The characters so far enumerated are strictly in accordance with cubic
symmetry, but when a crystal is examined in polarized light, it will be
seen to be doubly refracting, as was first observed by Sir David
Brewster in 1821. Thin sections show twin-lamellae, and a division into
definite areas which are optically biaxial. By cutting sections in
suitable directions, it may be proved that a rhombic dodecahedral
crystal is really built up of twelve orthorhombic pyramids, the apices
of which meet in the centre and the bases coincide with the dodecahedral
faces of the compound (pseudo-cubic) crystal. Crystals of other forms
show other types of internal structure. When the crystals are heated
these optical characters change, and at a temperature of 265 deg. the
crystals suddenly become optically isotropic; on cooling, however, the
complexity of internal structure reappears. Various explanations have
been offered to account for these "optical anomalies" of boracite. Some
observers have attributed them to alteration, others to internal strains
in the crystals, which originally grew as truly cubic at a temperature
above 265 deg. It would, however, appear that there are really two
crystalline modifications of the boracite substance, a cubic
modification stable above 265 deg. and an orthorhombic (or monoclinic)
one stable at a lower temperature. This is strictly analogous to the
case of silver iodide, of which cubic and rhombohedral modifications
exist at different temperatures; but whereas rhombohedral as well as
pseudo-cubic crystals of silver iodide (iodyrite) are known in nature,
only pseudo-cubic crystals of boracite have as yet been met with.
Chemically, boracite is a magnesium borate and chloride with the formula
Mg7Cl2B16O30--A small amount of iron is sometimes present, and an
iron-boracite with half the magnesium replaced by ferrous iron has been
called huyssenite. The mineral is insoluble in water, but soluble in
hydrochloric acid. On exposure it is liable to slow alteration, owing to
the absorption of water by the magnesium chloride: an altered form is
known as parasite.
In addition to embedded crystals, a massive variety, known as
stassfurtite, occurs as nodules in the salt deposits at Stassfurt in
Prussia: that from the carnallite layer is compact, resembling
fine-grained marble, and white or greenish in colour, whilst that from
the kainite layer is soft and earthy, and yellowish or reddish in
colour. (L. J. S.)
BORAGE (pronounced like "courage"; possibly from Lat. _borra_, rough
hair), a herb (_Borago officinalis_) with bright blue flowers and hairy
leaves and stem, considered to have some virtue as a cordial and a
febrifuge; used as an ingredient in salads or in making claret-cup, &c.
BORAGINACEAE, an order of plants belonging to the sympetalous section of
dicotyledons, and a member of the series Tubiflorae. It is represented
in Britain by bugloss (_Echium_) (fig. 1), comfrey (_Symphytum_),
_Myosotis_, hounds-tongue (_Cynoglossum_) (fig. 2), and other genera,
while borage (_Borago officinalis_) (fig. 3) occurs as a garden escape
in waste ground. The plants are rough-haired annual or perennial herbs,
more rarely shrubby or arborescent, as in _Cordia_ and _Ehretia_, which
are tropical or sub-tropical. The leaves, which are generally alternate,
are usually entire and narrow: the radical leaves in some genera, as
_Pulmonaria_ (lungwort) and _Cynoglossum_, differ in form from the
stem-leaves, being generally broader and sometimes heart-shaped. A
characteristic feature is the one-sided (_dorsiventral_) inflorescence,
well illustrated in forget-me-not and other species of _Myosotis_; the
cyme is at first closely coiled, becoming uncoiled as the flowers open.
At the same time there is often a change in colour in the flowers, which
are red in bud, becoming blue as they expand, as in _Myosotis, Echium,
Symphytum_ and others. The flowers are generally regular; the form of
the corolla varies widely. Thus in borage it is rotate, tubular in
comfrey, funnel-shaped in hounds-tongue, and salver-shaped in alkanet
(_Anchusa_); the throat is often closed by scale-like outgrowths from
the corolla, forming the so-called corona. A departure from the usual
regular corolla occurs in _Echium_ and a few allied genera, where it is
oblique; in _Lycopsis_ it is also bent.
