ITALIAN EXPEDITION (1899−1900)
Between the discovery of Franz-Josef Land by the Austro-Hungarian
Expedition and the expedition of the Duke of the Abruzzi a good deal of
exploration had taken place. In 1880 and 1881, Leigh Smith in his yacht
_Eira_ reached Franz-Josef Land without much difficulty, and surveyed
the coast up to Cape Lofley. The _Eira_, when leaving for the second
time, was crushed by the ice near Cape Flora, and sank. The crew built a
wretched hovel in which they passed the winter. In the following summer
they sailed in their boats to Novaya Zemlya, where they were taken on
board a ship which had been sent to their assistance.
In 1894, Jackson, in the _Windward_, built a station at Cape Flora, on
Northbrook Island, and remained there till the autumn of 1897. He made
three expeditions with sledges. In the first two he was prevented from
advancing towards the north by stretches of open sea. He reached 81°
20′. In the third journey he went towards the west, making the circuit
of Alexander Land. He named the most westerly point of the group “Cape
Mary Harmsworth.” The sea to the north was called “Queen Victoria Sea.”
In 1898, Wellman in the _Fridtjof_ landed at Cape Tegethoff, and after
making some discoveries in the eastern part of Franz-Josef Land,
returned home next year in the _Capella_.
The Duke of the Abruzzi left Christiania on board the _Polar Star_ on
12th June 1899. It was his intention to proceed to Emperor Franz-Josef
Land and attempt from there to reach the North Pole.
The expedition was composed of eleven Italians and nine Norwegians. The
ship was a whaler, and had been previously named the _Jason_. It had
been commanded by Captain Evensen, who retained the command by being
appointed captain of the _Polar Star_.
The second in command of the expedition was Umberto Cagni, captain in
the Italian Navy.
Archangel was reached on 30th June. Here 121 dogs were obtained. They
had been brought by Trontheim, who was also employed by Nansen.
Archangel was left on 13th July; the first ice was met on the 17th, and
Northbrook Island was sighted on the 20th July.
The five huts left by Jackson at Cape Flora were visited, and a dépôt of
provisions for eight months was landed, in addition to five tons of
coal.
Cape Flora was left on 26th July, and an attempt was made to pass to the
north through Nightingale Sound, but the passage was blocked by ice.
Next an attempt was made to double Cape Mary Harmsworth, but this also
ended in failure.
Nightingale Sound was again entered on the 28th July, but in the evening
of this day the ship was surrounded by ice-fields, and had to remain
near the northern extremity of Bruce Island three days. On the 1st
August an attempt was made to bore the ice, but the ship advanced only
about 300 yards. Some channels formed on the 3rd and allowed some
progress. On the 5th the whaler _Capella_, with Wellman’s party, was
sighted near Scott Keltie Island, and Wellman and three of his
companions visited the ship.
From this point the _Polar Star_ had open water until it reached
Maria-Elizabeth Island, but here it was stopped by thick ice ahead and
foggy weather. When the fog cleared, a passage was found to the east of
the island, and the _Polar Star_ advanced rapidly northwards, and
reached 82° 4′ to the north-west of Prince Rudolf Island. The _Alert_
reached 82° 27′, the _Polaris_ attained 82° 11′, so that the _Polar
Star_ took third place among the ships which had been navigated towards
the Pole. The _Fram_ reached a much higher latitude, but it was by means
of the drift. From the farthest north reached by the _Polar Star_ the
horizon was carefully observed, but no trace could be found of Petermann
Land and King Oscar Land, which Payer thought he sighted from Cape
Fligely. It was found that the latitude of this cape was 81° 50′ 43″,
and not 82° 5′, as given by Payer.
The _Polar Star_ was now steered towards the south-east to Teplitz Bay,
the most northern bay of Franz-Josef Land, in latitude 81° 47′, where it
went into winter quarters. The bay did not provide a very safe
anchorage, but its position far to the north made it of great importance
for the contemplated sledge-expeditions.
On the 27th August the _Polar Star_ was driven by the pressure of the
ice against the ice fixed to the coast, and heeled over about 13
degrees. When the pressure ceased, she remained in the same position. On
the 7th September the ice pressure again became severe, and the ship was
so seriously damaged that it had to be abandoned.
