to the same class and type.
The 1911–12 Estimates provided for five further large armoured ships,
which represent an increase in dimensions over their predecessors. Of
these the first four are battleships varying from their predecessors
in the inevitable increase in size to allow of somewhat superior
protection and an improved secondary battery--twelve 6-inch being
substituted for the sixteen 4-inch of the _King George_ class.
The selection of the 6-inch gun as the anti-torpedo craft weapon was
due partly to the way in which Germany had persisted in her rigid
adherence to that calibre for her minor armament, and partly to the
rapidly increasing size of destroyers. It was held as questionable,
even by the most ardent believers in the ability of the big ship
to defend herself against destroyer attack, whether the 4-inch was
sufficient to disable large destroyers. Hence the adoption of the
6-inch--the largest gun that can be man-handled.
The nominal displacement of these battleships, the _Iron Duke_ class,
rises to 25,000 tons as against 23,000 of the previous class. The
length is increased to 620ft. and the beam to 89½ (instead of 89ft.).
Owing to improved lines, the horse-power is reduced to 30,000 without
any very material loss of speed. In all these super-Dreadnoughts, as
in the Dreadnoughts themselves, 21 knots has always been the selected
speed, though in units there have been slight variations.
Ships of the _Iron Duke_ class are as follows:--
====================+===============+==============
Name. | Built at. | Machinery by.
--------------------+---------------+--------------
_Iron Duke_ | Portsmouth Y. | Cammell-Laird
_Benbow Beardmore_ | Beardmore | Beardmore
_Emperor of India_ | Vickers | Vickers
_Marlborough_ | Devonport Y. | Hawthorn
====================+===============+==============
The _Emperor of India_ was originally named _Delhi_. The first two were
given Babcock, and the second two Yarrow boilers. All were completed
in 1914, but only the _Iron Duke_ was available for service on the eve
of the outbreak of the war with Germany and Austria. The other three
were, however, rapidly completed and put into commission.
The fifth ship of the 1911–12 Estimates was the battle cruiser _Tiger_,
nominally belonging to the _Lion_ group, but actually differing very
considerably in various important details.
She was laid down at Clydebank in June, 1912, a great deal of official
reticence being maintained concerning her. She was not complete on
the outbreak of war; but as she was available for service not long
afterwards she is included in this survey.
The marked and most characteristic difference between her and the
_Lions_ is that the third turret instead of being cramped amidships
as in the _Lion_ design, is moved further aft, thus giving a greatly
improved arc of fire. Twelve 6-inch were substituted for the sixteen
4-inch of the _Lions_ for reasons already given.
The _Tiger_ is approximately 720ft. long, with a nominal horse-power of
75,000. Babcock type boilers are fitted. Her nominal speed is 27 knots,
but this has more than once been very considerably exceeded.
For 1912–13 the Estimates provided for four capital ships, the usual
twenty destroyers, and a new type of warship designated as “lightly
armoured cruisers.”
This programme is of abounding interest, not only on account of the
fact that--so far as the larger types of ships are concerned--it
probably embodies the last new construction available for the British
Fleet in the war (unless the war endure beyond all anticipations) but
also because of its more or less revolutionary nature.
[Illustration: EARLY “30 KNOT” DESTROYERS.]
The big ships of the programme were as follows:--
==================+=================+==============
Name. | Built at. | Machinery by.
------------------+-----------------+--------------
_Queen Elizabeth_ | Portsmouth Yard | Wallsend
_Warspite_ | Devonport Yard | Hawthorn
_Valiant_ | Clydebank | Fairfield
_Barham_ | Fairfield | Fairfield
_Malaya_ | Elswick | Wallsend
==================+=================+==============
The fifth ship in this list, the _Malaya_, is an extra vessel paid for
and presented to the British Navy by the Federated Malay States.
In general appearance these ships of the _Queen Elizabeth_ class do not
greatly differ from their predecessors; but there all resemblance ends.
In every other way they embody a “new idea”--an attempt so to blend
the battleship proper with the battle-cruiser so as to secure the best
points of both.
Roughly, the battleship proper sacrifices speed for extra gun power
and protection; while the battle-cruiser sacrifices these two latter
for speed. The speed of the _Queen Elizabeths_ was fixed at 25
knots--something rather less than that of battle-cruisers, but still
sufficiently high to take them out of the ordinary battleship category
as hitherto understood. Certainly they differ from the normal quite
as much as the original _Dreadnought_ differed from her immediate
predecessors.
It was only possible to secure this high speed, plus other qualities,
by the bold adoption of oil fuel only--in itself of the nature of a
gigantic experiment, which, however, results have more than justified.
The designed horse-power to secure 25 knots is 58,000.
