MEDIÆVAL JEWELLERY
INTRODUCTION
To the student of jewellery the Middle Ages offer far greater problems
than the periods of classic antiquity. The main reason for this is to be
found in the fact that throughout mediæval and later periods ornaments
were more closely associated with dress, and dress itself became subject
to the most marked changes and constant divergences of fashion. In the
days of antiquity, so far as our knowledge goes, the idea of fashion, in
the present sense of the term, did not exist. But in the Middle Ages, as
Luthmer points out, it becomes an important factor in the history of
civilisation. The duration of each prevalent fashion tended to become
shorter and shorter, and the new mode was usually an absolute contrast
to the preceding one. Though ornaments, owing to their higher material
value, did not alter with each successive change in dress, nevertheless
they underwent rapid variations of style.
The custom of burying objects in graves, which continued for a
considerable time after the introduction of Christianity, affords a
tolerably clear idea of the various ornaments worn during the earlier
periods of the Middle Ages. Coming to a later period, from the time of
the first Crusade onwards, discoveries in the graves are extremely
rare, and one has to look in many directions for information respecting
the articles then in use. Though there seems to have been an immense
production of personal ornaments throughout the whole of Europe, their
intrinsic value has been too great to allow of their preservation; and
the artistic qualities of those that have survived cause one to regret
all the more the wholesale destruction that must have occurred. The
jewels of the period are, in fact, so few in number, and furnish such
striking varieties, that it is impossible to give an exhaustive synopsis
of the different changes that took place in their form. The utmost that
can be attempted is to take single characteristic pieces and allow them
to stand as types of the whole epoch.
Personal ornaments at this time began to have a wider significance than
that of being merely decorations pleasant to the eye. Their material
value comes more in the foreground. They began to form the nucleus of
family and household treasures. The uncertain conditions of life made
it desirable for the individual to have his most precious possessions
in a portable form. An unfortunate war or royal displeasure might cost
a prince or baron his land or his castles; but his movable goods,
consisting of precious stones and gold and silver ornaments, were not
so easily exposed to the vagaries of his superiors. Thus the numerous
inventories of household goods that have come down from those times show
an astounding increase in the matter of jewels and treasures among the
great and lesser grandees, both secular and ecclesiastical; while there
is a corresponding advance at the same time in craftsmanship. To this
change in the significance of ornaments is to be attributed their rarity
in graves. Jewellery had, in fact, assumed the character of money passed
from hand to hand, and was constantly, so to speak, recoined; for even
if held in steadfast possession it had to submit to changes of fashion
and undergo frequent resetting.[27] Particularly was this the case at
the period of the Renaissance, when almost everything Gothic was
remodelled.
[27] Luthmer (F.), _Gold und Silber_, p. 50.
Tombs, then, supply little or no information; and for the present
purpose one may make shift to use the chance descriptions of romancers,
and such pictorial representations of jewellery as are presented by
effigies on brasses, tombstones, and other monumental sculpture, and
also by illuminated manuscripts. Monumental effigies show a number of
accurately executed personal ornaments, which, belonging as they do
mainly to sovereigns and individuals of wealth and distinction, may be
taken as the highest types of those then worn. The miniatures and
decorations of manuscripts executed towards the end of the period under
review also afford considerable assistance; for illuminators were
intensely fond of introducing jewels among the plants, flowers, birds,
and butterflies minutely depicted on ornamental borders. The inventories
of personal effects made for various purposes, and often full of
graphic details, throughout the whole of the period supply absolutely
trustworthy evidence as to contemporary ornaments. Pictures, which are
among the chief sources of information, are not at one's disposal until
towards the termination of this epoch, but such as were produced during
the later Gothic style, particularly in Italy, Germany, and the Low
Countries, furnish numerous examples of jewellery painted with loving
care and minute detail.
