JAPANESE TRAITS AND PHILOSOPHY OF LIFE
The national traits of different peoples are, like our faces, similar in
rough outline but infinitely different in the finer details. The people of
Japan are in the larger characteristics not different from any other
people; they are part of the aggregate of human beings and they possess
all the instincts and desires which are common to humanity. But, as
distinguished from other peoples, they display certain individual
characteristics which are the product of a unique environment and history.
Emotional Nature.
Perhaps the most prominent characteristic of the Japanese is their
excitable, emotional nature, which among the ignorant is often expressed
in turbulent and irascible action, and which among the refined takes the
form of a fine sentimentality and temperamental delicacy. This is rather
the direct opposite of the American disposition, which is stable, blunt
and big, hearty and generous. Such difference is greatly responsible for
mutual misunderstandings, such as the Japanese charge that the American is
discourteous and inconsiderate, and the American impression that the
Japanese is dissimulating, not to say tricky.
The emotional temper of the Japanese has played a large role in their
history and constitutes a conspicuous factor in their national life. If
the history of the Anglo-Saxons is primarily a story of competition and
struggle for the control of power and the pursuit of material interests,
that of the Japanese is a drama of sentimental entanglement largely
removed from material issues. Without due regard to the role played by
emotion, the history of the Japanese people is wholly incomprehensible.
What, for instance, incited Hideyoshi to invade Korea in 1592? What made
the Japanese accept so readily the teachings of the Jesuit Fathers during
the latter half of the sixteenth century? What more recently induced Japan
to insist at the Paris Conference on recognition of racial equality by the
League of Nations?
If the emotionalism of the race has been deeply influential in the
historic drama, it has been no less persuasive in the political and social
life of the present-day Japan. Compare the Constitutions of America and
Japan. If the outstanding features of the American Constitution are the
safeguarding of the interests and rights of the individual, the states,
and the nation, those of the Japanese Constitution are the expressions of
the people's anxiety to recognize and perpetuate their beloved head, the
Emperor, as the great, the divine ruler of their ideals. Although the
onslaught of materialism has wrought some changes in recent years, there
yet remains the ineradicable proof of Japanese emotionalism in the realm
of marriage and love, where all earthly considerations are forgotten, if
not tabooed, and in the realms of family and of society, where the
relations between parents and children, and between friends and neighbors,
are conducted with an assured sense of devotion, love, and good will. The
same tendency is to be recognized in almost all Japanese institutions,
educational, military, and political, while it is particularly true in the
realm of aesthetics, including, art, literature, and music--a realm that is
ruled by sentiment.
In the common daily life of the Japanese their emotionalism expresses
itself in almost infinitely diverse ways. Their peculiarly strong sense of
pride and dignity, individual, family, and national, a sense for which the
Japanese will make any sacrifice, comes from their highly-strung nervous
system. Their keen sense of pride gives rise to another marked Japanese
peculiarity--an excessive susceptibility to the opinions and feelings of
their fellow men. Social ostracism to the Japanese is a punishment which
is often more unbearable than the death penalty. The peculiarly high rate
of suicides in Japan is explained by statisticians as being largely due to
some mistake or sin for which the offender would rather die than be
chastised by society. The cold-blooded _hara kiri_ was an institution by
which the Samurai could sustain his honor or save his face when involved
in disgrace. High-spirited temper, suppressed by ethical teachings, social
conventions, and rigorous discipline, results in a singular contrast
between external physical expressions and internal feelings. The placid
faces, reserved manners, and reticence are but masks of the intense,
burning spirit, whose spontaneous expression has been inhibited by
centuries of stoic training. It is most unfortunate that this virtue in
the Oriental sense has frequently been a cause of misunderstanding, making
the Japanese appear dissimulating, and, therefore, untrustworthy.
But at heart the Japanese are neither as inscrutable or deceitful as some
believe, nor are they as intriguing or profound as these terms would
imply. They are kind and sympathetic, easily moved by the attitude of
others, quite simple-minded and honest, lacking tenacity, audacity, iron
will, or cold deliberation. In these respects, as in many others, the
Japanese possess some of the weaker traits of the South European peoples.
