in four, words by M. Somma, was first produced in Rome, Feb. 17, 1859.
In preparing his work for the stage, Verdi encountered numerous
obstacles. The librettist used the same subject which M. Scribe had
adopted for Auber's opera, "Gustavus III.," and the opera was at first
called by the same name,--"Gustavo III." It was intended for
production at the San Carlo, Naples, during the Carnival of 1858; but
while the rehearsals were proceeding, Orsini made his memorable
attempt to kill Napoleon III., and the authorities at once forbade a
performance of the work, as it contained a conspiracy scene. The
composer was ordered to set different words to his music, but he
peremptorily refused; whereupon the manager brought suit against him,
claiming forty thousand dollars damages. The disappointment nearly
incited a revolution in Naples. Crowds gathered in the streets
shouting, "Viva Verdi," implying at the same time, by the use of the
letters in Verdi's name, the sentiment, "Viva Vittorio Emmanuele Re Di
Italia." A way out of his difficulties, however, was finally suggested
by the impresario at Rome, who arranged with the censorship to have
the work brought out at the Teatro Apollo as "Un Ballo in Maschera."
The scene was changed to Boston, Massachusetts, and the time laid in
the colonial period, notwithstanding the anachronism that masked balls
were unknown at that time in New England history. The Swedish king
appeared as Ricardo, Count of Warwick and Governor of Boston, and his
attendants as Royalists and Puritans, among them two negroes, Sam and
Tom, who are very prominent among the conspirators. In this form, the
Romans having no objection to the assassination of an English
governor, the opera was produced with great success.
The first act opens in the house of the Governor, where a large party,
among them a group of conspirators, is assembled. During the meeting a
petition is presented for the banishment of Ulrico, a negro sorcerer.
Urged by curiosity, the Governor, disguised as a sailor and
accompanied by some of his friends, pays the old witch a visit.
Meanwhile another visit has been planned. Amelia, the wife of the
Governor's secretary, meets the witch at night in quest of a remedy
for her passion for Richard, who of course has also been fascinated by
her. They arrive about the same time, and he overhears the witch
telling her to go to a lonely spot, where she will find an herb potent
enough to cure her of her evil desires. The Governor follows her, and
during their interview the Secretary hurriedly rushes upon the scene
to notify him that conspirators are on his track. He throws a veil
over Amelia's face and orders Reinhart, the Secretary, to conduct her
to a place of safety without seeking to know who she is. He consents,
and the Governor conceals himself in the forest. The conspirators
meanwhile meet the pair, and in the confusion Amelia drops her veil,
thus revealing herself to Reinhart. Furious at the Governor's perfidy,
he joins the conspirators. In the denouement the Secretary stabs his
master at a masquerade, and the latter while dying attests the purity
of Amelia, and magnanimously gives his secretary a commission
appointing him to a high position in England.
After a brief prelude, the first act opens with a double chorus, in
which the attitude of the friends of the Governor and the conspirators
against him is strongly contrasted. In the next scene Richard and his
page, Oscar, enter; and after a short dialogue Richard sings a very
graceful romanza ("La rivedra nell' estasi"), which in the next scene
is followed by a spirited aria for Reinhart ("Di speranze e glorie
piena"). In the fourth scene Oscar has a very pretty song ("Volta la
terrea"), in which he defends Ulrica against the accusations of the
judge, leading up to a very effective quintet and chorus which has a
flavor of the opera bouffe style. In grim contrast with it comes the
witch music in the next scene ("Re del abisso"), set to a weird
accompaniment. As the various parties arrive, a somewhat talky trio
ensues between Amelia, Ulrica, and Richard, followed in the next scene
by a lovely barcarole ("Di' tu se fedele") sung by Richard, leading to
a beautifully written concerted finale full of sharp dramatic
contrasts.
The second act opens upon a moonlight scene on the spot where
murderers are punished; and Amelia, searching for the magic herb,
sings a long dramatic aria ("Ma dall arido") consisting of abrupt and
broken measures, the orchestra filling the gaps with characteristic
accompaniment. Richard appears upon the scene, and the passionate
love-duet follows, "M'ami, m'ami." The interview is ended by the
sudden appearance of Reinhart, who warns the Governor of his danger,
the scene taking the form of a spirited trio ("Odi tu come"). A buffo
trio closes the act, Sam and Tom supplying the humorous element with
their laughing refrain.
