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WOODWARD'S
GRAPERIES
AND
Horticultural Buildings,
BY
GEO. E. & F. W. WOODWARD,
ARCHITECTS & HORTICULTURISTS.
NEW YORK:
GEO. E. WOODWARD & CO., 31 BROAD STREET
ORANGE JUDD COMPANY, 245 BROADWAY.
Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1865, by
GEO. E. & F. W. WOODWARD,
In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States,
for the Southern District of New York.
CONTENTS.
PAGE.
Introduction 7
Position of Houses 17
Forms of Houses 19
Heating by Flues 22
" " Steam 22
" " Tanks 27
" " Hot Water Pipes 33
Construction, &c. 35
Hot Beds 39
Cold Pit 44
Propagating Houses 46
DESIGN NO. 1.
Propagating House 54
DESIGN NO. 2.
Propagating House 57
DESIGN NO. 3.
Propagating House 61
DESIGN NO. 4.
Grapery and Forcing House 64
DESIGN NO. 5.
Green-House 68
DESIGN NO. 6.
Green-House and Grapery 70
DESIGN NO. 7.
Cold Grapery 73
DESIGN NO. 8.
Polyprosopic Roof 77
DESIGN NO. 9.
Green-House 81
DESIGN NO. 10.
Cold Grapery 85
DESIGN NO. 11.
Plant-House 90
DESIGN NO. 12.
Cold Graperies for City Lots 94
DESIGN NO. 13.
Grapery 98
DESIGN NO. 14.
Hot Grapery 102
DESIGN NO. 15.
Extensive range of Horticultural Buildings 105
DESIGN NO. 16.
Green-House 111
DESIGN NO. 17.
"Lean-to" Grapery 115
DESIGN NO. 18.
Green-House 119
DESIGN NO. 19.
Large Range of Horticultural Buildings 123
DESIGN NO. 20.
Green-House and Grapery combined 127
Orchard Houses 131
* * * * *
WOODWARD'S
Graperies and Horticultural Buildings.
* * * * *
INTRODUCTION.
It is less than twenty-five years since the first cold Grapery was
erected on the Hudson. Since the success of the culture of the delicious
varieties of the exotic Grape has been demonstrated, the number of
graperies has annually increased, and during the last ten years in a
very rapid ratio, until they have become recognized as possible and
desirable, among those even whose circumstances are moderate and
limited. The newly-awakened interest in this branch of culture is
manifested in the number and variety of books and other publications on
this subject, the space devoted to it in the agricultural and
horticultural journals, and especially in the increased number of
graperies and vineyards which have been erected and planted in the last
decade. There seems to be a general consciousness of the fact that, in
the struggle for wealth and the greed for wide possessions, as well as
in the inherent difficulties of our situation--thrown as we have been
upon a new and vast continent--we have too long neglected the culture of
the Vine, one of the most ancient and useful arts of life; an art which
has, in all ages, been the fruitful source of comfort and luxury, of
health and happiness, to the masses of mankind. The neglect of this
important and beautiful department of culture is the more remarkable,
since our country embraces every degree of latitude, and every variety
of climate and soil in which the grape is known to flourish.
It having been demonstrated by years of experiment, resulting in every
case in utter failure, that the foreign grape cannot be successfully
grown in the open air in the United States--the States of the Pacific
excepted--we are obliged to confine our culture to glazed structures,
erected for the purpose, where an atmosphere similar to the vine-growing
regions of Europe can be maintained, and that bane of the foreign grape,
the mildew, avoided.
The culture of choice foreign grapes under glass in this country dates
from before the War of Independence, from which time to this the
beautiful but perishable Chasselas, the delicious Frontignac, and the
luscious Hamburg, have been, here and there, carefully cultivated and
ripened. But these efforts have been chiefly confined to the vicinity of
large cities, and the management has mainly been kept in the hands of
foreign gardeners, who have imported themselves from the vine regions of
Europe, to instruct us in the arts and mysteries of grape-growing.
That many of these are men of great practical experience in the art, we
know full well; but, however skillful they may have been in foreign
countries, their success in our climate has been achieved only by
discarding many of their preconceived ideas, and adapting their practice
to agree with the peculiarities of our climate. When the public shall
have learned that the culture of grapes under glass is only a plain and
simple pursuit or pastime, which any one of ordinary capacity can
comprehend and successfully carry out, then we shall have made a decided
and important advance.