Steps were at once taken to have the stores landed, and two large
field-tents were erected on the shore to serve as winter quarters.
Outside these a second tent was formed to cover the two field-tents, and
a third tent covered the whole.
A space between the two inner field-tents was occupied on one side by
the kitchen, and on the other by bags and cases containing clothing.
Between the field-tents and the second tent tins of milk were built in
the form of a wall, and between the second and third tents were stored
the provisions likely to be consumed during the winter.
After all these preparations had been completed, an attempt was made to
repair the damaged ship, which still kept its position heeled over in
the ice. The water which had leaked into the ship was pumped out, and as
far as possible the damaged parts were repaired with tarpaulin and
boards.
During the winter preparations were made for the long sledge-journey in
the spring. On the 23rd December the Duke of the Abruzzi went out with
some of his party in order to train the dogs to draw sledges. They drove
to the bottom of the bay, and then turned back. On the return journey a
storm came on, and the way was lost. Instead of keeping on the ice of
the bay, they wandered unknowingly up on the island, and were only made
aware of the fact when two sledges with their dogs, as well as the Duke
and Captain Cagni, fell from the glacier down to the bay, a height of
some 23 feet. Fortunately, neither was hurt. Owing to the drifting snow
and the darkness, great difficulty was experienced in regaining the
tent. When it was reached, it was found that several of the party were
frost-bitten. The Duke and Captain Cagni had suffered most. The
circulation in the terminal joints of two of the Duke’s fingers of the
left hand could not be restored.
Christmas and the beginning of the New Year were celebrated with the
utmost enthusiasm. Fireworks consisting of rockets and fiery fountains,
salutes from the small gun, and bonfires of wood steeped in petroleum,
all united to form a striking scene in a land far removed from
civilisation.
With the beginning of the New Year the preparations for the
sledge-journey received most attention. The daily ration was fixed at 2
lb. 12 oz. 9 dr., which was about 3 oz. more than the weight used by
Nares and Greely. It consisted of biscuit, tinned meat, pemmican,
butter, milk, Liebig’s extract, desiccated vegetables, Italian paste,
sugar, salt, coffee, tea, and onions.
The lamps used were made on the Primus system, and the cooking-stove was
that designed by Nansen. The quantity of petroleum was fixed at 3 oz. 8
dr. for each man daily. The dog’s ration of pemmican was 1 lb. 1 oz. 10
dr.
The expedition carried flat-bottomed kayaks. These had a framework of
thin rods over which canvas was stretched. Their greatest length was 11
ft. 7 in., their width 2 ft. 6 in., and their height 11 in. They were
provided with a small sail, a pump to empty out water, and a pair of
oars with their rowlocks.
The sledges were 11 ft. 5 in. long, 1 ft. 6 in. wide, and 6½ inches
high. The runners were slightly convex, so as to turn easily; they were
shod with white metal, and wooden runners were strapped beneath them.
The foremost ends of the runners were joined by a bow, to which the
trace was attached, and no nails were used. Each sledge was provided
with a small steel rope, with as many rings as there were dogs to tie
them to, at a distance of 4½ feet from each other.
On 18th January 1900 the Duke had nearly all the first joint of the
middle finger of his left hand amputated, and ten days later a part of
the fourth finger. This rendered him quite unable to take any part in
the sledge-expedition, and Captain Cagni was given the command of it.
This expedition set out on 19th February. As open water reached the
mouth of the bay, it was found necessary to haul the sledges overland to
a point north of Cape Germania. With thirteen sledges drawn by 108 dogs,
the ice-pack was reached on the 21st February. During the first night on
the ice the temperature reached 45.4° F. below zero, and on 23rd
February it reached 61.6° F. below zero. Many of the party were
frost-bitten, and few could sleep. This extreme temperature was more
than they could stand, and Captain Cagni wisely decided to return to
Teplitz Bay, which was reached on the night of the 23rd.
The expedition left again on the 11th March. During the interval various
alterations had been made. It was found necessary to diminish the loads
so as to avoid damage to the sledges when crossing the broken and
difficult ice near the island. The allowance of petroleum was increased
to 6 oz. 5 dr. for each man. Cagni had also observed that it would be
necessary to always send forward at least two men to prepare the way for
the sledges. He therefore decided to take an additional man.