[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Viper's Bugloss (_Echium vulgare_), about 1/4
nat. size.
1. Single flower, about nat. size. 6. Calyx surrounding nutlets.
2. Corolla split open. 7. Same part of calyx cut away.
3. Calyx. 8. Two nutlets.
4. Pistil. 9. Same enlarged.]
5. One stamen.
The five stamens alternate in position with the lobes of the corolla.
The ovary, of two carpels, is seated on a ring-like disk which secretes
honey. Each carpel becomes divided by a median constriction in four
portions, each containing one ovule; the style springs from the centre
of the group of four divisions.
[Illustration: FIG. 2.--(1) Inflorescence of Forget-me-not; (2) ripe
fruits.]
The flowers show well-marked adaptation to insect-visits. Their colour
and tendency to arrangement on one surface, with the presence of honey,
serve to attract insects. The scales around the throat of the corolla
protect the pollen and honey from wet or undesirable visitors, and by
their difference in colour from the corolla-lobes, as in the yellow eye
of forget-me-not, may serve to indicate the position of the honey. In
most genera the fruit consists of one-seeded nutlets, generally four,
but one or more may be undeveloped. The shape of the nutlet and the
character of its coat are very varied. Thus in _Lithospermum_ the
nutlets are hard like a stone, in _Myosotis_ usually polished, in
_Cynoglossum_ covered with bristles, &c.
The order is widely spread in temperate and tropical regions, and
contains 85 genera with about 1200 species. Its chief centre is the
Mediterranean region, whence it extends over central Europe and Asia,
becoming less frequent northwards. A smaller centre occurs on the
Pacific side of North America. The order is less developed in the south
temperate zone.
[Illustration: FIG. 3.--(1) Flower of Borage; (2) same in vertical
section enlarged; (3) horizontal plan of flower; (4) flower of Comfrey
after removal of corolla, showing unripe fruit.]
The order is of little economic value. Several genera, such as borage
and _Pulmonaria_, were formerly used in medicine, and the roots yield
purple or brown dyes, as in _Alkanna tinctoria_ (alkanet). Heliotrope or
cherry-pie (_Heliotropium peruvianum_) is a well-known garden plant.
BORAS, a town of Sweden, in the district (_lan_) of Elfsborg, 45 m. E.
of Gothenburg by rail, on the river Viske. Pop. (1880) 4723; (1900)
15,837. It ranks among the first twelve towns in Sweden both in
population and in the value of its manufacturing industries. These are
principally textile, as there are numerous cotton spinning and weaving
mills, together with a technical weaving school. The town was founded in
1632 by King Gustavus Adolphus.
BORAX (sodium pyroborate or sodium biborate), Na2B4O7, a substance which
appears in commerce under two forms, namely "common" or prismatic borax,
Na_2B4O7.10H2O, and "jewellers'" or octahedral borax, Na_2B4O7.5H2O. It
is to be noted that the term "borax" was used by the alchemists in a
very vague manner, and is therefore not to be taken as meaning the
substance now specifically known by the name. Prismatic borax is found
widely distributed as a natural product (see below, _Mineralogy_) in
Tibet, and in Canada, Peru and Transylvania, while the bed of Borax
Lake, near Clear Lake in California, is occupied by a large mass of
crystallized borax, which is fit for use by the assayer without
undergoing any preliminary purification. The supply of borax is,
however, mainly derived from the boric acid of Tuscany, which is fused
in a reverberatory furnace with half its weight of sodium carbonate, and
the mass after cooling is extracted with warm water. An alternative
method is to dissolve sodium carbonate in lead-lined steam-heated pans,
and add the boric acid gradually; the solution then being concentrated
until the borax crystallizes. Borax is also prepared from the naturally
occurring calcium borate, which is mixed in a finely divided condition
with the requisite quantity of soda ash; the mixture is fused, extracted
with water and concentrated until the solution commences to crystallize.