The American people are rather disposed to be self-reliant, and we may,
therefore, safely predict that, when we take hold, in real earnest, of
the business of grape culture, either under glass or in the open air, we
shall do it with our customary determination and energy, and that
success will just as surely follow as it has in other cases where
imported ideas have been improved upon and superseded. We have shown, we
think, in other fields of enterprise, that we may venture to rely upon
native-born talent, ingenuity and industry, to work out this problem
also, and that, by a practical demonstration, we shall, gradually and
surely, reach a point of success beyond what has been attained with all
the advantages of foreign aid. And this success will be equalled by the
simplicity of its methods. Grape-growing in this country is yet in its
infancy, and as respects the varieties best adapted to our soil and
climate, essentially experimental. As yet it has attracted any
considerable attention only of the more intelligent and far-seeing
portion of our population, but it is surely beginning to command the
regard and study of the larger number of our cultivators, and the
inevitable result will be that, in a few years, it must be an important
source of our country's wealth.
The great obstacles among us to grape-growing under glass, especially to
persons of moderate or limited means, are the first cost of building,
planting, &c., and the necessity of regular and systematic care and
attention to the vines which must be given, during a short season
however, in order to insure success. To those who are influenced by the
consideration of such obstacles as these, it may be said that, even in
these times of high prices for all descriptions of labor and
material--if we except, perhaps, brain-work and intellectual
material--complete and substantial grape-houses can be erected at
moderate cost, and with proper management they can be made a source of
income and profit. As to the care and attention required, and the
regularity of the periods at which they must be bestowed, at the risk of
losing the crop, it can be easily demonstrated that these attentions and
duties can be perfectly comprehended and understood by several members
of the family, by the older children, and intelligent servants, so as to
be overseen and performed by one or another in the absence of the person
to whom the care is usually confided. Moreover, when one becomes
interested in the management of a grapery, the employment gets to be too
fascinating to allow of the thought of restricted action or irksome
labor. It soon comes to be regarded as a delightful as well as healthful
employment, whose duties are simple, and easily understood and
performed.
The love of flowers is becoming quite a passion with many at the present
day. This is indicated by the multiplication of nurserymen, and the
rapid increase of their sales. Fifteen years ago the sales of flowering
plants were confined to a few city Florists; now the trade has become so
extensive, that large numbers are grown in our surrounding suburban
towns, to meet the demand, which at particular seasons, as the Christmas
and Easter holidays, for the decoration of our churches and other
purposes, reaches proportions that would surprise the uninitiated. One
cultivator has stated that during the fall of 1863 and winter of 1864
he cut and sent from his establishment, 230,000 blooms of the various
flowers he cultivates, and he is but one of many engaged in the
cultivation of flowers for the bouquet makers of New York. An extensive
grower of pot plants, from information carefully gathered among his
fellow nurserymen, estimates that the plant trade of the vicinity of New
York reaches nearly the sum of $200,000 annually, and this for plants
mainly employed as "bedding plants," in the decoration of gardens and
city yards, leaving entirely out of the question, those for winter
culture at windows and in green houses, as well as the immense stock of
the growers themselves to supply the demand for cut flowers. The growing
taste for flowers may be observed in the constantly increasing demand
for decorative purposes, in our churches, at public festivals, and
private gatherings, and is especially apparent in the numerous depots
for their sale on our principal thoroughfares. Much of this is due to
the general diffusion of Horticultural literature, unveiling the
mysteries of plant culture, and demonstrating the simplicity of the
process.
Small green-houses or conservatories attached to dwellings are now
frequently to be met with both in city and country: these are entered
from some one of the principal rooms of the house, and are an attractive
feature both within and without.
The pleasure derived from such a source is a constantly increasing one,
which can only be estimated by those who may have the means for its
gratification. But little time and attention is needed, which, with a
proper acquaintance with the wants of the various plants, and some
experience in their cultivation (knowledge easily and quickly acquired
by those who have a genuine love for it), will enable us at any time
during the winter season to enjoy our flowers, send a bouquet to a
friend, or make use of them in adding to the attractions of home. Such
glass structures would afford pleasure to the ladies of the family, in
their moments of leisure, being of easy access from the dwelling,
without the necessity of exposure to the outer air, which would prevent
visits to larger buildings, remote from the house, and could be managed,
with occasional assistance in potting and arrangement, wholly by them.
Designs for houses of the above character will be found in the course of
the work, as well as those adapted as isolated buildings, to grounds of
moderate and large extent.