If, however, the motive power embodied novelty, still more so did the
armament. For the ten 13.5’s of preceding ships, eight 15-inch guns
were substituted. So far as power is concerned the 13.5 is ample for
all contingencies, but the 15-inch embodies a marked superiority in
range and the additional accuracy which a heavier projectile naturally
affords. Furthermore--a very important point--the “life” of the 15-inch
gun is much longer, owing to there being no necessity to utilise the
full power of which it is capable.
The general arrangement of turrets is that of all the
super-Dreadnoughts, with the middle turret (always the most restricted
in arc of fire) omitted.
Nothing has ever been officially stated as to the armour protection;
but it is known to be equal or superior to that of any preceding
battleships.
When war broke out, the first two of these ships were nearing
completion--the first being completed about the end of 1914 and the
second at the end of March, 1915.
The 1913–14 Estimates provided for five more or less normal battleships
designed for coal fuel,[36] the usual 21 knots speed, but 15-inch
instead of 13.5-inch guns.
==================+===============+==============
Name. | Built at. | Machinery by.
------------------+---------------+--------------
_Royal Sovereign_ | Portsmouth Y. | (not stated)
_Royal Oak_ | Devonport Y. | (not stated)
_Resolution_ | Palmer | Palmer
_Ramillies_ | Beardmore | Beardmore
_Revenge_ | Vickers | Vickers
==================+===============+==============
Beyond that they are of 25,750 tons, and were designed for 31,000
horse-power, no details of these ships have been furnished. Two were
estimated to be completed by the end of 1915--the others in 1916.
The rest of the programme consisted of eight more lightly armoured
cruisers, a reduced number of destroyers and an increased number of
submarines.
In the 1914–15 Estimates three more battleships of the _Royal
Sovereign_ class--to be named _Renown_, _Repulse_, and
_Resistance_--were provided for, also a sixth ship of the _Queen
Elizabeth class_, which was provisionally named _Agincourt_. The
participation of any of these in the war is very improbable.
The other vessels of the programme were four lightly armoured cruisers,
twelve destroyers and an unstated number of submarines.
When war broke out three battleships building in British Yards--two for
Turkey and one for Chili--were taken over by the British Admiralty.
Details of these are as follows:--
==========================+===============+==============================
Name. | Displacement. | Armament.
--------------------------+---------------+------------------------------
_Agincourt_ | |
(ex-_Sultan Osman I_) | 27,500 | 14--12in., 20--6in.; 3 tubes.
| |
_Erin_ | |
(ex-_Sultan Rechad V_) | 23,000 | 10--13.5, 16--6in.; 3 tubes.
| |
_Canada_ | |
(ex-_Almirante Latorre_)| 28,000 | 10--14in., 16--6in.; 4 tubes.
==========================+===============+==============================
There were also taken over three Brazilian armoured gunboats--renamed
_Humber_, _Severn_, and _Mersey_--of 1,200 tons each, carrying two
6-inch guns forward and two 4.7-inch howitzers aft. The speed is about
11½ knots, and early use was made of these vessels on the Belgian coast
shortly after the outbreak of war.
In addition to the above, two large Chilian destroyers building at
Cowes were taken over and renamed _Broke_ and _Faulknor_.
A variety of other vessels were likewise incorporated into the British
Fleet, liners (to act as auxiliary cruisers), trawlers (to act as
mine sweepers), plus various hospital ships, transports, and so on and
so forth. Roughly, from 25 to 33 per cent. of the British Mercantile
Marine came to be used in some way or other by the Admiralty--to say
nothing of innumerable private yachts and motor boats.
The destroyers of the period have not materially differed from their
predecessors of the Dreadnought era, save for the adoption of two, and
subsequently three, 4-inch guns in the armament, instead of one.
Submarines and aerial craft are dealt with in a separate chapter.
* * * * *
At and about the year 1912, the “super-Dreadnought” may be said to have
reached its apotheosis.
For what it is worth, however, it may here be put on record that
junior opinion in the Navy was then becoming opposed not only to
“super-Dreadnoughts” but to Dreadnoughts in any shape or form. Hardly
any naval officer under the rank of Commander, and an ever-increasing
percentage over that rank, was to be found who was not more or less
convinced that the days of the Dreadnoughts and “super-Dreadnoughts”
might be nearly numbered, and that we were possibly on the verge of
some as yet indeterminate revolution in naval construction as great as
any that the “fifties” saw.
As yet no very clear argument can be produced. Only vaguely it is put
forward that with torpedo range what it is, the big ship’s chance
against torpedo craft is practically relegated to not being found, and
“not being found” depends mainly upon the “super-Dreadnought” being
screened with very numerous smaller craft.