From a supersaturated aqueous solution of borax, the pentahydrate,
Na2B4O7.5H2O, is deposited when evaporation takes place at somewhat
high temperatures. The same hydrate can be prepared by dissolving
borax in water until the solution has a specific gravity of 1.246 and
then allowing the solution to cool. The pentahydrate is deposited
between 79 deg. C. and 56 deg. C.; below this temperature the
decahydrate or ordinary borax, Na2B4O7.10H2O, is deposited. Crystals
of ordinary borax swell up to a very great extent on heating, losing
their water of crystallization and melting to a clear white glass. The
crystals of octahedral borax fuse more easily than those of the
prismatic form and are less liable to split when heated, so that they
are preferable for soldering or fluxing. Fused borax dissolves many
metallic oxides, forming complex borates which in many cases show
characteristic colours. Its use in soldering depends on the fact that
solder only adheres to the surface of an untarnished metal, and
consequently a little borax is placed on the surface of the metal and
heated by the soldering iron in order to remove any superficial film
of oxide. It is also used for glazing pottery, in glass-making and the
glazing of linen.
Boric acid (q.v.) being only a weak acid, its salts readily undergo
hydrolytic dissociation in aqueous solution, and this property can be
readily shown with a concentrated aqueous solution of borax, for by
adding litmus and then just sufficient acetic acid to turn the litmus
red, the addition of a large volume of water to the solution changes
the colour back to blue again. The boric acid being scarcely ionized
gives only a very small quantity of hydrogen ions, whilst the base
(sodium hydroxide) produced by the hydrolysis occasioned by the
dilution of the solution, being a "strong base," is highly ionized and
gives a comparatively large amount of hydroxyl ions. In the solution,
therefore, there is now an excess of hydroxyl ions; consequently it
has an alkaline reaction and the litmus turns blue.
_Mineralogy._--The Tibetan mineral deposits have been known since very
early times, and formerly the crude material was exported to Europe,
under the name of _tincal_, for the preparation of pure borax and other
boron salts. The most westerly of the Tibetan deposits are in the
lake-plain of Pugha on the Rulangchu, a tributary of the Indus, at an
elevation of 15,000 ft.: here the impure borax (_sohaga_) occurs over an
area of about 2 sq. m., and is covered by a saline efflorescence;
successive crops are obtained by the action of rain and snow and
subsequent evaporation. Deposits of purer material (_chu tsale_ or water
borax) occur at the lakes of Rudok, situated to the east of the Pugha
district; also still farther to the east at the great lakes Tengri Nor,
north of Lhasa, and several other places. More recently, the extensive
deposits of borates (chiefly, however, of calcium; see COLEMANITE) in
the Mohave desert on the borders of California and Nevada, and in the
Atacama desert in South America, have been the chief commercial sources
of boron compounds. The boron contained in solution in the salt lakes
has very probably been supplied by hot springs and solfataras of
volcanic origin, such as those which at the present day charge the
waters of the lagoons in Tuscany with boric acid. The deposits formed by
evaporation from these lakes and marshes or salines, are mixtures of
borates, various alkaline salts (sodium carbonate, sulphate, chloride),
gypsum, &c. In the mud of the lakes and in the surrounding marshy soil
fine isolated crystals of borax are frequently found. For example,
crystals up to 7 in. in length and weighing a pound each have been found
in large numbers at Borax Lake in Lake county, and at Borax Lake in San
Bernardino county, both in California.
Borax crystallizes with ten molecules of water, the composition of the
crystals being Na2B4O7 + 10H2O. The crystals belong to the monoclinic
system, and it is a curious fact that in habit and angles they closely
resemble pyroxene (a silicate of calcium, magnesium and iron). There
is a perfect cleavage parallel to the orthopinacoid and less perfect
cleavages parallel to the faces of the prism. The mineral is
transparent to opaque and white, sometimes greyish, bluish or greenish
in colour. Hardness 2-2-1/2; sp. gr. 1.69-1.72.
The optical characters are interesting, because of the striking
crossed dispersion of the optic axes, of which phenomenon borax
affords the best example. The optic figure seen in convergent
polarized light through a section cut parallel to the plane of
symmetry of a borax crystal is symmetrical only with respect to the
central point. The plane of the optic axes for red light is inclined
at 2 deg. to that for blue light, and the angle between the optic axes
themselves is 3 deg. greater for red than for blue light.