The expedition consisted of three detachments. One was composed of four
men, and the other two of three men each. The four men were to accompany
the party twelve days, and then return. The provisions were so divided
that this party carried the whole of the rations for the ten men during
the twelve days, and also the rations for their own return. The second
detachment carried the rations to last the remainder other twelve days
and their own return. According to this arrangement, the third or
advance party would not begin on their own rations until the
twenty-fifth day, when the second detachment would return.
The entire camp equipment and the clothing for the three detachments
amounted to 978 lb. 13 oz. 8 dr., or nearly 100 lb. per man. The weight
to be carried amounted to the remarkable total of 6718 lb. 9 oz. 13 dr.,
or almost exactly 3 tons. Twelve sledges were used, so that the average
weight for each was 5 cwt. The dogs numbered 103.
On the second departure the expedition was able to travel out of the bay
without having first to drag the sledges overland. On the first day the
temperature was 27.4° F. below zero. An auxiliary detachment accompanied
the party two days.
At first, Captain Cagni set out towards the west, so as to get away from
land, but on the second day he tended a little east of north, so as to
allow for the probable drift towards the west. During the night of the
13th March the temperature fell to 45.4° F. below zero. On the 12th an
advance of 7 miles was made; on the 13th, about 10 miles; but on the
14th the ice-axes had frequently to be used to make a road, and only 3½
miles were covered.
For some days the temperature kept remarkably low. On the morning of the
16th it reached 58° F. below zero. On the 19th it rose to 16.6° F. below
zero, but on the 21st it again fell to 36.4° F. below zero.
On the 21st March, Cagni decided to take three men with him in the third
or advance detachment. He found it necessary to send two men forward to
prepare the way for the sledges. With three men in the detachment, only
one would be left to look after the most of the dogs and sledges. He
therefore decided to send back three men in the first detachment,
instead of four. To meet the extra rations required for the additional
man, he intended to send back the first detachment two days, and the
second detachment four days earlier than originally intended.
The first detachment, composed of Lieutenant Querini, the guide Ollier,
and the engineer Stökken, was sent back on the 23rd March. At this time
the expedition was about 45 miles distant from the island which had been
seen two days previously. Nothing more was ever heard of this
detachment. The Duke came to the conclusion that an accident must have
happened. It is quite possible, however, if not probable, that the party
was drifted so far out of the proper course that the island could not be
reached before all the food had been consumed. It will be seen that the
third detachment failed to make headway against this drift, and was
saved only by giving up the attempt to reach Prince Rudolf Island, and
by making its way towards the islands in the south.
Some of the dogs caused a great deal of trouble. One had deserted on two
occasions. It was a fine, strong animal, and it would have been a pity
to kill it. The doctor undertook to tame it and prevent it deserting. He
secured it with two chains and a steel-wire rope. In spite of this, it
was found trying to escape, and the doctor gave it a severe beating.
During the night the dog broke the two chains, and in some incredible
way managed to get free. As if to be revenged on its tamer, it made a
hole in the doctor’s tent and stole all the butter which was to serve
for the detachment’s breakfast.
Towards the end of March the temperature was still very low, and Captain
Cagni suffered greatly from one of his forefingers which had already
been twice frost-bitten. The sleeping-bag slowly filled with snow formed
by the frozen moisture of the breath. During the night their bodies
gradually thawed this snow, and they rose in a cold bath in the morning.
Soon after getting up, the moisture froze again into a mass of ice. On
27th and 28th March the temperature was more than 40° F. below zero.
On the 28th March, Captain Cagni was able to take an observation for
latitude, and was astonished to find that it was only 83°. He had
calculated that it ought to be about 83° 50′. The drift to the south
must therefore have been considerable.
On 31st March the second detachment, composed of Dr. Cavalli, Cardenti,
and Savoie, was sent back. It received rations for eighteen days, and
had twenty-four dogs. Considerable difficulties were met with on the
return journey, but the detachment reached the coast of the island on
the 17th April. Here a broad channel of water prevented them from
reaching land. A kayak was repaired, and Cardenti was sent in it across
the channel. He reached the glacier face, but it took him two hours to
ascend to the top by making steps with his ice-axe in a crevasse. He
then was unable to find his way to the tent in Teplitz Bay. After
wandering about on the island all night, he saw the tent when daylight
dawned. A boat was at once dispatched to bring the doctor and his
companion.