They have proved heretofore not a great people, but a little people "who
are great in little things and little in great things."
The simple explanation of Japanese sentimentalism may be found in one of
the original race stocks which migrated from southern islands of tropical
climate, where emotion rather than will guides the conduct of the people.
The topographical and climatic conditions of Japan have also had their
influence, and these, with the numerous volcanic eruptions, frequent
earthquakes, and recurrent typhoons, have given the people the disposition
of restlessness and excitement. Perhaps also the social system of the
Middle Ages, which was unduly autocratic and despotic, irritated the lower
classes, driving them to turbulent and "peppery" conduct.
AEsthetic Temperament.
The next characteristic of the Islander is one which is closely related to
the preceding trait. It is artistic temperament. Some scholars of
archaeology attempted to trace this characteristic to the original settlers
of the empire, but the resultant opinions are so diverse as to deny
scientific validity. Some of them maintain that the Ainu, the earliest
known settlers in Japan, a now dwindling race living in the northern
island called Hokkaido, were originally a very artistic people,
contributing much to the aesthetic temperament of the Japanese. There are
other scholars who insist that the Yamato race, and not the Ainu, was the
most artistic, while there are still others who uphold the view that it
was the vast horde of migrators coming from Korea, Tartary, and China who
brought with them the love of beauty. But these are speculations of
prehistorical conditions which are largely hidden from us by the veil of
mythology. What we can be sure of is that the influence on the people of
the exceptionally beautiful natural surroundings reflected itself in their
artistic genius. Encouragement of art and literature and of artistic
productions generally through the patronage of aristocrats, who enjoyed
from the earlier ages leisure and wealth, has also had much to do in
making the Japanese artistic.
What influence has this aesthetic temperament exerted on the life of the
Japanese? In the first place, it has rendered Japanese civilization
markedly feminine. This is shown by the fact that the creative efforts of
the people were mainly directed to personal and home decoration and to
literary and artistic pursuits, instead of to masculine efforts to fight
and conquer the forces of nature, from which alone the sciences are born.
Particularly noticeable was the almost total absence of science in Japan,
in striking contrast to the remarkable wealth of art at the time, some
half a century ago, when the country began a critical introspection of
itself in comparison with other nations.
In the second place, it had the effect of making the people inclined to
underestimate the value of material things and to exaggerate the glory of
the spiritual aspects of life. This is most clearly seen in the teachings
of Bushido,[1] which laid strong emphasis on the baseness of the conduct
that has for its motive pecuniary or material interests, and which taught
the subordination of the body to the soul as the most essential virtue of
the Samurai. The traditional custom of sacrificing the material side of a
question for the satisfaction and upholding of the emotional side still
survives in present Japan, and constitutes one of the marked
characteristics of the Japanese. His strong inclination towards
imagination, meditation, and religious belief is too well known a fact to
require more than a mention here.
It seems true that people gifted aesthetically are more apt to turn
hedonistic. While it remains doubtful whether the Japanese are more
immoral than other peoples, as is so frequently charged, it is quite true
that they take more delight in a leisurely comfort of living, going to
picnics, attending theaters, calling upon friends, and holding various
ceremonies and feasts. Generally speaking, although not given to excesses,
they show no puritanic disposition about drink and are lavish spenders for
luxuries. In the tea houses and other places of social amusement they
spend money often beyond the reasonable proportion of their income. They
are not a thrifty people.
Group Consciousness.
Next to the artistic disposition must be mentioned their strong group
consciousness. It is true that all people have a certain degree of group
consciousness which emerges out of the facts of common biological and
cultural heritage and experience. But in the case of the Japanese this
group spirit is markedly strong, expressing itself in loyalty and
patriotism. Most strangely, the spirit of _Yamato_, or the Japanese group
spirit, has had its source more than anywhere else in primitive myths. Two
ancient books of mythology, _Kojiki_ and _Nihongi_, record the story of
the Japanese ancestors who were originally born of the gods of heaven and
earth, and who settled in Japan and established there through their brave
deeds the majesty of the Empire of Nippon. From these ancestors sprang the
people of Japan. This myth is faithfully believed by the Japanese, and the
people worship at the shrines where the spirits of their heroic ancestors
are supposed still to reside and guard the country. So strong is this
belief in myth even to-day that, in spite of the anthropological discovery
that the original settlers of the island were of diverse races and
possessed no advanced culture, the people still cling to the idea that the
Japanese are a pure and glorious race, having sprung from one line of
ancestors which was divine and which is now represented by its direct
descendant, the Emperor.