In the construction of Horticultural buildings, the matter of economy is
an important and desirable consideration with many persons. But it
should be understood that a common, low-priced structure is not the best
economy, or the most desirable for a series of years. The dilapidated
appearance that soon over-takes cheap, make-shift constructions,
creates an impression that cannot be pleasing either to the spectator or
the proprietor. It is an excellent rule, that what is worth doing at
all, is worth doing well; and it is just as applicable to horticultural
buildings as to any undertaking in life. Rough hemlock lumber, rudely
put up and whitewashed, would be a cheap mode of construction, which
might be tolerated on a merely commercial place, but would illy
correspond with neatly-kept private grounds, however humble and
unpretentious they might be. The plan selected may be devoid of mere
ornament, which would increase the cost, without adding to the capacity
or usefulness, but the proportions should be satisfactory, the
arrangement convenient, the materials the very best of their kind, and
the workmanship well and faithfully performed. Rough work, open joints,
ill-fitting ventilators, ill-proportioned plans and forms, and a general
tumble-down appearance, is not the kind of economy we should recommend
to our readers or practice on our own place. One may choose between wood
and masonry for the foundation walls; between the several grades and
sizes of glass; between elaborate finish and ornament, and plain work;
in the matter of the various modes of heating, &c.; but whatever is
decided upon, let the plan and proportions be correct, and the materials
and work of good, honest description.
In the various designs which we present our readers in this volume,
nearly all of which have been erected under our superintendence, and are
now in operation, the manner of construction can be judiciously
economical, or it may be elaborated to the most substantial and
ornamental structures of the class to which they belong. There is no
more reason for making these buildings of a temporary character, than
there is for putting up our barns and other outbuildings in a cheap and
unworkmanlike manner. The enjoyment of a country place naturally depends
very much on its neat and tasteful appearance, the completeness of all
its appointments, the order and good taste of all its arrangements. And
although we do not advocate extravagance, or needless cost in
ornamentation, which would be unsuitable to the purpose for which these
structures are designed, we think that true economy would indicate the
use of the best materials and workmanship requisite for substantial and
permanent buildings. Horticultural buildings are not intended for a few
years' use merely. Their profit, and the enjoyment they afford, will
last for many years, and may be transmitted, with the other improvements
of the country seat, as substantial and attractive appendages, indeed,
as real property, worth all the money they cost, to the future
proprietor.
There is still much to be learned in the matter of exotic grape-growing
in this country, and, in fact, in the management of conservatories,
orchard-houses, and all descriptions of horticultural buildings, and all
classes of plants cultivated under glass. Whatever progress may have
been made abroad, where experiments are carried on upon a large and
costly scale, and often with eminent success, is of little or no value
to the American horticulturist. Our climate is very different in its
character and conditions from that of Europe, and especially that of
humid England. We have, what they lack, real sunshine, with clear skies.
Under the English methods of treatment, our graperies and green-houses
would speedily be ruined. Nor are we willing to accept as final and
conclusive the present best-known methods of vine culture. If there are
better modes of managing exotic or native vines, and of developing the
whole theory of grape culture, we shall be quite sure to find them out
in the wide sweep of experiment which we are boldly and patiently
undertaking in various parts of the country.
We do not propose, in our present work, to enter upon the investigation
and discussion of the various theories of heat, light, color, radiation,
&c., which properly belong to scientific treatises on these subjects. We
intend to give only practical examples and results, from an extensive
professional experience, with numerous designs and plans of buildings,
most of which are now in successful operation, with the expectation
that this volume will contribute not only to the general information of
our horticulturists, and of gentlemen who are establishing themselves in
the country, but also to create and encourage a taste for this kind of
culture of exotic and delicate fruits, as well as the exquisite but
tender gems of the floral world. When we find that we can command, at
comparatively small cost of money and attention, the beautiful and
luscious fruits of southern and tropical climes--their rarest and
choicest flowers--the most delicious grapes, the finest peaches,
nectarines, and apricots, the fig, and the pineapple, if we will; and
that we can command these in abundance, to load and adorn our tables
daily, the time cannot be distant when horticultural buildings, of
various descriptions, will be found on all our country places or
attached to our city homes.
POSITION OF HOUSES.
For lean-to or single-roofed structures used as forcing-houses for
grapes or other fruits or plants, a southern aspect is generally
preferred. Our own preference would be a position facing South-East, on
account of the advantage gained from the morning sun, which is so
favorable to the health and growth of all descriptions of plants.
Although an hour or two of the evening sun might be lost to a building
in this position, yet the rays are then comparatively feeble, and this
loss would be much more than compensated by the more genial morning
light.
Cold Graperies, with span roofs, and glazed at both ends, are better
placed North and South,--that is, with the ends facing these points,--as
nearly as a due regard to the positions of other buildings in the
vicinity, and the general symmetry and apportionment of the grounds will
permit. Each side of the roof will thus receive an equal amount of
sun-light. For span-roofed Green-houses the rule is not so arbitrary,
the glass not being lined with foliage, as in the case of graperies, the
diffusion of light would not be materially obstructed. Under some
circumstances, Green-houses may be placed east and west, as when a
portion of the house is to be devoted to the purposes of propagation.
The north side can thus be advantageously used, being less exposed to
the sun's rays. Many plants requiring partial shade, would find there,
also, the most favorable conditions for their cultivation.