Even from these sources of information, however, one could form but an
inadequate idea of the precise character of mediæval jewellery. But,
while the various reasons mentioned have resulted in the general
destruction of articles made for secular use, among precious objects
consecrated to religious uses a small number of personal ornaments have
been preserved. This may be due, perhaps, to the sanctity of the places
containing them, or perhaps to the precautions of their guardians,
who have hidden them in time of trouble. They have survived many and
strange vicissitudes, and their safety is now secured by a new-created
archæological value, in place of the religious devotion which was
their former guardian. In the treasury--an edifice attached to the
church--there was kept in early times, among the vestments and plate
used in its services, a vast collection of reliquaries and jewels
gradually brought together, and preserved as memorials of the piety of
the faithful. In numerous cases the treasury must have constituted a
veritable museum, exhibiting examples of jewellery of each successive
style. Some idea can be formed of the immense scope, as well as of
the magnificence of its contents, from the early inventories which
archæologists of recent years have taken pains to gather together and
publish.
The relative abundance of jewellery of Merovingian and Frankish times,
and the great rarity of jewellery from the ninth century onwards, are
phenomena observable in every museum. The reason for this lies in the
fact that until the time of Charlemagne (742-814) the dead were buried
with their weapons and with every article of jewellery. The Emperor
forbade this mainly as a heathen practice, but largely because he saw
the disadvantage of so many costly objects being withdrawn from
circulation, with consequent loss to the national resources.
This almost complete absence of examples renders it difficult to
estimate precisely the style of ornaments then in use. But as far as can
be judged, Byzantine influence seems to have affected all forms of
jewellery. It is known, at all events, that until about the twelfth
century active commercial transactions between France and Germany on the
one hand, and Byzantium on the other, were carried on by way of Venice.
Not only did Byzantine workmen settle in the great seaport of the
Adriatic, but imitations of work from the Eastern Roman provinces were
probably made there at an early date by native artists. Such traffic
appears to have been particularly active during the Carlovingian period;
while the close friendship of Charlemagne with Haroun al-Raschid, the
celebrated caliph of the Saracens, renders it further probable that
models of Oriental art abounded in the West in the ninth century. These
were not merely confined to articles of jewellery and other goldsmith's
productions, but included also sumptuous dress materials interwoven with
threads of gold, embroideries studded with gems and pearls, and other
objects which the splendour of the rulers of the West and the princes of
the Church borrowed from the magnificence prevalent in the East and at
the Byzantine Court.[28]
[28] Luthmer, _op. cit._, p. 72.
The Eastern influence which during the fourth and fifth centuries had
come westwards by way of Byzantium, and had acquired new power owing to
the sovereignty of the Arabs in Spain and Sicily during the eighth and
ninth centuries, increased considerably at the time of the Crusades. The
knights and princes of the West brought back not only impressions of
culture from Syria and Palestine, but also actual specimens of gold
ornaments and precious stones. There then began an invasion of skilled
workmen from the towns of Asia Minor, and a regular importation of such
treasures by the merchants of the Italian republics, to wit, Venice,
Genoa, and Pisa, who, under the banner of the Cross, re-established
their trade with the East.[29]
[29] _Ibid._, p. 50.
Until about the twelfth century ornaments followed for the most part the
style of those in use in the Eastern Roman provinces. Some were adorned
with cloisonné enamel introduced from Byzantium, and first executed by
Continental workmen about the eighth century. Cloisonné, however, was,
in turn, abandoned for champlevé enamel, the manufacture of which upon
the Lower Rhine had been encouraged by the Church, through the
instrumentality of the Greek monks.
By the beginning of the twelfth century, the West seems to have become
lastingly independent of the East, even with regard to its ornaments, as
may be inferred from various remarkable productions in gold and silver,
and particularly in gilded copper adorned with champlevé enamel, such as
shrines and other sacred objects. Many of these are still preserved in
the ecclesiastical treasuries of Germany, while museums at home and
abroad all possess beautiful examples.
Though the personal ornaments of this period are now almost entirely
lost to us in the original, there has yet been preserved a treasure of
inestimable value in the form of a technological manual handed down
from the Middle Ages. The work referred to is the famous treatise of
Theophilus entitled _Schedula Diversarum Artium_, which describes the
technical processes of almost all the industrial arts cultivated eight
centuries ago--the treatise being written shortly before the year
1100.[30] After describing his workshop, Theophilus mentions his tools,
and proceeds to describe minutely the various processes necessary for
the metal-worker to understand; and shows how the goldsmith was required
to be at the same time a modeller, sculptor, smelter, enameller,
jewel-mounter, and inlay-worker. Altogether, to judge from the
directions there given, more especially those relating to the technical
work of the goldsmiths, these _Schedulæ_ would seem to reflect the
ancient knowledge and practices of Byzantine workmen, of which, however,
the goldsmiths of the twelfth century appear to have become completely
independent.