BORDA, JEAN CHARLES (1733-1799), French mathematician and nautical
astronomer, was born at Dax on the 4th of May 1733. He studied at La
Fleche, and at an early age obtained a commission in the cavalry. In
1756 he presented a _Memoire sur le mouvement des projectiles_ to the
Academy of Sciences, who elected him a member. He was present at the
battle of Hastembeck, and soon afterwards joined the naval service. He
visited the Azores and the Canary Islands, of which he constructed an
admirable map. In 1782 his frigate was taken by a British squadron; he
himself was carried to England, but was almost immediately released on
parole and returned to France. He died at Paris on the 20th of February
1799. Borda contributed a long series of valuable memoirs to the Academy
of Sciences. His researches in hydrodynamics were highly useful for
marine engineering, while the reflecting and repeating circles, as
improved by him, were of great service in nautical astronomy. He was
associated with J.B.J. Delambre and P.F.A. Mechain in the attempt to
determine an arc of the meridian, and the greater number of the
instruments employed in the task were invented by him.
See J.B. Biot, "Notice sur Borda" in the _Mem. de l'Acad. des
Sciences_, iv.
BORDAGE. (i) A nautical term (from Fr. _bord_, side) for the planking on
a ship's side. (2) A feudal term (from Lat. _borda_, a cottage) for the
tenure by which a certain class of villein held their cottages; also
the services due from these villeins or "bordars." A "bordar" (Med. Lat.
_bardarius_) was a villein who obtained a cottage from his lord in
return for menial services (see VILLENAGE).
BORDEAUX, a city of south-western France, capital of the department of
Gironde, 359 m. S.S.W. of Paris by a main line of the Orleans railway
and 159 m. N.W. of Toulouse on the main line of the Southern railway.
Pop. (1906) 237,707. Bordeaux, one of the finest and most extensive
cities in France, is situated on the left or west bank of the Garonne
about 60 m. from the sea, in a plain which comprises the wine-growing
district of Medoc. The Garonne at this point describes a semicircle,
separating the city proper on the left bank from the important suburb of
La Bastide on the right bank. The river is crossed by the Pont de
Bordeaux, a fine stone structure of the early 19th century, measuring
1534 ft. in length, and by a railway bridge connecting the station of
the Orleans railway company in La Bastide with that of the Southern
company on the left bank. Looking west from the Pont de Bordeaux, the
view embraces a crescent of wide and busy quays with a background of
lofty warehouses, factories and mansions, behind which rise towers and
steeples. Almost at the centre of the line of quays is the Place des
Quinconces, round which lie the narrow, winding streets in which the
life of the city is concentrated. Outside this quarter, which contains
most of the important buildings, the streets are narrow and quiet and
bordered by the low white houses which at Bordeaux take the place of the
high tenements characteristic of other large French towns. The whole
city is surrounded by a semicircle of boulevards, beyond which lie the
suburbs of Le Bouscat, Cauderan, Merignac, Talence and Begles. The
principal promenades are situated close together near the centre of the
city. They comprise the beautiful public garden, the allees de Tourny
and the Place des Quinconces. The latter is planted with plane trees,
among which stand two huge statues of Montaigne and Montesquieu, and
terminates upon the quays with two rostral columns which serve as
lighthouses. On its west side there is a monument to the Girondin
deputies proscribed under the convention in 1793. At its south-west
corner the Place des Quinconces opens into the Place de la Comedie,
which contains the Grand Theatre (18th century), the masterpiece of the
architect Victor Louis. The Place de la Comedie, the centre of business
in Bordeaux, is traversed by a street which, under the names of Cours du
Chapeau-Rouge, rue de l'Intendance and rue Judaique, runs from the Place
de la Bourse and the quai de la Douane on the east to the outer
boulevards on the west. Another important thoroughfare, the rue Sainte
Catherine, runs at right angles to the rue de l'Intendance and enters
the Place de la Comedie on the south. The Pont de Bordeaux is continued
by the Cours Victor Hugo, a curved street crossing the rue Sainte
Catherine and leading to the cathedral of St Andre. This church, dating
from the 11th to the 14th centuries, is a building in the Gothic style
with certain Romanesque features, chief among which are the arches in
the nave. It consists of a large nave without aisles, a transept at the
extremities of which are the main entrances, and a choir, flanked by
double aisles and chapels and containing many works of art. Both the
north and south facades are richly decorated with sculpture and