Green-houses or Conservatories attached to dwellings, will answer in
almost any position that convenience may require, or the taste suggest,
as they are generally not so much intended for the growth of plants as
for their display when in bloom. The sun should shine upon them,
however, at least half the day. When they are intended for the growth of
plants, then the more sun-light they can have the better.
FORMS OF HOUSES.
Until within a few years past, the straight-pitched roof, both single
and double, has been used almost exclusively in the construction of
glass houses. That there is an advantage in this form over some others,
on the score of expense, and because there is less skill required in the
builder, we admit, but there the advantage ends. The superiority of the
curvilinear form is now beginning to be very generally acknowledged, on
account of its being more graceful and pleasing to the eye, and because
of its superior adaptability to the growth of plants. When to the curved
roof is added the further improvement of circular ends, as illustrated
in some of the designs furnished in this work, we have secured forms of
houses that will admit double the light of the old-fashioned, heavy
sliding sash structures which were built twenty-five years ago. Happily
these old glass houses are fast falling into decay, and but few new ones
are erected on their model.
Curvilinear roofs possess advantages over those of a straight pitch
which may be briefly summed up as follows:
1. A larger run of roof for a given width of house, and consequently,
more and better diffusion of light.
2. A greater power of reflecting the sun's rays, because of the
constantly varying angle at which they strike the glass.
3. A greater amount of head room within the building, without the
necessity of high parapet walls, or perpendicular sides.
4. Greater strength of the roof, enabling it to resist pressure from
accumulated snows, without the necessity of supporting columns under the
rafters, which are indispensible under a straight roof of considerable
span, to prevent its settling down, and the opening of joints in glass
and wood work, admitting the cold air from without.
A good proportion for a grapery or conservatory, is twenty feet in width
by fifty feet in length. We think the width should never be much less
where the roof is of double pitch. Single pitched houses should not
exceed sixteen feet in width.
Mistakes are frequently made in the erection of structures for the
growth of plants which, notwithstanding all the skill and art of
experienced gardeners, render it impossible to arrive at satisfactory
results. One of the most common of these is the excessive height of the
roof. Men of experience in the construction and use of glass houses,
have satisfied themselves that the lowest elevation which the uses and
purposes of the building will admit, is the best. The difference in
temperature between the floor and roof of a house twenty feet in height,
will vary from ten to fifteen degrees. It is obviously desirable that
there should be as little difference as possible in the temperature of
the air on the ground, among the lower parts of the plants, and in the
upper regions of the house. The nearer we can approach an equilibrium,
the better success will attend our efforts. Nurserymen generally, and
sometimes other cultivators, understand this, and they build their plant
houses with roofs of low pitch, affording scarcely room to stand upright
within them. Their plants are thus brought near the glass, and they grow
stocky and firm, presenting quite a different appearance from the
attenuated specimens frequently met with in private establishments.
HEATING.
The proper heating of Horticultural buildings being an important feature
in their general management, and an essential condition of their
success, we shall consider the subject at some length, availing
ourselves of the practical experience of others, as well as of the
knowledge we have acquired in our own experiments and practice.
Hot air stoves have been so generally condemned and discarded as a means
of heating glass structures, that we shall not discuss their faults or
merits, but confine ourselves to heating by flues, steam, and hot water
in pipes and tanks.
FLUES.--Flues have been generally used in heating for many years, and
although the method is rude, imperfect and unsatisfactory, they possess
certain advantages on the score of economy, which will prevent their
total supercedure until some equally cheap and effective method shall be
found, to take their place. It cannot be questioned that houses of
moderate extent can be heated at much less expense for the original cost
of apparatus by the flue system than by any other now before the public.
Flues have the advantage over steam or hot water in their power to
generate heat and supply it to the green or hot house in a very short
space of time, and with this apparatus, the fires may be allowed to go
out on mild and bright days in winter, with the certainty that heat can
be easily and quickly commanded at nightfall. Steam cannot be generated
quickly, and the hot water apparatus requires considerable time to get
into full operation, with the usual amount of fuel.
Among the serious objections to the use of flues, is the unequal
distribution of heat throughout the house; the parts near the furnace
being overheated, while at the chimney it is scarcely warm. This
difficulty can be partially obviated by the use of materials in the
construction of the flues, of different thicknesses,--being made thick
and heavy at the furnace, and gradually becoming thinner and lighter as
it extends towards the chimney. Again, flues generally require more fuel
than a hot water apparatus, and moreover, they are unsightly in an
ornamental house, and with the best care in their construction and
management, they do not give entirely satisfactory results.
