part in a trill given out by piccolo, and gradually taken by one
instrument after the other, until the whole orchestra is in a hearty
laugh and shaking with string, brass, and wood wind glee. Then enters
Dame Quickly, mischief-maker, and sets the trap at Herne's Oak in
Windsor Forest, into which Falstaff readily falls. The closing scene
is rich with humor. It opens with a delightful love-song by Fenton
("From those sweet lips a song of love arises"). The conspirators
enter one after the other, and at last Falstaff, disguised as the
sable hunter. The elves are summoned, and glide about to the delicious
fairy music accompanying Nannetta's beautiful song ("While we dance in
the moonlight"). From this point the action hastens to the happy
dénouement, and the work concludes with a fugue which is imbued with
the very spirit of humor and yet is strictly constructed. While the
vocal parts are extraordinary in their declamatory significance, the
strength of the opera lies in the instrumentation, and its charm in
the delicious fun and merriment which pervades it all and is aptly
expressed in the closing lines:--
"All in this world is jesting.
Man is born to be jolly,
E'en from grief some happiness wresting
Sure proof against melancholy."
WAGNER.
Richard Wagner, who has been somewhat ironically called the musician
of the future, and whose music has been relegated to posterity by a
considerable number of his contemporaries, was born at Leipsic, May
22, 1813. After his preliminary studies in Dresden and Leipsic, he
took his first lessons in music from Cantor Weinlig. In 1836 he was
appointed musical director in the theatre at Magdeburg, and later
occupied the same position at Königsberg. Thence he went to Riga,
where he began his opera "Rienzi." He then went to Paris by sea, was
nearly shipwrecked on his way thither, and landed without money or
friends. After two years of hard struggling he returned to Germany.
His shipwreck and forlorn condition inspired the theme of "The Flying
Dutchman," and while on his way to Dresden he passed near the castle
of Wartburg, in the valley of Thuringia, whose legends inspired his
well-known opera of "Tannhäuser." He next removed to Zurich, and about
this time appeared "Lohengrin," one of his most favorite operas.
"Tristan and Isolde" was produced in 1856, and his comic opera, "Die
Meistersinger von Nürnberg," three years later. In 1864 he received
the patronage of King Louis of Bavaria, which enabled him to complete
and perform his great work, "Der Ring der Nibelungen." He laid the
foundation of the new theatre at Baireuth in 1872, and in 1875 the
work was produced, and created a profound sensation all over the
musical world. "Parsifal," his last opera, was first performed in
1882. His works have aroused great opposition, especially among
conservative musicians, for the reason that he has set at defiance the
conventional operatic forms, and in carrying out his theory of making
the musical and dramatic elements of equal importance, and employing
the former as the language of the latter in natural ways, has made
musical declamation take the place of set melody, and swept away the
customary arias, duets, quartets, and concerted numbers of the Italian
school, to suit the dramatic exigencies of the situations. Besides his
musical compositions, he enjoys almost equal fame as a litterateur,
having written not only his own librettos, but four important
works,--"Art and the Revolution," "The Art Work of the Future," "Opera
and Drama," and "Judaism in Music." His music has made steady progress
through the efforts of such advocates as Liszt, Von Bülow, and Richter
in Germany, Pasdeloup in France, Hueffer in England, and Theodore
Thomas in the United States. In 1870 he married Frau Cosima von Bülow,
the daughter of Liszt,--an event which provoked almost as much comment
in social circles as his operas have in musical. He died during a
visit to Venice, Feb. 13, 1883.
RIENZI.
"Rienzi der letzte der Tribunen," a tragic opera in five acts, words
by the composer, the subject taken from Bulwer's novel, "The Last of
the Tribunes," was first produced at Dresden, Oct. 20, 1842, with Herr
Tichatscheck, Mme. Schröder-Devrient, and Mlle. Wiest in the principal
rôles. It was designed and partly completed during Wagner's stay in
Riga as orchestra leader. In his Autobiography the composer says that
he first read the story at Dresden in 1837, and was greatly impressed
with its adaptability for opera. He began it in the fall of the same
year at Riga, and says: "I had composed two numbers of it, when I
found, to my annoyance, that I was again fairly on the way to the
composition of music à la Adam. I put the work aside in disgust."