The last act opens in Reinhart's house with a passionate scene between
the Secretary and his wife, containing two strong numbers, a minor
andante ("Morro, ma prima in grazia") for Amelia, and an aria for
Reinhart ("O dolcezzo perdute"), which for originality and true
artistic power is worthy of being classed as an inspiration. The
conspiracy music then begins, and leads to the ball scene, which is
most brilliantly worked up with orchestra, military band, and stringed
quartet behind the scenes supplying the dance-music, and the
accompaniment to the tragical conspiracy, in the midst of which, like
a bright sunbeam, comes the page's bewitching song, "Saper vorreste."
The opera closes with the death of Richard, set to a very dramatic
accompaniment. "The Masked Ball" was the last work Verdi wrote for the
Italian stage, and though uneven in its general effect, it contains
some of his most original and striking numbers,--particularly those
allotted to the page and Reinhart. In the intensity of the music and
the strength of the situations it is superior even to "Trovatore," as
the composer makes his effects more legitimately.
AIDA.
"Aida," an opera in four acts, was first produced at Cairo, Egypt,
Dec. 27, 1871, and was written upon a commission from the Khedive of
that country. The subject of the opera was taken from a sketch,
originally written in prose, by the director of the Museum at Boulak,
which was afterwards rendered into French verse by M. Camille de
Locle, and translated thence into Italian for Verdi by Sig. A.
Ghizlandoni. It is the last opera Verdi has composed, and is notable
for his departure from the conventional Italian forms and the partial
surrender he has made to the constantly increasing influence of the
so-called music of the future. The subject is entirely Egyptian, and
the music is full of Oriental color.
The action of the opera passes in Memphis and Thebes, and the period
is in the time of the Pharaohs. Aida, the heroine, is a slave,
daughter of Amonasro, the King of Ethiopia, and at the opening of the
opera is in captivity among the Egyptians. A secret attachment exists
between herself and Rhadames, a young Egyptian warrior, who is also
loved by Amneris, daughter of the sovereign of Egypt. The latter
suspects that she has a rival, but does not discover her until
Rhadames returns victorious from an expedition against the rebellious
Amonasro, who is brought back a prisoner. The second act opens with a
scene between Amneris and Aida, in which the Princess wrests the
secret from the slave by pretending that Rhadames has been killed; and
the truth is still further revealed when Rhadames pleads with the King
to spare the lives of the captives. The latter agrees to release all
but Aida and Amonasro, bestows the hand of Amneris upon the unwilling
conqueror, and the act closes amid general jubilation. Acting upon
Amonasro's admonitions, Aida influences Rhadames to fly from Egypt and
espouse the cause of her father. The lovers are overheard by Amneris
and Ramfis, the high priest. The Princess, with all the fury of a
woman scorned, denounces Rhadames as a traitor. He is tried for
treason and condemned to be buried alive in the vaults under the
temple of the god Phtah. Pardon is offered him if he will accept the
hand of Amneris, but he refuses and descends to the tomb, where he
finds Aida awaiting him. The stones are sealed above them and the
lovers are united in death, while Amneris, heart-broken over the
tragedy her jealousy has caused, kneels in prayer before their
sepulchre.
After a short prelude, consisting of a beautiful pianissimo movement,
mainly for the violins, and very Wagnerish in its general style, the
first act opens in a hall of the King's palace at Memphis. A short
dialogue between Rhadames and the priest Ramfis leads to a delicious
romanza ("Celeste Aida") which is entirely fresh and original,
recalling nothing that appears in any of Verdi's previous works. It is
followed by a strong declamatory duet between Rhadames and Amneris,
which upon the appearance of Aida develops to a trio ("Vieni, o
diletta"). In the next scene the King and his retinue of ministers,
priests, and warriors enter, and a majestic ensemble occurs, beginning
with a martial chorus ("Su! del Nilo") in response to the appeal of
the priests. As the war chorus dies away and the retinue disappears,
Aida has a scena of great power. It begins with a lament for her
country ("Ritorna vincitor"), in passionate declamatory phrases,
clearly showing the influence of Wagner; but in its smooth, flowing
cantabile in the finale, "Numi pieta," Verdi returns to the Italian
style again. The final scene is full of oriental color and barbaric
richness of display. The consecrated arms are delivered to Rhadames.