In addition to mythology, what bound the Japanese so close together was
the natural environment and the lack of cosmopolitan associations.
Marooned as they were on little islands, the mutual association and
intermarriage of people took place freely, and in the course of time
established a substantially complete homogeneity of the population. The
internal unity was further strengthened by the policy of national
seclusion, which gave the common people the idea that Japan was the only
universe and that the Japanese were the only people on earth. In modern
times, the group spirit or patriotism has been skillfully encouraged and
enkindled by utilizing the national experience of the wars with China and
Russia, and by a system of education which aimed to impress on the minds
of children the glory of their people and history, the absolute duty of
being loyal to the Emperor, and the hostile tendency of foreign countries
toward their own.
What the people gain by narrow patriotism in the maintenance of national
integrity they lose in their failure to take a broad view of things. This
stubbornly obstructs the Japanese in their efforts to view their country
in its proper relation to other countries; it hinders them from being
"Romans when in Rome"; it makes the idea of following the example of
England, the policy of loose national expansion, wholly
unthinkable--Japanese colonies must be exclusively Japanese. The chief
cause of the failure of Japanese colonization and emigration must be
attributed to the strong consciousness of the Yamato Minzoku (Yamato
race). This has made the Japanese noticeably narrow-minded, quite awkward
in their relations with different peoples, and more or less given to race
prejudice. The reputation of the Japanese as poor mixers is well known.
Their strong race prejudice has been exemplified by their attitude toward
the Chinese, Koreans, and the outcast class of their fellow countrymen,
called _Eta_, which has been nothing short of prejudicial discrimination.
In spite of the desperate efforts of the militarists and bureaucrats to
conserve narrow patriotism and racial pride, it has been found
increasingly difficult to do so, since the facts and thoughts of the West
became accessible to the people. When the marvelous scientific
achievements of the Occidental peoples, their advanced political and
social systems, their profound philosophies of life and of the universe,
together with their superior physique and formidable armament, were
appreciated, it became all too apparent, even to the most conceited mind,
that the culture and racial stock, in which the Japanese had taken so much
pride, were sadly inferior, and that years of hard toil would be necessary
before they could be the equals of the Occidentals. The pathetic cry of
Japan for recognition of racial equality by the League of Nations is a
reluctant admission of this fact.
The outcome of this disillusionment has been the appearance of three
currents of thought with reference to the national policy. One is the
ultra Occidentalism which sees nothing good in their own country and
people, and hence is extremely merciless and outspoken in denunciation of
things Japanese, but which admires even to the point of worship almost
everything that is European and American. To this school belong many
younger radicals who are more or less socialistically inclined and who
would like to see Japan converted into a republic or a Bolshevik
communism. Categorically opposed to this thought is another school, which
its adherents call "Japanism." This school sees nothing new or worth while
in things Occidental, and advocates, after the reasoning of Rousseau, a
return to natural Japan. Between these two extremes stand the majority of
sane intellectuals, who clearly perceive both the limitations and the
strength of Japan, and endeavor to benefit through learning and
assimilating the valuable experience of advanced nations.
Adaptable Disposition.
Another notable feature of the Japanese is their meager endowment of
originality and, conversely, their marked aptitude for adaptability. A
glance at the outline of Japanese history shows how much the Japanese
borrowed from other peoples in almost all phases of civilization and how
little they themselves have created. Indeed, there is hardly anything
which belongs to Japan that cannot be traced originally to the earnest
creative effort of other peoples. The same may be said of modern peoples,
who, with the exception of scientific inventions, have mainly derived
their culture from the Greeks and Romans. Whatever difference the future
may witness, the Japanese thus far have been borrowers and receivers of
other races' accomplishments. Perhaps this is the cause of the rapid
development of the Japanese, who have succeeded in imitating and
assimilating the strong points of nations in succession from the lower to
the top of the hierarchy--from Korea, China, India, to Europe. When the
process reaches the top of the ladder, let us hope that Nippon will start
for the first time real creative work.