Earthenware drain-pipe is frequently employed for flues, and when care
is taken to prevent their cracking by the excessive heat near the
furnace, they answer the purpose very well. When properly secured at
their joints they prevent the escape of gaseous matter more perfectly
than brick flues.
Flues should be elevated a few inches above the floor, and supported by
bricks, to allow all the radiating surface to act upon the atmosphere of
the house, and should have, in order to secure sufficient draft, a
gradual rise through their whole length from the furnace to the entrance
into the chimney.
The furnace should be built inside the house at one end, with the fire
and ash-pit doors opening into a shed outside, to prevent any escape of
gas into the house while replenishing the fire. It will be necessary to
place the furnace low enough to allow a proper rise to the flue. If the
flue be made to rise immediately from the furnace about one foot, it may
then be carried fifty feet, with a rise of not more than six inches, and
the draft will then be sufficient.
The dimensions of the flue may vary from 8 to 12 inches in width, and
from 12 to 18 inches in height, according to the space required to be
heated. The usual mode of construction, when bricks are used, is to lay
them crosswise and flat for the bottom and top, and to set them edgewise
for the sides. Tiles for the bottom and covering are an improvement upon
bricks: being thinner, the heat passes through them more readily, while
they still retain the heat sufficiently to equalize the temperature.
Tiles used for the top covering are sometimes made with circular
depressions for holding water for evaporation.
STEAM.--The employment of steam for heating green houses, graperies,
&c., is almost entirely superceded by the hot water method. It will,
therefore, be necessary only to allude briefly to this part of our
subject. It occasionally happens that a conservatory attached to a
dwelling is heated by the same steam apparatus employed to heat the
latter, but we believe that a person who should advocate, at the present
day, the general adoption of steam as a means of heating horticultural
structures, would be regarded as belonging to a generation which has now
passed away.
Steam travels through pipes with great rapidity, and parting with its
heat rapidly, it becomes quickly condensed, unless the boiler is of
large capacity and capable of furnishing a full supply. It is, at best,
an unsatisfactory mode of heating plant houses, for if from any cause
the water in the boiler is reduced below the boiling point, the steam in
the pipes is instantly condensed, and with it all heat, except that
remaining in the iron of the pipes, and the condensed steam, is
withdrawn.
Hood, an English author on heating, quoted by McIntosh in his valuable
work the "Book of the Garden," thus compares the merits of steam and hot
water. "The weight of steam at the temperature of 212 deg. compared with the
weight of water at 212 deg., is about as 1 to 1694, so that a pipe that is
filled with water at 212 deg., contains 1694 times as much _matter_ as one
of equal size filled with steam. If the source of heat be withdrawn from
the steam pipes, the temperature will soon fall below 212 deg. and the steam
immediately in contact with the pipes will condense: but in condensing,
the steam parts with its _latent heat_ and this heat in passing from the
latent to the sensible state, will again raise the temperature of pipes.
But as soon as they are a second time cooled down below 212 deg. a further
portion of steam will condense, and a further quantity of latent heat
will pass into the state of heat of temperature, and so on until the
whole quantity of latent heat has been abstracted and the whole of the
steam condensed, in which state it will possess just as much heating
power as a similar bulk of water at the like temperature; that is, the
same as a quantity of water occupying 1-1694th part of the space that
the steam originally did.
By experiments made by the above authority, it has been proved that a
given bulk of steam will lose as much of its heat in one minute as the
same bulk of hot water would in three hours and three quarters. And
further admitting that the heat of cast iron is nearly the same as that
of water, if two pipes of the the same calibre and thickness be filled,
the one with water and the other with steam each at 212 deg. of temperature,
the former will contain 4.68 times as much heat as the latter;
therefore if the steam pipe cools down to 60 deg. in one hour, the water
pipe will take four hours and a half to cool down to the same point. In
a hot water apparatus we have in addition to the above, the heat from
the water in the boiler, and of the heated material in and about the
furnace, which continues to give out heat for a long time after the fire
is totally extinguished; whereas in a steam apparatus, under the same
circumstances we have no source of heat except the pipes by which it is
conveyed--giving an advantage in favor of hot water over steam as
regards its power of heating hot houses, and maintaining heat after the
fire ceased to burn, in nearly the proportion of 1 to 7--that is, hot
water will circulate from six to eight times longer than steam under the
above circumstances."
TANKS.--This mode of heating horticultural buildings has been used in
England for some years, and has, of late, obtained considerable
popularity in this country; mainly, however, for the purpose of
obtaining bottom heat. The tank method is more steady and reliable in
its operations in this respect, than heating by flues or pipes, but even
its most strenuous advocates must admit that for atmospheric heat hot
water pipes or flues must be employed in some shape or other, where the
tanks are covered with earth or sand beds for propagating purposes.