[30] Ilg (A.), _Theophilus Presbyter_, p. xliii.
The perfection of artistic work attained by the monasteries led to the
production of sumptuous objects to meet the requirements of the Church
in connection with its services, while costly shrines were made to
contain the numerous relics brought home by pilgrims from the Holy Land.
During the period of the Romanesque and early Gothic styles personal
ornaments became objects of lesser importance than articles for
ecclesiastical use.[31] The enamel-work for the decoration of ornaments
was mostly executed at Limoges, which was then rising to importance as
the chief centre for the production of enamels. The process employed
was champlevé, generally upon copper. Such ornaments as buckles, and
brooches or morses, for the belts of knights or the vestments of
ecclesiastics, were produced in considerable numbers at Limoges, and
found their way all over the north-west of Europe. The trade-guilds of
Limoges were probably more active in this kind of enamel than those
situated upon the banks of the Rhine, whose work seems to have been
devoted principally to shrines and objects for the use of the Church.
Ornaments of the above types were executed during the greater part of
the twelfth century and throughout the thirteenth, but their manufacture
ceased in the century following, when Limoges was sacked by the Black
Prince.
[31] Cunynghame (H. H.), _European enamels_, p. 69.
From the beginning of the thirteenth century a change takes place with
the appearance of the Gothic style. Forms become slighter and more
elegant, and exhibit greater delicacy and detail in their workmanship.
Hitherto goldsmith's work, however beautiful from the cumulative effect
of precious stones and enamels, was little more than conventional, nay,
almost barbaric, in its representations of the human figure; but the
revival in the art of figure sculpture led to a considerable use being
made of the human figure executed in full relief. Just as in the
Romanesque period, so during the time when Gothic art reigned supreme,
architecture left its impress on every work of art; and jewellery and
other goldsmith's work, as well as ivories, seals, and even shoes,
were ornamented with the designs of Gothic architecture and with
pierced open-work patterns, like the window tracery of the great
cathedrals--termed "Paul's windows" by the masses. Improved skill in
design and workmanship became incompatible with the retention of the
older and coarser enamel-work, and without relinquishing a medium which
by the brilliancy of its colouring was eminently suited to the works of
the goldsmith, the thirteenth-century craftsman obtained the desired
result by the use of translucent enamel upon metal, usually silver,
chased and modelled in low relief.
The beauty of this _basse-taille_ enamel, producing, as it were,
transparent pictures, enabled the artist frequently to dispense with
coloured gems, and retain only pearls, whose delicate hues harmonised
better with his work. Occasionally, however, pearls, precious stones,
and translucent enamels were employed together with brilliant effect.
Gothic ornaments of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries show a
peculiar love for figurative and architectural motives which exhibit
astonishing technique and beauty of form. Towards the middle of the
fourteenth century there came into use enamel on full relief (_émail en
ronde bosse_). In the inventories of the time, where it is frequently
mentioned, this enamel, usually opaque white, is termed _émail en
blanc_. So charming was the contrast of white, marble-like figures by
the side of gold, bright coloured stones, and polychrome enamels, that
for upwards of three centuries goldsmiths continued to apply this
species of enamel to jewels. It was particularly characteristic of the
fifteenth century. Several brooches ornamented with it will be referred
to later (p. 143); but the most remarkable example of its use is the
wonderful votive jewel of French workmanship termed "Das Goldene
Rössel," in the treasury of the abbey church of Altoetting, in Bavaria,
which dates from about 1400.[32] The minute repoussé figures on
sixteenth-century jewels were usually coated with white enamel; and
jewellery _émaillée de blanc_ is often alluded to in inventories. This
species of enamel was discarded in the seventeenth century, when figures
in relief went out of fashion for jewellery.