Later he projected the scheme of a great tragic opera in five acts,
and began upon it with fresh enthusiasm in the fall of 1838. By the
spring of 1839 the first two acts were completed. At that time his
engagement at Riga terminated, and he set out for Paris. He soon found
that it would be hopeless for him to bring out the opera in that city,
notwithstanding Meyerbeer had promised to assist him. He offered it to
the Grand Opera and to the Renaissance, but neither would accept it.
Nothing daunted, he resumed work upon it, intending it for Dresden. In
October, 1842, it was at last produced in that city, and met with such
success that it secured him the position of capellmeister at the
Dresden opera-house.
The action of the opera passes at Rome, towards the middle of the
fourteenth century. The first act opens at night, in a street near the
Church of St. John Lateran, and discovers Orsini, a Roman patrician,
accompanied by a crowd of nobles, attempting to abduct Irene, the
sister of Rienzi, a papal notary. The plot is interrupted by the
entrance of Colonna, the patrician leader of another faction, who
demands the girl. A quarrel ensues. Adriano, the son of Colonna, who
is in love with Irene, suddenly appears and rushes to her defence.
Gradually other patricians and plebeians are attracted by the tumult,
among the latter, Rienzi. When he becomes aware of the insult offered
his sister, he takes counsel with the Cardinal Raimondo, and they
agree to rouse the people in resistance to the outrages of the nobles.
Adriano is placed in an embarrassing position,--his relationship to
the Colonnas urging him to join the nobles, and his love for Irene
impelling him with still stronger force to make common cause with the
people. He finally decides to follow Rienzi, just as the trumpets are
heard calling the people to arms and Rienzi clad in full armor makes
his appearance to lead them.
The struggle is a short one. The nobles are overcome, and in the
second act they appear at the Capitol to acknowledge their submission
to Rienzi: but Adriano, who has been among them, warns Rienzi that
they have plotted to kill him. Festal dances, processions, and
gladiatorial combats follow, in the midst of which Orsini rushes at
Rienzi and strikes at him with his dagger. Rienzi is saved by a steel
breastplate under his robes. The nobles are at once seized and
condemned to death. Adriano pleads with Rienzi to spare his father,
and moved by his eloquence he renews the offer of pardon if they will
swear submission. They take the oath only to violate it. The people
rise and demand their extermination. Rienzi once more draws the sword,
and Adriano in vain appeals to him to avert the slaughter. He is again
successful, and on his return announces to Adriano that the Colonnas
and Orsinis are no more. The latter warns him of coming revenge, and
the act closes with the coronation of Rienzi.
The fourth act opens at night near the church. The popular tide has
now turned against Rienzi, upon the report that he is in league with
the German Emperor to restore the pontiff. A festive cortége
approaches, escorting him to the church. The nobles bar his way, but
disperse at his command; whereupon Adriano rushes at him with drawn
dagger, but the blow is averted as he hears the chant of malediction
in the church, and sees its dignitaries placing the ban of
excommunication against Rienzi upon its doors. He hurries to Irene,
warns her that her brother's life is no longer safe, and urges her to
fly with him. She repulses him, and seeks her brother, to share his
dangers or die with him. She finds him at prayer in the Capitol. He
counsels her to accept the offer of Adriano and save herself, but she
repeats her determination to die with him. The sounds of the
approaching crowd are heard outside. Rienzi makes a last appeal to
them from the balcony, but the infuriated people will not listen. They
set fire to the Capitol with their torches, and stone Rienzi and Irene
through the windows. As the flames spread from room to room and
Adriano beholds them enveloping the devoted pair, he throws away his
sword, rushes into the burning building, and perishes with them.
The overture of "Rienzi" is in the accepted form, for the opera was
written before Wagner had made his new departure in music, and takes
its principal themes, notably Rienzi's prayer for the people and the
finale to the first act, from the body of the work. The general style
of the whole work is vigorous and tumultuous. The first act opens with
a hurly-burly of tumult between the contending factions and the
people. The first scene contains a vigorous aria for the hero ("Wohl
an so mög es sein"), which leads up to a fiery terzetto ("Adriano du?
Wie ein Colonna!") between Rienzi, Irene, and Adriano, followed by an
intensely passionate scene ("Er geht und lässt dich meinem Schutz")
between the last two. The finale is a tumultuous mass of sound,
through which are heard the tones of trumpets and cries of the people.