With slate or metallic covering they are sometimes used solely for
atmospheric heat, and are found to answer well. But if tanks are
constructed of substantial and enduring materials, they possess little
if any advantage, on the score of expense, over hot water pipes, while
they occupy much more room and are unsightly objects in a well ordered
green-house.
Wooden tanks are frequently used where the heat is required to rise
perpendicularly from them. If constructed of good pine plank, well put
together with white lead, and thoroughly painted inside and out, they
will last for several years. Scarcely any heat will be radiated from the
sides and bottom of a wooden tank. Tanks of brick and cement would
answer better than those made of wood, if it were possible to make them
water-tight when supported by piers above the ground, as they are
usually built. But however carefully constructed, these materials are so
unyielding to the expansion and contraction they are subjected to, that
it is nearly impossible to prevent leakage for any length of time. A
large number of brick and cement tanks have come under our notice, and
we cannot call to mind a single one of them all that has not been a
continual source of vexation and expense to its owner, since its first
construction.
The principle objections to tank heating, as usually employed, are an
excess of bottom heat and a deficiency of atmospheric heat, with a
superabundance of moisture when the vapor from the tank is not properly
excluded from the house. Tanks should be covered with some good
radiating material, as slate or metal. If slate is employed, the joints
should be carefully and effectually cemented. Boards are sometimes used
as a covering, but their radiating power is slight, and their decay
rapid.
Soil or sand, to the depth of six to ten inches, is usually placed upon
the tanks, and used as a plunging bed for pots containing cuttings; or
the cuttings are sometimes inserted in the bed itself.
Any arrangement by which vapor from the tanks is admitted to the roots
of plants is to be avoided, for however desirable a moist bottom heat
may be, it is found from experience that the soil is frequently rendered
a mass of puddle, in which no living roots can exist.
A portion of the covering of the tank may be made moveable to allow
moisture to escape into the house when required.
By means of the tank, bottom heat for propagating or other purposes, can
be very steadily and uniformly maintained, more so than by other modes,
and the changes of temperature of the outer air do not materially
affect it. But the case is different with regard to the air of the
house, which is frequently reduced below the freezing point, in severe
weather. If the bottom heat is of the required temperature, any attempt
to counteract the coldness of the air of the house by increasing the
fire, would produce an injurious excess of bottom heat. It is evident
that while the required supply of heat for the bottom is uniform, and
that for the top exceedingly irregular, both objects cannot be properly
secured except by a separate supply of heat for each. For these reasons
we would employ a hot water pipe or pipes, passing around the house, on
the same level with the tanks, supplied with a valve to regulate the
heat at pleasure, or a brick smoke flue constructed in the usual manner.
Tanks are usually divided in the centre, thus forming channels for the
flow and return circulation side by side, equalizing the temperature
throughout their whole length. This form is sometimes departed from by
carrying the tank around the house, and connecting each end with the
boiler, but in this case, except in small houses, a uniform temperature
cannot be maintained, as the water will have lost several degrees of
heat before it has accomplished its circuit. Another arrangement is to
connect the remote end of the tank by an iron pipe for the return
circulation, passing under the tank the whole distance to the boiler.
This is not as perfect and effective an arrangement of pipes and tanks
as that before referred to, as in this case we do not have the heat from
the pipe under control.
A writer in a late number of the "Gardeners' Monthly," gives the
following description of tanks erected by him to obviate excessive
moisture and radiate a portion of their heat into the atmosphere of the
house.
"In the winter of 1863-4, I finished two span-roof houses, each 60 feet
in length, with water tanks three feet in width, running entirely around
on both sides of each house, and heated by a single furnace. The tanks
were made with wooden bottoms and sides, and covered with slate
carefully cemented. My design was to heat the houses entirely by the
tanks, by far the larger portion of the heat being given off from the
slate covering, and as a bottom heat for plants. As I understand the
various writers upon this subject, this is the approved plan. But I have
found considerable difficulty, and have been obliged to modify my plan
in various respects:
In the first place, wooden tanks, with the top covered with sand, will
not give off heat sufficiently to keep up growth in houses of this size
during extremely cold weather. By protecting the houses with shutters,
this difficulty may be obviated. Crowding the fire, and raising the
water in the tanks to a high temperature, is a more objectionable
remedy. In this way the bottom heat is too strong. But my most serious
difficulty has arisen from excessive humidity. I put three inches of
sand over the whole slate surface of the tanks, using a part for
cuttings, and the rest, (say 100 running feet of the three feet wide
table), for standing pot plants upon the surface of the sand. The plants
dried rapidly, and required watering every morning. The result was, that
in watering the plants, and of course the sand on which they stood, to
some extent, it was like pouring water upon a flue, or upon hot pipes: a
constant steam was given off; all the moisture in the sand was rapidly
converted into steam; so, also the water in the pots was quickly
expelled. In order to heat the house sufficiently, the bottom heat
became too strong, and the plants were in too direct contact with it. In
cold days the house was in a perfect fog. It was ruinous to the plants.