The priestesses behind the scene to the accompaniment of harps, and
the priests in front with sonorous chant, invoke the aid of the god
Phtah, while other priestesses execute the sacred dance. An impressive
duet between Ramfis and Rhadames closes the act. In this finale, Verdi
has utilized two native Egyptian themes,--the melody sung by the
priestesses with the harps, and the dance-melody given out by the
flutes.
The second act opens with a female chorus by the slave girls, the
rhythm of which is in keeping with the oriental scene, followed by an
impassioned duet between Amneris and Aida ("Alla pompa che si
appresta"), through which are heard the martial strains of the
returning conqueror. The second scene opens the way for another
ensemble, which with its massive choruses, and its stirring march and
ballet, heralding the victory of Rhadames, is one of the most
picturesque stage scenes the opera has ever furnished. A solemn,
plaintive strain runs through the general jubilation in the appeal of
Amonasro ("Questo assisa ch' io vesto") to the King for mercy to the
captives. The finale begins with the remonstrances of the priests and
people against the appeals of Amonasro and Rhadames, and closes with
an intensely dramatic concerted number,--a quintet set off against the
successive choruses of the priests, prisoners, and people ("Gloria
all' Egitto").
The third act, like the first, after a brief dialogue, opens with a
lovely romanza ("O cieli azzuri") sung by Aida, and the remainder of
the act is devoted to two duets,--the first between Amonasro and Aida,
and the second between Rhadames and Aida. Each is very dramatic in
style and passionate in declamation, while they are revelations in the
direction of combining the poetic and musical elements, when compared
with any of the duets in Verdi's previous operas. In the last act the
first scene contains another impressive duet between Rhadames and
Amneris ("Chi ti salva, o sciagurato"), ending with the despairing
song of Amneris, "Ohime! morir mi sento." In the last scene the stage
is divided into two parts. The upper represents the temple of Vulcan,
or Phtah, crowded with priests and priestesses, chanting as the stone
is closed over the subterranean entrance, while below, in the tomb,
Aida and Rhadames sing their dying duet ("O terra, addio"), its
strains blending with the jubilation of the priests and the measures
of the priestesses' sacred dance. "Aida" is the last and
unquestionably the greatest, if not the most popular, of Verdi's
works. It marks a long step from the style of his other operas towards
the production of dramatic effect by legitimate musical means, and
shows the strong influence Wagner has had upon him. Since this work
was produced, no other for the stage has come from his pen. Should he
break his long silence, some new work may show that he has gone still
farther in the new path. If the time for rest has come, however, to
the aged composer, "Aida" will remain his masterpiece among musicians
and connoisseurs, though "Trovatore" will be best loved by the people.
OTHELLO.
Othello has formed the subject of the following compositions:
"Otello," opera in 3 acts, text by Berio, music by Rossini (1816);
"Othelleri," parody by Müller, Vienna (1828); Othello, overture by
Krug (1883); "Un Othello," operetta, by Legoux, Paris (1863); and
"Othello," opera in 4 acts, text by Boito, music by Verdi (1886).
"Othello," the last of the long and brilliant series of Verdi's
operas, was completed in 1886, and first produced at the La Scala
Theatre, Milan, Feb. 5,
1887, with remarkable success, Signora Pantaleoni, Signors Maurel and
Tamagno taking the three leading rôles. The libretto was prepared by
the accomplished Italian scholar and musician, Arrigo Boito, and
closely follows the story of the Shakspearian tragedy.