It opens with a massive double chorus ("Gegrüsst, gegrüsst"), shouted
by the people on the one side and the monks in the Lateran on the
other, accompanied by an andante movement on the organ. It is
interrupted for a brief space by the ringing appeal of Rienzi
"Erstehe, hohe Roma, neu," and then closes with an energetic andante,
a quartet joining the choruses. This finale is clearly Italian in
form, and much to Wagner's subsequent disgust was described by
Hanslick as a mixture of Donizetti and Meyerbeer, and a clear presage
of the coming Verdi.
The second act opens with a stately march, introducing the messengers
of peace, who join in a chorus of greeting, followed by a second
chorus of senators and the tender of submission made by the nobles. A
terzetto between Adriano, Orsini, and Colonna, set off against a
chorus of the nobles, leads up to the finale. It opens with a joyful
chorus ("Erschallet feier Klänge"), followed by rapid dialogue between
Orsini and Colonna on the one hand and Adriano and Rienzi on the
other. A long and elaborate ballet intervenes, divided into several
numbers,--an Introduction, Pyrrhic Dance, Combat of Roman Gladiators
and Cavaliers, and the Dance of the Apotheosis, in which the Goddess
of Peace is transformed to the Goddess, protector of Rome. The scene
abruptly changes, and the act closes with a great ensemble in which
the defiance of the conspirators, the tolling of bells, the chants of
the monks, and the ferocious outcries of the people shouting for
revenge are mingled in strong contrasts.
The third act is full of tumult. After a brief prelude, amid the
ringing of bells and cries of alarm, the people gather and denounce
the treachery of the nobles, leading up to a spirited call to arms by
Rienzi ("Ihr Römer, auf"). The people respond in furious chorus, and
as the sound of the bells and battle-cries dies away Adriano enters.
His scene opens with a prayer ("Gerechter Gott") for the aversion of
carnage, which changes to an agitated allegro ("Wo war ich?") as he
hears the great bell of the Capitol tolling the signal for slaughter.
The finale begins with a massive march, as the bells and sounds of
alarm are heard approaching again, and bands of citizens, priests and
monks, the high clergy, senators and nobles, pass and repass in quick
succession, at last followed by Rienzi, which is the signal for the
great battle-hymn, "Santo spirito cavaliere," which is to be sung with
great fire and energy, accompanied by great and small bells ringing
behind the scenes, the clash of swords upon shields, and full power of
chorus and orchestra. A dialogue follows between Adriano and Rienzi,
and then the various bands disappear singing the ritornelle of the
hymn. A great duet ("Lebwohl, Irene") ensues between Adriano and
Irene, which in its general outlines reminds one of the duet between
Raoul and Valentin in "The Huguenots." At its conclusion, after a
prayer by the chorus of women, the battle hymn is heard again in the
distance, gradually approaching, and the act closes with a jubilee
chorus ("Auf! im Triumpf zum Capitol"), welcoming the return of the
conquerors.
The fourth act is short, its principal numbers being the introduction,
terzetto and chorus ("Wer war's der euch hierher beschied?"), and the
finale, beginning with a somewhat sombre march of the cortége
accompanying Rienzi to the church, leading to the details of the
conspiracy scene, and closing with the malediction of the monks, "Vae,
vae tibi maledicto." The last act opens with an impressive prayer by
Rienzi ("Allmacht'ger Vater"), which leads to a tender duet ("Verlässt
die Kirche mich") as Irene enters, closing with a passionate aria by
Rienzi ("Ich liebte glühend"). The duet is then resumed, and leads to
a second and intensely passionate duet ("Du hier Irene!") between
Adriano and Irene. The finale is brief, but full of energy, and is
principally choral. The dénouement hurries, and the tragedy is reached
amid a tumultuous outburst of voices and instruments. Unlike Wagner's
other operas, in "Rienzi" set melody dominates, and the orchestra, as
in the Italian school, furnishes the accompaniments. We have the
regular overture, aria, duet, trio, and concerted finale; but after
"Rienzi" we shall observe a change, at last becoming so radical that
the composer himself threw aside his first opera as unworthy of
performance.
THE FLYING DUTCHMAN.
"Der Fliegende Holländer," a romantic opera in three acts, words by
the composer, the subject taken from Heinrich Heine's version of the
legend, was first produced at Dresden, Jan. 2, 1843, with Mme.