The remedy was simple: more heat must be allowed to escape from the tank
into the house, without coming in contact with the sand-bed, and the
moist earth of the plants. Another slate floor was laid, an inch above
the tank slate, on which to put the sand and stand the plants. This hot
air chamber opens into the house on the back and front side of the tank.
Thus the whole radiating surface of the top of the tank may be directed
into the house, or may be confined as bottom heat, as may be found
necessary. By this plan, excessive humidity may be entirely obviated,
and the heat completely controlled, as wanted."
HOT WATER PIPES.--It is generally conceded, among practical men, that
the circulation of hot water in iron pipes is the best known method of
heating plant houses. The property which heated water possesses of
retaining for a considerable length of time its heat and transmitting it
to the pipes at long distances from the boiler, renders it a most
effective agency for such purposes: A perfect control of the moisture of
the atmosphere, by means of evaporating pans attached to the pipes;
entire freedom from deleterious gases, sometimes escaping from flues,
and the substantial character and enduring qualities of the apparatus,
are important considerations in favor of this method of heating which
are not to be overlooked or underrated.
It is true that a house of a given size cannot as soon be brought to the
required temperature after the fire is first lighted, as by other modes
of heating, but when once in full operation greater regularity is
maintained, and if the fire should by any neglect go out, heat is still
radiated, often for several hours, before the pipes become entirely
cold.
For heating ornamental houses of glass, pipes are also to be
recommended on account of the little room they occupy and the neatness
of their appearance compared with the unsightly flues or tank. If
properly put up, the pipes never leak at the joints, as is the case
frequently with tanks, and scarcely need any repairs for years. The
first cost of apparatus for heating by hot water pipes exceeds that of
the other methods which we have named, but when we take into account its
great durability, economy of fuel, and the satisfactory results produced
in the growth of plants in houses heated in this manner, it must be
evident that this method is the cheapest in the end.
It is generally supposed that the heat obtained from steam or hot water
pipes necessarily contains moisture. For those who have had any
experience in the use of these methods of heating, it is needless to say
that such is not the case. To obtain moisture evaporation of water in
some manner in the atmosphere must be effected. This is provided for by
attaching to the pipes evaporating pans filled with water, by which the
moisture can be perfectly regulated and controlled. The capacity of the
boiler and the length of the pipes should be in proportion to the size
of the house to be heated, bearing in mind that it is better to have a
reserve of heating power for extraordinary occasions. In such cases
economy in fuel will be secured, as the fires will not be required to
be kept constantly burning brightly.
Fault is sometimes found with the apparatus when it lies entirely with
the proprietor of the establishment, who in his short-sighted economy,
has restricted the builder in the amount of pipe put into the apparatus.
CONSTRUCTION, &c.
The general plan of Horticultural structures may be as perfect as
possible, but if the details are not well carried out, and especially if
the workmanship be not good, they will prove a source of never-ending
vexation and expense. Insecure foundations, ill-fitting doors and
ventilators, imperfect glazing, and inferior workmanship of every
description, are evils that skillful gardeners have to contend with, and
upon whom the consequences of such defects usually fall, when they
should be placed upon the shoulders of the constructor.
Methods for building cheap Graperies and Green houses have often been
described, and we find many of these imperfect and temporary structures
scattered through the country. Such buildings may be cheap as respects
their first cost, but their durability is a question which should enter
into the calculations of their builders, as well as the consideration of
the original outlay. After a year or two we find them with open joints,
leaky roofs, and decaying foundations. The inferior and temporary
character of materials and workmanship is often a source of serious loss
to their owners, and every building of this description demonstrates the
mistaken and short-sighted economy of its projector. It is much wiser
and truer economy to expend at the outset, a sufficient amount of money
and care to make the structure permanent, and to obviate the necessity
of constant repairs. Experience has taught us that if they are well and
substantially built, these structures will endure for twenty years with
very few repairs except an occasional coat of paint. It need not be
demonstrated that the profit and gratification to be derived from a
well-built house far exceed those accruing from a cheap and imperfect
one, with escapes for the heat in winter, and inlets for cold air and
driving snow and rain.
The foundations of Horticultural buildings should be of stone or brick,
both below and above the ground, if they are to be of a permanent
character. The superstructure should be of the best white pine and
thoroughly painted. In building curvilinear roofs the rafters and sash
bars should be sawed out in pieces to the regular curve. The rafters
being put together in sections, breaking joints are thus equally strong
throughout their length. The advantages of sawed bars over those bent in
the usual manner, are very great. The thrust of the roof is but slight,
and the house always remains in shape. With the bent bars the strain is
enormous, as may be seen in the settling of such houses at the ridge,
and expansion at the sides, besides the liability of breaking the glass
by the constantly varying strain of the bars.