When Lord Charles Beresford put it on record that a hundred
anti-torpedo attack guns would be useless in a battleship, he spoke for
all progressive naval ideas. A destroyer may be hit and hit vitally,
but it is hard to imagine a hit which will stop her drifting within
easy range of her quarry before going down. If hostile destroyers get
in, the only real chance of big ships is to sweep their decks with
the modern variant of “case shot” and so kill the crews, a difficult
proposition at the best owing to the small amount of time available.
The proposition is rendered tenfold harder by the certainty that
attack, if it comes, will not come from one quarter only, but from
several. Consequently to preserve the Dreadnoughts, an ever increasing
number of auxiliaries is demanded. Of these no Navy can be said to have
a sufficiency. Hence it is argued that a destroyer attack is bound to
succeed sooner or later, while even did a sufficiency of small craft
exist, the big ship has to be so nursed and protected that her sphere
of usefulness is enormously reduced. Submarines also are a deadly
danger.
On the other hand it is argued that, given sufficient bulk to the big
ship, torpedoes are likely to be relatively harmless to her; it is also
asked how can the small craft protect their own big ships and also
search out and attack the enemy’s mastodons?
There, till the war proves something definite one way or the other,
the matter must be left. The big ship has been doomed so often, and
so often adapted itself to changed conditions, that it may well do so
again, despite the seemingly heavy odds against it.
_PROTECTED CRUISERS OF THE DREADNOUGHT ERA._
The original conception of the Dreadnought era was “nothing between
the most powerful armoured ships and torpedo craft,” though so far as
second class cruisers were concerned the last of these had been laid
down in 1901.
The persistence with which Germany continued yearly to build
small protected cruisers eventually, however, began to cause some
perturbation; and in the 1908–09 Estimates five protected cruisers
of the _Bristol_ class were provided for. These were the _Bristol_
(Clydebank), _Glasgow_ (Fairfield), _Gloucester_ (Beardmore),
_Liverpool_ (Vickers), _Newcastle_ (Elswick). The designed displacement
was 4,820 tons, length 453 feet over all, beam 47 feet, and mean
draught 15¼ feet. Armament two 6-inch, ten 4-inch, and two submerged
tubes. A speed of 25 knots was expected from 22,000 horse-power. On
trials all exceeded 26 knots. All were fitted with Yarrow boilers, also
turbines of the Parsons type, except in the _Bristol_, in which Curtiss
type turbines were installed.
For 1909–10 four more similar ships were provided--the _Weymouth_
class. Displacement rose to 5,250 tons, and a uniform armament of eight
6-inch was substituted for the mixed armament of the _Bristol_ class.
These four “Town” cruisers were the _Weymouth_ (Elswick), _Yarmouth_
(London and Glasgow Co.), _Dartmouth_ (Vickers), and _Falmouth_
(Beardmore). All were given Yarrow boilers and Parsons turbines except
the _Weymouth_, which was supplied with Curtiss turbines.
The Estimates of 1910–11 contained three cruisers, the _Chatham_,
_Dublin_, and _Southampton_, of the same type, but with a displacement
increased by 200 tons. Three more, the _Birmingham_, _Nottingham_, and
_Lowestoft_, figured in the Estimates of 1911–12.
In 1907 the practice was instituted of building a Scout or two a year,
those constructed to date being the _Boadicea_, _Bellona_, _Blanche_,
_Blonde_, _Active_, _Amphion_, and _Fearless_, all of which are
unarmoured, and so more or less compelled to fight modern destroyers on
equal terms. Of these the _Amphion_ was lost early in the war by a mine.
Of the original type were three Australian cruisers, _Sydney_,
_Melbourne_ and _Brisbane_, of which two were built in this country and
the third built, or put together, in Australia. In all these ships the
slight increase in displacement was due to the introduction of a thin
armour belt amidships--a “reply” to a similar innovation in the German
Navy.
The 1912–13 Estimates saw no more of the “Town” class cruisers being
provided for, but, as already stated, they heralded the appearance of
eight vessels of a new type, officially described as “lightly armoured
cruisers.”
They were at one and the same time an entirely new type, and also
a reversion to the original _Bristol_ with modifications born of
experience.
In essence, these ships of the _Arethusa_ class--_Arethusa_, _Aurora_,
_Galatea_, _Inconstant_, _Royalist_, _Penelope_, _Phaeton_ and
_Undaunted_, compared with the prototype as follows:--
====================+========================+======================
| _Arethusa._ | _Bristol._
--------------------+------------------------+----------------------
Displacement (tons) | 3520 | 4800
Armament | 2--6in. | 2--6in.
| 6--4in. | 10--4in.
| 4 above water t. tubes | 2 submerged t. tubes
Side protection | 2½″ | _nil._
H.P. | 30,000 | 22,000
Speed (est.) kts. | 30 | 25
====================+========================+======================
Fuel supply has never been given out officially, but it may be stated
that, roughly, by making use of oil fuel in the _Arethusa_, a radius
equal to that of the _Bristols_ was secured with a considerable saving
in weight.