Schröder-Devrient and Herr Wechter in the two principal rôles. It was
also produced in London in 1870 at Drury Lane as "L'Ollandose
dannato," by Signor Arditi, with Mlle. Di Murska, Signors Foli,
Perotti, and Rinaldini, and Mr. Santley in the leading parts; in 1876,
by Carl Rosa as "The Flying Dutchman," an English version; and again
in 1877 as "Il Vascello fantasma." In this country the opera was
introduced in its English form by Miss Clara Louise Kellogg.
Wagner conceived the idea of writing "The Flying Dutchman" during the
storm which overtook him on his voyage from Riga to Paris. He says in
his Autobiography: "'The Flying Dutchman,' whose intimate acquaintance
I had made at sea, continually enchained my fancy. I had become
acquainted, too, with Heinrich Heine's peculiar treatment of the
legend in one portion of his 'Salon.' Especially the treatment of the
delivery of this Ahasuerus of the ocean (taken by Heine from a Dutch
drama of the same title) gave me everything ready to use the legend as
the libretto of an opera. I came to an understanding about it with
Heine himself, drew up the scheme, and gave it to M. Léon Pillet
[manager of the Grand Opera], with the proposition that he should have
a French libretto made from it for me." Subsequently M. Pillet
purchased the libretto direct from Wagner, who consented to the
transaction, as he saw no opportunity of producing the opera in Paris.
It was then set by Dietsch as "Le Vaisseau fantôme," and brought out
in Paris in 1842. In the mean time, not discouraged by his bad
fortune, Wagner set to work, wrote the German verse, and completed the
opera in seven weeks for Dresden, where it was finally performed, as
already stated. Unlike "Rienzi," it met with failure both in Dresden
and Berlin; but its merits were recognized by Spohr, who encouraged
him to persevere in the course he had marked out.
The plot of the opera is very simple. A Norwegian vessel, commanded by
Daland, compelled by stress of weather, enters a port not far from her
destination. At the same time a mysterious vessel, with red sails and
black hull, commanded by the wandering Flying Dutchman, who is
destined to sail the seas without rest until he finds a maiden who
will be faithful until death, puts into the same port. The two
captains meet, and Daland invites the stranger to his home. The two at
last progress so rapidly in mutual favor that a marriage is agreed
upon between the stranger and Senta, Daland's daughter. The latter is
a dreamy, imaginative girl, who, though she has an accepted lover,
Eric, is so fascinated with the legend of the stranger that she
becomes convinced she is destined to save him from perdition. When he
arrives with her father she recognizes him at once, and vows eternal
constancy to him. In the last act, however, Eric appears and
reproaches Senta with her faithlessness. The stranger overhears them,
and concludes that as she has been recreant to her former lover, so
too she will be untrue to him. He decides to leave her; for if he
should remain, her penalty would be eternal death. As his mysterious
vessel sails away Senta rushes to a cliff, and crying out that her
life will be the price of his release, hurls herself into the sea,
vowing to be constant to him even in death. The phantom vessel sinks,
the sea grows calm, and in the distance the two figures are seen
rising in the sunlight never to be parted.
The overture characterizes the persons and situations of the drama,
and introduces the motives which Wagner ever after used so
freely,--among them the curse resting upon the Dutchman, the restless
motion of the sea, the message of the Angel of Mercy personified in
Senta, the personification of the Dutchman, and the song of Daland's
crew. The first act opens with an introduction representing a storm,
and a characteristic sailors' chorus, followed by an exquisite
love-song for tenor ("Mit Gewitter und Sturm"), and a grand scena of
the Dutchman ("Die Frist ist um"), which lead up to a melodious duet
between the Dutchman and Daland. The act closes with the sailors'
chorus as the two vessels sail away.
After a brief instrumental prelude, the second act opens in Daland's
home, where the melancholy Senta sits surrounded by her companions,
who are spinning. To the whirring accompaniment of the violins they
sing a very realistic spinning song ("Summ' und brumm du gutes
Mädchen"), interrupted at intervals by the laughter of the girls as
they rally Senta upon her melancholy looks. Senta replies with a weird
and exquisitely melodious ballad ("Johohae! träfft ihr das Schiff im
Meere an"), in which she tells the story of the Flying Dutchman, and
anticipates her own destiny. The song is full of intense feelings and
is characterized by a motive which frequently recurs in the opera, and
is the key to the whole work. A duet follows between Eric and Senta,
the melodious character of which shows that Wagner was not yet
entirely freed from Italian influences. A short duet ensues between
Senta and her father, and then the Dutchman appears. As they stand and
gaze at each other for a long time, the orchestra meanwhile supplying
the supposed emotions of each, we have a clew to the method Wagner was
afterwards to employ so successfully. A duet between Senta and the
Dutchman ("Wie aus der Ferne") and a terzetto with Daland close the
act.