Spirit of Proletarian Chivalry.
The discussion of Japanese traits would be very incomplete if we omitted
one outstanding idiosyncrasy that has not yet been mentioned. So peculiar
is this trait to the Japanese that there is no adequate word to designate
it in other languages. The Japanese express it by such words as _kikotsu_,
_otokodate_, and _gikyoshin_. The nearest English equivalents for these
terms would be heroism and chivalry. It is a mixed sentiment of rebellion
against bully power, sympathy for the helpless, and willingness to
sacrifice self for the sake of those who have done kind acts. This
admirable sentiment must be strictly distinguished from the spirit of
Bushido, because it has arisen among the plebeians in place of Bushido,
which was the way of the Samurai or aristocrats, although it may have
been, as some scholars claim, the source of inspiration for the growth of
proletarian chivalry. Bushido has found an able propounder in Dr. Nitobe.
Under the Tokugawa regime the Samurai was the flower and the rest were
nothing. The Samurai often abused their privilege and oppressed the common
people not a little, disregarding their rights and personality. Then a
class of plebeians appeared who called themselves "men of men," and who
made it their profession to defy the bullying Samurai and to defend the
oppressed people. It was the virtue of this class always to help the weak
and crush the strong, and to be ready to lay down their lives at any
moment. The story of Sakura Sogoro, who fell a martyr to the cause of
oppressed peasants, has become a classic.
Thus originating in defiance of despotism, the spirit of proletarian
chivalry permeated among the lower classes of people, and to this day it
forms the bulwark of the rights and freedom of the common people. Refined
and enriched by the embodiment in it of enlightened knowledge and ideals,
the sentiment came to be on one side a keen appreciation of kindness and
sympathy, and on the other a strong hatred of oppression and injustice.
The present proletarian movement in Japan, a movement which is destined
presently to become a mighty social force, owes its source and guidance to
"the ways of the common people."
If Dr. Nitobe is right in predicting that Bushido, "the way of the
Samurai," will eventually enjoy the glory of "blessing mankind with the
perfume with which it will enrich life," we may reasonably hope that
proletarian chivalry will succeed in bringing about general freedom and
democracy in Nippon, in defiance of military and imperialistic domination.
The understanding of this trait of the common people of Japan goes far to
explain what has puzzled those Americans who wonder why the Japanese
immigrants in this country are so unsubmissive and rebellious. In his
letter to the Legislature of Nevada, the late Senator Newlands stated:
"The presence of the Chinese, who are patient and submissive, would not
create as many complications as the presence of Japanese, whose strong and
virile qualities would constitute additional factors of difficulty."
Governor Stephens of California, too, observes in his letter to the
Secretary of State: "The Japanese, be it said to their credit, are not a
servile or docile stock." Acquired by centuries of opposition to arbitrary
power, the trait has become almost instinctive, and expresses itself even
under democracy whenever they think they are unjustly treated.
In discussing the features of Japanese character thus far, we have taken
care to state the known causes which gave rise to each trait. This has
been done with a view to preparing ourselves to answer the question; To
what extent are these characteristics of the Japanese inherent in the race
and to what extent acquired? The answer which the foregoing discussion
suggests is that they are both inherent and acquired, biological and
social. While racial stock is responsible to an extent, other factors,
such as natural environment and social conditions, have helped to develop
the characteristics of the Japanese. Perhaps the best criterion by which
we can determine the relative strength of heredity and environment in this
case is to observe how and in what respects the Japanese, born and reared
in other countries, undergo transformation in their mentality and
characteristics. We shall touch on this point again later when we discuss
the characteristics of the American-born Japanese children.
Philosophy of Life.
It is but natural that the philosophy of a nation developed from the life
and experience of people should be deeply colored by their temperament.
After having discussed the essential features of the Japanese disposition,
it may be easy to anticipate the character of philosophy which rests on
it. We shall now consider the outstanding features of Japanese thought,
with a view to interpreting and evaluating the spiritual side of Japan's
civilization.