Iron has been frequently and strongly recommended in the construction of
horticultural buildings. It has been used, with very satisfactory
results in England, and doubtless it may there be found to be the best
and most economical material for such purposes. It has been tried also
in this country, but the experiment has not resulted so favorably. The
main difficulty is that, in this climate, the expansion and contraction
of the iron rafters and bars are so great that the glass is continually
and badly breaking, and it is very difficult to keep the joints tight
enough to repel the rain and the cold air. There can be no doubt that in
this country, wood is a better material than iron for these purposes.
Thick and double thick glass has heretofore been used almost exclusively
for first class houses, but the high price of glass has of late,
compelled the use of a thinner article. It is generally believed that
thick glass will resist hail storms better than thin, but on this
question practical men differ in their opinions. It is contended, on the
other hand, that the elasticity of the thin panes resist a blow better
than the unyielding thick one, also that the latter is more likely to be
broken by the accumulation of water between the laps of the glass.
We have found that the 8 by 10 size of single thick French window glass,
second or third quality, is sufficiently good for Horticultural
buildings, and we do not use any other, unless especially called for by
the proprietor.
Glazing is often badly executed, half an inch lap, and sometimes more,
being often allowed to the glass, from the mistaken idea that rain, in a
driving storm, will find its way through. A lap of one-eighth of an inch
is amply sufficient in any case. The glass should be well "bedded" down
to the sash bar, in putty containing a portion of white lead, and well
secured with small iron nails or glaziers points. All putty should be
removed from the outside when the work is finished, and the sash bars
should then be painted with a heavy coat of thick paint which will close
up the joints and render them water tight.
Ample ventilation should be provided both at the top and bottom of
houses, so that large quantities of air may be supplied when necessary,
as in ripening the wood of vines in graperies, and in "hardening off"
plants in green houses before removal to the open air.
By reference to the numerous designs given in this work, the manner of
arranging the interior details, such as shelving, tables, walks, hot
water pipes, and the general features of construction and adaptation,
will be understood.
HOT-BEDS.
The most simple form of Horticultural structures, and one known in
almost every garden, is the Hot-bed. To persons of experience in their
construction and management, we cannot hope to give any important
information, but having seen in many instances the operations of these
beds imperfectly performed, we offer a few simple suggestions and
directions which will be of advantage to the novice.
The location of the bed should be, if possible, a sheltered one,
especially on the north side, while towards the east and south it should
be open. This shelter or protection is needed chiefly to prevent an
undue radiation of heat from the glass, and the entrance of a strong,
cold current of air when the sashes are lifted for ventilation. This
radiation is not only hurtful to the plants by causing sudden and
extreme changes of temperature, but, if allowed to proceed too far, will
cause the heat of the bed to "run out." Let the shelter, therefore, be
as thorough as possible.
We have found the south side of a barn, or a tight board fence a good
location. The barn would be preferable, on account of its proximity to
the materials that furnish the source of heat--the manure pile.
If the soil is wet, or of a heavy nature, it would be better that the
bed be made entirely upon the surface. If the situation is a dry one,
and the soil gravelly or sandy, then a pit may be excavated, of the size
of the intended frame, and three feet in depth. A hollow brick wall
should be built up from the bottom, six inches above the surface, if it
is intended that the bed should be permanent; otherwise the excavation
may be lined with boards, or if designed for only a season's use, it may
be left without any support. Hot-beds made under ground require less
material, are more lasting in their heat, and require less attention
than those built on the surface. On the contrary, should the heat fail
from any cause, beds built up on the surface possess the advantage of
being more easily renewed by the application of fresh fermenting
materials, or "linings" as they are usually termed.
About the 20th of February is early enough, in this latitude, to gather
and prepare materials for the hot-bed. Fresh stable manure alone may be
used, though preference is generally given to a mixture, in equal
proportions, of manure and forest leaves. Place on the ground, (under a
shed if possible,) a layer of leaves one foot thick, and on this a foot
of manure, then leaves and manure alternately until the required
quantity is obtained. Let this heap remain four or five days, or until
it begins to heat, then turn over and thoroughly mix the leaves and
manure together, and throw them up into a compact, conical heap. In four
or five days more your materials will be ready for your bed. Mark off
your intended site, running as nearly east and west as practicable. Your
frame should be about six feet wide and of any required length. The
manure bed should extend a foot outside the frame on the sides and ends.
See Figure 1, in which _a_ is the manure heap.
[Illustration: FIG. 1.]