Meanwhile the party in Teplitz Bay had been anxiously awaiting the
arrival of the first detachment. When the second arrived and reported
that the first had left seven days before them, all hope was practically
given up, although a relief party was sent out to make a search in the
neighbourhood of the islands discovered by Nansen.
Cagni and his three companions set out after the departure of the second
detachment. They had forty-nine dogs and six sledges. The load on each
sledge varied from 410 to 485 lb. On the first day they made a splendid
march of about 18 miles. With the beginning of April the temperature
rose, and life became less miserable, but the higher temperature was
accompanied by a strong wind. On the 3rd and 4th April this high wind
and snow-drift confined the party to their tent. They set out again on
the 5th, but found great movement going on in the ice. Channels were
constantly opening and closing, and pressure-ridges were being formed
all around. One of the sledges broke through the ice, and was dragged
out with difficulty.
It was part of the scheme of the expedition to gradually kill a certain
number of the dogs in order to assist in feeding the others. At first
none of the dogs cared to eat the flesh; later the few which ate it
waited till it was frozen; but ultimately the whole of the survivors
devoured it with even more greediness than pemmican, and while it was
still warm.
On the 7th April the latitude was found to be 83° 54′. This was near the
latitude calculated by Cagni, so that the drift to the south had almost
ceased. The recent tracks of two bears were seen on this date. On the
8th April channels were crossed by means of bridges built of large
blocks of ice detached from the hummocks.
Cagni was still suffering greatly from his frost-bitten forefinger,
which the doctor had generously promised to amputate when Cagni returned
to Teplitz Bay. On the 12th April a huge pressure-ridge, which Cagni
estimated to be from 36 to 45 feet in height, was seen to form about 100
yards from the camp. On this day they travelled a distance estimated at
22 miles. Next day one of the guides suddenly broke through the ice, and
would have been lost but for the assistance of his companion. Cagni took
half a bath shortly afterwards, and the second guide slipped into the
water with one leg. In spite of these difficulties, the day’s march was
reckoned at 13 miles. These two days, however, greatly exhausted the
dogs, and on the following day only 5 miles were covered.
On the 15th April a snowstorm confined them to the tent. Cagni’s finger
had kept him awake two nights, and he took advantage of the delay to
unbandage it and remove with forceps some of the dead flesh. On this day
a hole was burnt through one of the two saucepans. This was looked upon
as a serious accident, but it occurred to one of the guides to use the
cover as a second bottom, and this fortunately answered fairly well. The
storm lasted till the afternoon of the 17th April. This was the date
originally fixed for the return, but Cagni decided to still push on. At
midday on the 21st April the latitude was found to be 85° 29′. This gave
great encouragement, and determined Cagni to make an effort to break
Nansen’s record. On the 22nd the latitude was 85° 48′; on the 23rd it
was 86° 4′; and on the 24th it was 86° 18′.
Cagni had now beaten Nansen’s record of 86° 14′, but he decided to still
push on. About six o’clock they were stopped by a large channel, and
here it was decided to return. The latitude was found to be the record
one of 86° 34′. Great praise is due to Cagni for his pluck and
determination under difficulties which would have made most men give up
in despair. Coming from a country which enjoys a warm climate, the
severe temperatures must have caused the party to suffer greatly, but
added to this in Cagni’s case was the torture he had to undergo from his
mortifying finger.
The return journey was begun on the 25th with four sledges, thirty-four
dogs, provisions for thirty days, 200 rations of pemmican for the men
and 300 rations for the dogs. On the first day’s march the party covered
the remarkable distance of 29 miles. The outward track assisted greatly
on the return. The progress at first was very good; in four days the
party advanced 1 degree towards the south.
On the 2nd May, Cagni improved the condition of his finger, which had
again pained him greatly. The glands in the armpit were also inflamed.
When the finger was unbandaged, it was found to be greatly swollen. With
a lancet in his left hand, Cagni opened the swelling and gave outlet to
a large quantity of matter. After taking away a covering of dead flesh,
a piece of bone was found sticking out of the wound. Cagni had only
scissors to work with, but with these he managed to cut off the
projection. The whole proceeding occupied him fully two hours. His
courage was beyond praise.