True to the characteristics of the Japanese, who lack initiative, the
thought of the people also manifests a marked absence of originality.
Until, in the early part of the sixth century, Buddhism and Confucianism
came into the country, the Japanese seem to have had no system of religion
or philosophy save fetichism and mythology. The advent of new doctrines of
ethics and religion caused a rapid transformation of the life and ideas of
the people, elevating them by one stroke from barbarian obscurity to
civilized enlightenment. From this time on a childish admiration of
mythological characters and stories began to be superseded by an earnest
effort for the perfection of the individual character and the realization
of social ideals; and crude superstitions were gradually replaced by the
profound teachings of Gautama. Out of the religious zeal were developed
admirable art and literature, and from the moral effort were born
elaborate ethical codes, social order, and social etiquette. Thus, with
raw materials imported, the Japanese worked diligently and carefully to
turn out finished products well adapted to their tastes and needs. If the
Japanese were people endowed with great originality, they would surely
have given evidence of it during nearly three hundred years of national
seclusion (1570-1868), when almost all conditions requisite for a creative
impulse were present, including peace, prosperity, need, and
encouragement. In fact, however, the people were interested and absorbed
in stamping out the feeble hold of Christian influence, in assimilating
the teachings of Wang Yang Ming, and in recasting the doctrines of
Confucius and Buddha. When the flood gates of Japan were thrown open and
the tides of Occidental learning swept in, the Japanese were almost
overwhelmed, and found themselves too busy in coping with them to think of
the original contribution.
Lack of ability to start new things is generally compensated by the
capacity to borrow new things. In the point of borrowing new ideas and
then working these to suit their own tastes, the Japanese are probably
second to no nation on earth. Japan first borrowed Confucianism and
Buddhism, and within a short time remodeled them in ways peculiar to her,
rendering their identity with the original almost unrecognizable. Thus the
stoic, pessimistic character of Buddhism was greatly modified, becoming
more or less epicurean and optimistic in the hands of the Japanese. The
casuistic, practical, individualistic ethics of Confucius were radically
changed to general principles of ideal conduct, with the addition of
aesthetic elements, and a strong emphasis laid on group loyalty rather than
on filial piety. It is to this ability of the Japanese to assimilate new
thought and new belief that the unexpected success of early Catholic
propaganda was chiefly due. To this capacity of assimilation is also due
the origin of Bushido, which is essentially an eclectic of Confucian,
Taoist, and Buddhist doctrines. The later-day Shintoism, the so-called
cult of ancestor worship, is also a product of the skillful combination of
native mythology, Taoism, and Confucianism, with an infusion of certain of
the Buddhist doctrines. That the present Japanese civilization is largely
a product of assimilation by native genius of American, French, German,
and English ideas and institutions is an established fact. It may be that
therein lies the hope, as many Japanese thinkers cherish, of making Japan
a modern Alexandria, where centuries of human achievements in Asia and
Europe may be harmoniously woven together for the realization of a more
perfect fabric of civilization.
In literature it is asserted that the creative period is uncritical and
the critical period is barren. It seems that the critical tendency is the
antithesis of creative effort. This applies to the Japanese, who do not
create but who are keenly critical. Instinctively bent on absorbing new
ideas, they immediately react to any new schools of thought--turning from
Eucken to Bergson, again to Russell, now to Einstein--but they soon begin
to analyze their doctrines and to find fault and fallacy here and there,
and, finally, are ready to depreciate them wholesale. In so doing, of
course, they assimilate some of the good points involved in various
systems. The chief obstacle which Christianity, as interpreted by
healthy-minded missionaries, encounters in Nippon is the sceptical temper
of the Japanese intellectuals.
A strong appeal to emotionalism and to the sense of beauty rather than to
cold reason and unpleasant realities is another common characteristic of
Japanese philosophy. The Japanese have always taken pride in expressing
great truths in a short verse form called _Uta_, with choice words and
exquisite phrases. Until the advent of European learning, poetry and
philosophy were never clearly distinguished in Japan. Love of emotionalism
naturally leads Japanese thought to humanism rather than to metaphysical
speculation.