The curtain rises upon a scene in Cyprus. A storm is raging, and a
crowd, among them Iago, Cassio, and Roderigo, watch the angry sea,
speculating upon the fate of Othello's vessel, which finally arrives
safely in port amid much rejoicing. After returning the welcomes of
his friends he enters the castle with Cassio and Montano. The
conspiracy at once begins by the disclosure of Iago to Roderigo of the
means by which Cassio's ruin may be compassed. Then follows the
quarrel, which is interrupted by the appearance of Othello, who
deprives Cassio of his office. A love-scene ensues between Desdemona
and the Moor; but in the next act the malignity of Iago has already
begun to take effect, and the seeds of jealousy are sown in Othello's
breast. His suspicions are freshly aroused when Desdemona intercedes
in Cassio's behalf, and are changed to conviction by the handkerchief
episode and Iago's artful insinuation that Cassio mutters the name of
Desdemona in his sleep; at which the enraged Moor clutches him by the
throat and hurls him to the ground. In the third act Iago continues
his diabolical purpose, at last so inflaming Othello's mind that he
denounces Desdemona for her perfidy. The act concludes with the
audience to the Venetian embassy, during which he becomes enraged,
strikes Desdemona, and falls in convulsions. The last act transpires
in her chamber, and follows Shakspeare in all the details of the
smothering of Desdemona and the death of Othello.
There is no overture proper to the opera. After a few vigorous bars of
prelude, the scene opens with a tempestuous and very striking
description of a sea-storm by the orchestra, with the choruses of
sailors and Cypriots rising above it and expressing alternate hope and
terror. After a short recitative the storm dies away, and the choral
phrases of rejoicing end in a pianissimo effect. A hurried recitative
passage between Iago and Roderigo introduces a drinking scene in which
Iago sings a very original and expressive brindisi with rollicking
responses by the chorus. The quarrel follows with a vigorous and
agitated accompaniment, and the act comes to a close with a beautiful
love-duet between Othello and Desdemona.
The second act opens with recitative which reveals all of Iago's
malignity, and is followed by his monologue, in which he sings a mock
Credo which is Satanic in utterance. It is accompanied with tremendous
outbursts of trumpets, and leads up to a furious declamatory duet with
Othello. The next number brings a grateful change. It is a graceful
mandolinata, sung by children's voices and accompanied by mandolins
and guitars, followed by a charming chorus of mariners, who bring
shells and corals to Desdemona. The intercession episode ensues,
leading to a grand dramatic quartet for Desdemona, Emilia, Iago, and
Othello. The latter then sings a pathetic but stirring melody with
trumpet accompaniment, the farewell to war, and the act closes with a
tumultuous duet between himself and Iago.
The third act opens with a very expressive duet for Othello and
Desdemona, in which the growing wrath of the former and the sweet and
touching unconsciousness of the other are happily contrasted. A sad
monologue by Othello prepares the way for the coming outbreak. The
handkerchief trio follows, in which the malignity of Iago, the
indignation of Othello, and the inability of Cassio to understand the
fell purpose of Iago are brought out with great force. At its close a
fanfare of trumpets announces the Venetian embassy, and the finale
begins with much brilliancy. Then follows the scene in which Othello
smites down Desdemona. She supplicates for mercy in an aria of tender
beauty, which leads up to a strong sextet. All the guests depart but
Iago; and as Othello, overcome with his emotions, swoons away, the
curtain falls upon Iago's contemptuous utterance, "There lies the lion
of Venice."
The fourth act is full of musical beauty. After an orchestral
introduction in which the horn has a very effective solo, the curtain
rises and the action transpires in Desdemona's chamber. The scene
opens with a touching recitative between Desdemona and Emilia. While
the former prepares herself for slumber she sings the "Willow Song,"
an unaffected melody as simple and characteristic as a folk-song.
Emilia retires, and by a natural transition Desdemona sings an "Ave
Maria," which is as simple and beautiful in its way as the "Willow
Song." She retires to her couch, and in the silence Othello steals in,
dagger in hand, the contra-basses giving out a sombre and deep-toned
accompaniment which is startling in its effect. He kisses her, the
motive from the love-duet appearing in the orchestra; then, after a
hurried dialogue, stifles her. He then kills himself, his last words
being a repetition of those in the duet, while the strings tenderly
give out the melody again.
FALSTAFF.
"Falstaff," an opera in three acts, words by Arrigo Boito, was first
performed March 12, 1893, at the Teatro alla Scala, Milan, with the
following cast of characters:--
Mistress FORD Signora ZILLI
NANNETTA Madame STEHLE
FENTON M. GARBIN
Dr. CAIUS Signor PAROLI
PISTOLA Signor ARIMONDI
Mistress PAGE Signora GUERRINI
Mistress QUICKLY Signora PASQUA
FORD Signor PINI-CORSI
BARDOLFO Signor PELAGALLI-ROSSETTI
FALSTAFF M. MAUREL
The libretto, which is mainly based upon "The Merry Wives of Windsor,"
also makes some contributions upon "Henry IV.," particularly in the
introduction of the monologue upon honor, and illustrates Boito's
skill in adaptation as well as his remarkable powers in condensation.