Incidentally, this is one of the most interesting examples of how
the progress of invention makes possible to-day the impossibility
of yesterday. When the _Bristols_ were designed they were the “best
possible” of 1908. Four years later oil fuel had opened out an entirely
novel vista.
In the 1913–14 Estimates another eight of similar cruisers were
provided for, with, however, 250 tons odd added to the displacement
and an extra 6-inch gun forward allowed for; though this, however,
was altered afterwards, as this batch of cruisers, the _Calliope_,
_Caroline_, _Carysfort_, _Champion_, _Cleopatra_, _Comus_, _Conquest_,
_Cordelia_, do not carry any 6-inch guns forward like the _Arethusa_,
but mount a couple, one abaft the other aft--a wise arrangement, as a
heavy weight forward does not make for sea-worthiness.
The _Arethusas_ and the “C” class, therefore, compare as follows:--
==============+==========+============+===================
| Forward. | Amidships. | Aft.
--------------+----------+------------+-------------------
_Arethusas_ | One 6in. | Four 4in. | One 6in., two 4in.
“_C_” _class_ | Two 4in. | Six 4in. | Two 6in.
==============+==========+============+===================
which indicates a couple of 4-inch guns gained for the extra 250 tons.
In the 1914–15 Estimates four similar vessels were provided for, but no
details whatever have been published concerning them.
_DESTROYERS IN THE DREADNOUGHT ERA._
The Dreadnought era, while simplifying types of big ships, was the
early institution of two distinct types of destroyers, plus an
experimental vessel which was not duplicated. The original staple
idea of Dreadnought era destroyers was to build very fast ocean-going
destroyers for fleet work, and smaller craft, “coastals,” for
local duties. A considerable flourish of trumpets accompanied the
announcement of this decision, which, however, was in no way really
novel. It merely reproduced in destroyers the long exploded idea of
sea-going and coast-defence ironclads.
Of these boats the first instalment amounted to a total of eighteen;
the most important being the experimental boat _Swift_, which was given
a displacement of 1,825 tons, and so might just as well have been
designated a fast small cruiser. The horse-power provided was no less
than 30,000, the speed 36 knots, though on trials she once reached
nearly 39 knots. Armament four 4-inch, two 18-inch tubes. Cost about
£280,500.
It is interesting to note that in 1885 a precisely similar idea found
vent in a _Swift_ (afterwards renamed t.b. 81) of 125 tons against the
40 to 65 tons that was then normal for torpedo boats. It was nine years
before anything else of the same size was built.
The first standard destroyers of the era were the “Oceans” (often known
as “Tribals”). These averaged 880 tons, 33 knot speed with oil fuel
only. Between 1906 and 1910 altogether a dozen were built. The armament
given to the five first was five 12-pounder, and two 18-inch tubes;
in later boats two 4-inch, 25-pounder were substituted for the five
12-pounders.
The “coastal destroyers,” which have since lost that name, and are now
known as first-class torpedo-boats, were built in groups of twelve for
three years; the first batch averaging 225 tons, and later boats about
260 tons. In all the armament is two 12-pounder and three 18-inch
torpedo tubes; speed 26 knots. Parsons turbines in all, and oil fuel
instead of coal.
In 1908–09 there came a revulsion of official feeling against both
types, and an attempt to evolve a species of intermediate was made.
It was held that the Oceans were exceedingly costly; also somewhat
fragile. The new boats, the _Beagle_ class, averaged 900 tons instead
of the thousand tons that the latest Oceans were getting to. Armament
was reduced to one 4-inch, 25-pounder, and three 12-pounders, with the
usual two 18-inch torpedo tubes. Speed was cut down to 27 knots. Oil
fuel was done away with, and coal reverted to.
The 1909–10 programme provided for 20 destroyers of the _Acorn_ class.
These are slightly smaller than the _Beagles_, armed with two 4-inch
and two 12-pounders, but with oil again instead of coal only.
On account of considerable agitation in Parliament as to the small
number of modern British destroyers, the construction of all this class
was accelerated by a few months, and with a single exception they were
completed in June, 1911.
Up till this time considerable latitude had been given to contractors
for destroyers. In the 1910–11 programme the _Acheron_ class, an
Admiralty design, was given out for fourteen of the boats, which,
except that they had two funnels instead of three, closely corresponded
with the destroyers of the preceding year. In the other six boats the
firms of Thornycroft, Yarrow, and Parsons were given some considerable
freedom of design with two boats each, and an increased speed was
obtained with all.