The third act opens with another sailors' chorus ("Steuermann, lass'
die Wacht"), and a brisk dialogue between them and the women who are
bringing them provisions. The latter also hail the crew of the
Dutchman's vessel, but get no reply until the wind suddenly rises,
when they man the vessel and sing the refrain with which the Dutchman
is continually identified. A double chorus of the two crews follows.
Senta then appears accompanied by Eric, who seeks to restrain her from
following the stranger in a very dramatic duet ("Was muss ich
hören?"). The finale is made up of sailors' and female choruses, and a
trio between Senta, Daland, and the Dutchman, which are woven together
with consummate skill, and make a very effective termination to the
weird story. There are no points in common between "The Flying
Dutchman" and "Rienzi," except that in the former Wagner had not yet
clearly freed himself from conventional melody. It is interesting as
marking his first step towards the music of the future in his use of
motives, his wonderful treatment of the orchestra in enforcing the
expression of the text, and his combination of the voices and
instrumentation in what he so aptly calls "The Music-Drama."
TANNHÄUSER
"Tannhäuser und der Singerkrieg auf Wartburg" ("Tannhäuser and the
singers' contest at the Wartburg"), a romantic opera in three acts,
words by the composer, was first produced at the Royal Opera, Dresden,
Oct. 20, 1845, with Mme. Schröder-Devrient and Herr Niemann as
Elizabeth and Tannhäuser. Its first performance in Paris was on March
13, 1861; but it was a failure after three representations, and was
made the butt of Parisian ridicule, even Berlioz joining in the
tirade. In England it was brought out in Italian at Covent Garden, May
6, 1876, though its overture was played by the London Philharmonic
orchestra in 1855, Wagner himself leading.
In the spring of 1842 Wagner returned from Paris to Germany, and on
his way to Dresden visited the castle of Wartburg, in the Thuringian
Valley, where he first conceived the idea of writing "Tannhäuser." The
plot was taken from an old German tradition, which centres about the
castle where the landgraves of the thirteenth century instituted
peaceful contests between the Minnesingers and knightly poets. Near
this castle towers the Venusberg, a dreary elevation, which, according
to popular tradition, was inhabited by Holda, the goddess of Spring.
Proscribed by Christianity, she took refuge in its caverns, where she
was afterwards confounded with the Grecian Venus. Her court was filled
with nymphs and sirens, who enticed those whose impure desires led
them to its vicinity, and lured them into the caverns, from which they
were supposed never to return. The first act opens in this court, and
reveals Tannhäuser, the knight and minstrel, under the sway of Venus.
In spite of her fascinations he succeeds in tearing himself away, and
we next find him at the castle of Wartburg, the home of Hermann the
Landgrave, whose daughter Elizabeth is in love with him. At the
minstrel contest he enters into the lists with the other Minnesingers,
and, impelled by a reckless audacity and the subtle influence of
Venus, sings of the attractions of sensual pleasures. Walter, of the
Vogelweide, replies with a song to virtue. Tannhäuser breaks out in
renewed sensual strains, and a quarrel ensues. The knights rush upon
him with their swords, but Elizabeth interposes and saves his life. He
expresses his penitence, makes a pilgrimage to Rome and confesses to
the Pope, who replies that, having tasted the pleasures of hell, he is
forever damned, and, raising his crosier, adds: "Even as this wood
cannot blossom again, so there is no pardon for thee." Elizabeth prays
for him in her solitude, but her prayers apparently are of no avail.
At last he returns dejected and hopeless, and in his wanderings meets
Wolfram, another minstrel, also in love with Elizabeth, to whom he
tells the sad story of his pilgrimage. He determines to return to the
Venusberg. He hears the voices of the sirens luring him back. Wolfram
seeks to detain him, but is powerless until he mentions the name of
Elizabeth, when the sirens vanish and their spells lose their
attraction. A funeral procession approaches in the distance, and on
the bier is the form of the saintly Elizabeth. He sinks down upon the
coffin and dies. As his spirit passes away his pilgrim's staff
miraculously bursts out into leaf and blossom, showing that his sins
have been forgiven.