In the arrangement of the comedy the five acts are reduced to three.
The characters Shallow, Slender, William, Page, Sir Hugh Evans,
Simple, and Rugby are eliminated, leaving Falstaff, Fenton, Ford, Dr.
Caius, Bardolph, Pistol, Mistress Ford, Mistress Page, Anne, Dame
Quickly and three minor characters as the _dramatis personæ_, though
Anne appears as Nannetta and is the daughter of Ford instead of Page.
The first act opens with a scene at the Garter Inn, disclosing an
interview between Falstaff and Dr. Caius, who is complaining of the
ill treatment he has received from the fat Knight and his followers,
but without obtaining any satisfaction. After his departure, Falstaff
seeks to induce Bardolph and Pistol to carry his love-letters to
Mistresses Ford and Page; but they refuse, upon the ground that their
honor would be assailed, which gives occasion for the introduction of
the monologue from "Henry IV." The letters are finally intrusted to a
page, and the remainder of the act is devoted to the plots of the
women to circumvent him, with an incidental revelation of the loves of
Fenton and Nannetta, or Anne Page. In the second act, we have
Falstaff's visit to Mistress Ford, as planned by the merry wives, the
comical episode of his concealment in the buck-basket, and his dumping
into the Thames. In the last act, undaunted by his buck-basket
experiences, Falstaff accepts a fresh invitation to meet Mistress Ford
in Windsor Park. In this episode occurs the fairy masquerade at
Herne's Oak, in the midst of which he is set upon and beaten, ending
in his complete discomfiture. Then all is explained to him; Nannetta
is betrothed to Fenton; and all ends merry as a marriage bell.
There is no overture. After four bars of prelude the curtain rises,
and the composer introduces Dr. Caius with the single exclamation,
"Falstaff," and the latter's reply, "Ho! there," which are emblematic
of the declamatory character of the whole opera; for although many
delightful bits of melody are scattered through it, the
instrumentation really tells the story, as in the Wagner music-drama,
though in this latest work of the veteran composer there is less of
the Wagnerian idea than in his "Aida." The first scene is mainly
humorous dialogue, but there are two notable exceptions,--the genuine
lyrical music of Falstaff's song ("'Tis she with eyes like stars"),
and the Honor monologue, a superb piece of recitative with a
characteristic accompaniment in which the clarinets and bassoons
fairly talk, as they give the negative to the Knight's sarcastic
questions. The most attractive numbers of the second scene are
Mistress Ford's reading of Falstaff's letter, which is exquisitely
lyrical, a quartet, a capella, for the four women ("He'll surely come
courting"), followed by a contrasting male quartet ("He's a foul, a
ribald thief"), the act closing with the two quartets offsetting each
other, and enclosing an admirable solo for Fenton.
The second act opens with the interview between Dame Quickly and
Falstaff, in which the instrumentation runs the whole gamut of
ironical humor. Then follows the scene between Ford and Falstaff, in
which the very clink of the money, and Falstaff's huge chuckles, are
deliberately set forth in the orchestra with a realism which is the
very height of the ridiculous, the scene closing with an expressive
declamation by Ford ("Do I dream? Or, is it reality?"). The second
scene of the act is mainly devoted to the ludicrous incident of the
buck-basket, which is accompanied by most remarkable instrumentation;
but there are one or more captivating episodes; such as Dame Quickly's
description of her visit ("'Twas at the Garter Inn") and Falstaff's
charming song ("Once I was Page to the Duke of Norfolk").
The third act opens in the Inn of the Garter, and discloses Falstaff
soliloquizing upon his late disagreeable experiences:--
"Ho! landlord!
Ungrateful world, wicked world,
Guilty world!
Landlord! a glass of hot sherry.
Go, go thy way, John Falstaff,
With thee will cease the type
Of honesty, virtue, and might."