statuary. Of the four towers flanking the principal portals, only those
to the north are surmounted by spires. Near the choir stands an isolated
tower. It contains the great bell of the cathedral and is known as the
Clocher Pey-Berland, after the archbishop of Bordeaux who erected it in
the 15th century. Of the numerous other churches of Bordeaux the most
notable are St Seurin (11th to the 15th centuries), with a finely
sculptured southern portal; Ste Croix (12th and 13th centuries),
remarkable for its Romanesque facade; and St Michel, a fine Gothic
building of the 15th and 16th centuries. The bell tower of St Michel,
which has the highest spire (354 ft.) in the south of France, dates from
the end of the 15th century, and, like that of the cathedral, stands
apart from its church. The palace of the Faculties of Science and of
Letters (1881-1886) contains the tomb of Michel de Montaigne. The
prefecture, the hotel de ville, the bourse and the custom-house belong
to the 15th century. The law-courts and the hospital of St Andre (the
foundation of which dates from 1390) belong to the first half of the
19th century. Of greater antiquarian interest is the Palais Gallien,
situated near the public garden, consisting of remains of lofty arcades,
vaulting and fragments of wall, which once formed part of a Roman
amphitheatre. Bordeaux lost its fortifications in the 18th century, but
four of the old gateways or triumphal arches belonging to that period
still remain. Still older are the Porte de Cailhau, once the entrance to
the Palais de l'Ombriere, which before its destruction was the residence
of the duke of Aquitaine, and the Porte de l'Hotel de Ville, the former
of the 15th, the latter of the 13th and 16th centuries.
Bordeaux is the seat of an archbishop, the headquarters of the XVIII.
army corps, the centre of an _academie_ (educational division) and the
seat of a court of appeal. A court of assizes is held there, and there
are tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a council of
trade-arbitrators, a chamber of commerce and a branch of the Bank of
France. Its educational institutions include faculties of law, of
science, of letters and of medicine and pharmacy, a faculty of Catholic
theology, lycees, training colleges, a higher school of commerce, a
chair of agriculture, a school of fine art and a naval school of
medicine. There are several museums, including one with a large
collection of pictures and sculptures, a library with over 200,000
volumes and numerous learned societies.
The trade of Bordeaux, the fourth port in France, is chiefly carried on
by sea. Its port, 5-1/2 m. long and on the average 550 yds. wide, is formed
by the basin of the Garonne and is divided into two portions by the Pont
de Bordeaux. That to the south is used only by small craft; that to the
north is accessible to vessels drawing from 21 to 26 ft. according to
the state of the tide. From 1000 to 1200 vessels can be accommodated in
the harbour, which is lined on both sides by quays and sloping wharves
served by railway lines. At the northen extremity of the harbour, on the
left bank, there is a floating basin of 25 acres in extent, capable of
receiving the largest vessels; it has over 1900 yds. of quays and is
furnished with a repairing dock and with elaborate machinery for the
loading and unloading of goods. In 1907 the construction of new docks
behind this basin was begun. The city maintains commercial relations
with nearly all countries, but chiefly with Great Britain, Spain,
Argentina, Portugal and the United States. The most important line of
steamers using the port is the South American service of the Messageries
Maritimes. The total value of the exports and imports of Bordeaux
averages between 25 and 26 millions sterling yearly. Of this amount
exports make up 13-1/2 millions, of which the sales of wine bring in about
one quarter. The city is the centre of the trade in "Bordeaux" wines,
and the wine-cellars of the quays are one of its principal sights. Other
principal exports are brandy, hides and skins, sugar, rice, woollen and
cotton goods, salt-fish, chemicals, oil-cake, pitwood, fruit, potatoes
and other vegetables. The chief imports are wool, fish, timber, rice,
wine, rubber, coal, oil-grains, hardware, agricultural and other
machinery and chemicals. A large fleet is annually despatched to the
cod-fisheries of Newfoundland and Iceland. The most important industry
is ship-building and refitting. Ironclads and torpedo-boats as well as
merchant vessels are constructed. Railway carriages are also built. The
industries subsidiary to the wine-trade, such as wine-mixing, cooperage
and the making of bottles, corks, capsules, straw envelopes and wooden
cases, occupy many hands. There are also flour-mills, sugar-refineries,
breweries, distilleries, oil-works, cod-drying works, manufactories of
canned and preserved fruits, vegetables and meat, and of chocolate.