[32] _Kunstdenkmale des Königreiches Bayern_, I, iii, p. 2364. 1903.
Though towards the close of the Middle Ages the art of cutting precious
stones and even diamonds was certainly practised, yet it is to be
observed that throughout the whole period jewellery is set as a rule
with stones _en cabochon_, i.e. with their surfaces rounded and polished
in a convex shape, but not faceted. The stone treated thus preserves its
own character and individuality; and much of the charm of early
jewellery is due to this very fact.
From the middle of the thirteenth century enamel in general, though
applied to jewels of commoner kinds, is chiefly limited to the more
sumptuous ornaments of the clergy. But with the beginning of the
fourteenth century the delight in jewellery enriched with enamels and
precious stones is again revealed in the costumes of the laity. At the
French Court of John II (_le Bon_, d. 1364) and Charles V (d. 1380),
where the princes of the royal blood strove to outrival one another in
luxurious display, personal adornments attained an extraordinary degree
of splendour, and were worn to an excess of ostentation.[33]
[33] Some estimate of their magnificence and extent may be obtained by
means of contemporary inventories. The most remarkable inventory is
perhaps that of John's eldest son, Charles V--"the Wise"--drawn up in
1379 and published by J. Labarte. Scarcely less remarkable are the jewel
inventories of his three other sons, Louis Duke of Anjou, John Duke of
Berry, and Philip (le Hardi) Duke of Burgundy, which have been published
respectively by L. de Laborde, J. Guiffrey, and B. Prost.
This extravagance of fashion declined for a time owing to the wars
with England, but attained its full development in the dress of the
Burgundian Court. The splendour of the Burgundian dukes, outshining that
of their feudal lieges the kings of France, and casting into the shade
the rude grandeur of the German emperors, gave a new impetus to the use
of articles for personal decoration, and for a time set the fashion for
every country of northern Europe in all matters of style as well as of
ornament. Outside of Italy, which perhaps excelled in point of culture,
the Court of the dukes of Burgundy during the fifteenth century was the
richest and most luxurious in all Europe. The sway of this powerful
House extended over the Low Countries, whose ports after Venice were the
centres of Oriental commerce and whose inland towns, such as Arras,
Brussels, and Ghent, vied with one another in weaving the products of
the East into all manner of rich stuffs. Not only silks, but pearls and
precious stones of all descriptions, found an entrance through the great
port of Bruges; and hardly a garment is depicted by the Flemish masters
which, particularly in the case of the ecclesiastics, is not thick-sewn
with Oriental pearls and stones. A survey of records containing
descriptions of personal property,[34] and an examination of
contemporary pictures--always the most fascinating document in regard to
personal ornament--reveal a widespread luxury. Not only at Court, but in
the everyday life of street and mart, costumes formed of magnificent
stuffs were habitually worn, which required to be set off by jewels of
an equally rich description. The warmth of the Italian climate demanded
no such wealth of apparel as was essential to comfort in the more
northerly countries; hence profusion of personal ornament was less
generally indulged in throughout Italy during the same period. This
special love of jewellery and consequent taste and skill acquired by the
goldsmiths was shared by the painters of the day. With a high degree of
finish and brilliancy, they introduced into their pictures faithful
representations of all the rich ornaments then in vogue. Unfortunately
actual examples of the splendid jewels of this time are now of the
utmost rarity, but such as have survived, chiefly in the form of rich
enamelled brooches, reflect in their execution the technical perfection
and in their design the whole-hearted realism which display themselves
to the full in the paintings of the early Flemish school.
[34] Several inventories of the contents of the Burgundian treasury
have been preserved. Lists of the magnificent jewels of two of the most
powerful and wealthy, those of Philip the Good (1396-1467) and his son
Charles the Bold (1433-1477) have been published by Laborde in his
_Ducs de Bourgogne_, Pt. 2, Vol. II.
[Illustration: Collar of the Order of the Golden Fleece, made in
1432 by John Peutin of Bruges, jeweller to Philip the Good, Duke
of Burgundy. (From the portrait of Baldwin de Lannoy by John van
Eyck at Berlin.)]