On the 8th May the latitude was found to be 83° 42′. On this date the
temperature had risen to freezing-point. On the 10th, Cagni discovered
that he had drifted about 8 degrees of longitude to the west of Teplitz
Bay. In the latitude he was in this represented about 57 geographical
miles. He therefore steered a course more to the east. In spite of this
new direction, Cagni found two days later that he was still farther to
the west. He now hesitated to steer more to the east in case his
chronometers had been going more slowly, due to the rise in temperature.
This decision had an important bearing on the future trials of the
party.
On the 18th May it was found that though the party had been travelling
nine days towards the south-east, they were still on the same meridian.
Channels now became so frequent that the course was difficult to keep,
and the weather became stormy and foggy. On the 23rd May latitude 82° 1′
was reached, so that the party was now nearly on a level with the
northern part of Prince Rudolf Island. The drift was, however, so great
that during the next six days only about 10 miles were covered towards
the island. Provisions were now running short, and both the physical and
mental condition of the men began to deteriorate. According to the
longitude, they were still 6 degrees west of Teplitz Bay.
It now became necessary to ferry the sledges and dogs across the
channels on large pieces of ice, and progress became very slow. After
struggling desperately towards the east, it was found on the 7th June
that they were farther to the west than on the 1st of the month. The
week’s toil had therefore been in vain. This made Cagni come to the wise
decision to give up fighting against the drift, and to proceed
southwards, where he would probably reach islands from which he would
have a better chance of reaching Prince Rudolf Island.
On the second day after setting out to the south, land was sighted, and
turned out to be Harley Island. On the 10th the party found it necessary
to begin eating dog’s flesh. The coast of Harley Island was reached on
13th June, but still they kept to the ice, and followed the coast until
they reached the north-west extremity of the island. They then steered
for Ommaney Island, where they arrived at midnight on the 13th. This
island was crossed, but on attempting to leave it the ice was found
impracticable, and twice the party were forced to retrace their steps.
The third attempt was successful, after great labour among moving ice. A
broad channel was found open along Karl Alexander Land, and Cagni
therefore steered a course in the direction of Cape Germania.
When they awoke on the morning of the 20th June, they found they were
afloat on a floe about 60 yards in diameter. Here they had to remain two
days at the mercy of the wind. Prince Rudolf Island was reached on the
23rd June, and the party arrived at the tent at Teplitz Bay on the same
date.
This sledge-journey by Cagni is the longest ever made over the ice of
the Arctic Ocean before that of Dr. Cook. Starting from a comparatively
low latitude, he yet was able to surpass the record made by Nansen. He
had, of course, advantages which Nansen did not possess: he had a base
to fall back upon, and he had the assistance of other two detachments;
but on the other hand he had to start from a much lower latitude. The
achievement of the Italians is one of which any country might be proud.
Steps were now taken to free the ship from the ice, which was from 10
feet to 18 feet thick. Holes were drilled in this ice along one side of
the ship, and into these holes guncotton was placed and exploded. All
their efforts at first were of little avail, but they eventually
succeeded in righting the ship. A channel 180 yards long had next to be
blasted in order to get the ship out of the bay. In forming this channel
nearly all the explosives were exhausted when it was completed on 10th
August. The provisions and equipment were now put on board, and
everything being ready on 16th August, the _Polar Star_, which was still
seaworthy, left Teplitz Bay on the return journey.
Cape Flora was reached on 31st August, after considerable difficulties
with the ice on the passage south. There was still a faint hope that the
missing detachment might be here, but no trace of it was found. As a
final precaution, provisions sufficient for twenty men during eight
months were left here; a still larger quantity had been left at Teplitz
Bay.
On the 2nd September the _Polar Star_ escaped from the drift-ice; on the
5th the rugged mountains of Norway were in view, and Tromsö was reached
on the 6th.
Although this expedition added no new land to our maps, the results were
important. It proved that a ship could be taken to the northern part of
Franz-Josef Archipelago, and that a properly equipped sledge-expedition
could travel a distance of 5° of latitude over the ice of the Arctic
Ocean.
Franz-Josef Archipelago has since been visited by two Polar expeditions
known as the “Ziegler Expeditions,” but these have added little to our
previous knowledge.
[Illustration: CHART OF NORTHERN PART OF GREENLAND.]