From this it may be thought that English positivism would find great vogue
in Japan. In fact, the influence of Adam Smith, Bentham, Mill, Malthus,
and others was a considerable factor in shaping modern Japanese thought.
But at bottom the Japanese are not utilitarians. They are by temper
idealists. The magical power by which German idealism as propounded by
Kant, Hegel, and Fichte, and more recently by Lotze and Eucken, controls
the Japanese mind is astounding. Nearly all the prominent philosophers of
the Meiji era may be classed under some branch of German idealism. The
fact that of American thinkers Emerson is more widely read than any other,
and that Royce is more popular than James, is no accident. If pragmatism
appeals to the Japanese mind, it is not in the logical form of Professor
Dewey but rather in the aesthetic presentation of Santayana.
New Turn in Thought.
Recently, however, or more particularly since the war, the trend of
Japanese thought has began to follow a somewhat different path. Industrial
revolution, which has been rapidly advancing during the past twenty years,
reached its culmination during the war, when various forces accidently
combined in bringing about universal recognition of the need for radical
social reorganization. Capitalism, which had in the course of time grown
to be a gigantic power, proved unable to adapt itself to the changing
conditions of the day, and it thus obstructed the onward march of
liberalism and democracy. Labor, however, shook off the dust of long
humiliation, and began with united front to demand recognition of its
rights and of humanity. The struggle naturally forced the attention of the
people to the actual condition of society, where the poor majority are
sadly left in destitution, where sins and crime are sapping the very
vitality of the people, where the rich are abusing their fortunes for
deplorable ends. Then came the European downfall of autocracy and the
triumph (at least for a short time) of democracy. Liberty, equality, and
fraternity became once more the slogan of the time. All these forces
united and started a reform movement, upsetting to a certain degree the
age-long social system of Nippon.
The three years of confusion did a lasting good. The German systems of
government, diplomacy, education, military affairs, and philosophy, to
which the Japanese had hitherto adhered too blindly, were, one after
another, filtrated and purified, thereby removing much of the scum that
was in them. It is, of course, impossible for hardened militarists and
bureaucrats to get rid of the beliefs in which they were born and brought
up and which have become endeared; but the old generations are gradually
dying off, carrying with them to the grave the skeleton of systems which
are now dead. In open rebellion against these falling autocrats there
arose a great number of brilliant young people, bred and trained in the
new school of liberty and democracy, with courage and foresight to
complete the second Restoration--that of the rights of humanity belonging
to the common masses. Already the status of the working classes is greatly
improved through a persistent, costly struggle against the misused power
of capital; wages have been increased, hours shortened, and, in the near
future, we may expect the triumph of industrial democracy, a triumph which
will secure for labor the deserved right of industrial copartnership.
Already the status of the women has been greatly improved by their
emancipation from the traditional and social bondage under which they
suffered so long. Political rights have been greatly enlarged, and
universal manhood suffrage is now within view. The educational system,
too, has just been revised, rendering its spirit a great deal more liberal
than ever before. In this way, though the road is yet long and uncertain,
true liberalism in Nippon at last stands firmly on its ground, ready to
march towards its ordained goal.
Such a great social innovation is but a concrete expression of changes
that are taking place in the underlying currents of thought. It indicates
the breaking up of classic systems of moral and political philosophy,
which by dint of age-long prestige had never ceased to exercise a strong
influence upon the minds of the people. It discloses the bankruptcy of
that German idealism which so precisely fitted in with the _a priori_,
passive, spiritual temper of the people but which proved hopeless in the
face of vital problems of life and society. It means the exposure of the
inadequacy of English utilitarianism, with its over-emphasis on
individualism, to help the people effectually to solve many difficulties
of society. The changes now taking place in Japanese thought imply the
failure of those philosophies which belittle the value of the material,
slight the position of mankind in the universe and fail to satisfy man's
inherent craving for ceaseless progress. The new direction of Japanese
thought is decidedly towards pragmatic humanism at its best, with due
emphasis on the importance of the practical and social phases of life,
enriched with the spirit of a sentimental delicacy and an aesthetic
proclivity singularly characteristic of the people.