Chemicals, leather, iron-ware, machinery and pottery are manufactured,
and a tobacco factory employs 1500 hands.
Bordeaux (_Burdigala_) was originally the chief town of the Bituriges
Vivisci. Under the Roman empire it became a flourishing commercial city,
and in the 4th century it was made the capital of Aquitania Secunda.
Ausonius, a writer of the 4th century, who was a native of the place,
describes it as four-square and surrounded with walls and lofty towers,
and celebrates its importance as one of the greatest educational centres
of Gaul. In the evils that resulted from the disintegration of the
empire Bordeaux had its full share, and did not recover its prosperity
till the beginning of the 10th century. Along with Guienne it belonged
to the English kings for nearly three hundred years (1154-1453), and was
for a time the seat of the brilliant court of Edward the Black Prince,
whose son Richard was born in the city. An extensive commerce was
gradually developed between the Bordeaux merchants and their
fellow-subjects in England,--London, Hull, Exeter, Dartmouth, Bristol
and Chester being the principal ports with which they traded. The
English administration was favourable to the liberties as well as to the
trade of the city. In 1235 it received the right of electing its mayors,
who were assisted in the administration by a "jurade" or municipal
council. The influence of Bordeaux was still further increased when
several important towns of the region, among them St Emilion and
Libourne, united in a federation under its leadership. The defeat of the
English at the battle of Castillon in 1453 was followed, after a siege
of three months, by the submission of Bordeaux to Charles VII. The
privileges of the city were at once curtailed, and were only partially
restored under Louis XI., who established there the parlement of
Guienne. In 1548 the inhabitants resisted the imposition of the salt-tax
by force of arms, a rebellion for which they were punished by the
constable Anne de Montmorency with merciless severity.
The reformed religion found numerous adherents at Bordeaux, and after
the massacre of St Bartholomew nearly three hundred of its inhabitants
lost their lives. The 17th century was a period of disturbance. The city
was for a time the chief support of the Fronde, and on two occasions, in
1653 and 1675, troops were sent to repress insurrections against royal
measures. In the middle of the 18th century, a period of commercial and
architectural activity for Bordeaux, the marquis de Tourny, _intendant_
of Guienne, did much to improve the city by widening the streets and
laying out public squares. It was the headquarters of the Girondists at
the Revolution, and during the Reign of Terror suffered almost as
severely as Lyons and Marseilles. Its commerce was greatly reduced under
Napoleon I. In 1814 it declared for the house of Bourbon; and Louis
XVIII. afterwards gave the title of duc de Bordeaux to his grand-nephew,
better known as the comte de Chambord. In 1870 the French government was
transferred to Bordeaux from Tours on the approach of the Germans to the
latter city.
See Camille Jullian, _Hist. de Bordeaux, depuis les origines jusqu'en
1895_ (Bordeaux, 1895); T. Malvezin, _Hist. du commerce de Bordeaux_
(Bordeaux, 1892); _Bordeaux, apercu historique, sol, population,
industrie, commerce, administration_ (Bordeaux, 1892).
BORDEN, SIR FREDERICK WILLIAM (1847- ), Canadian statesman, was born
at Cornwallis, Nova Scotia, on the 14th of May 1847. He was educated at
King's College, Windsor, and at Harvard University, and for some years
practised medicine at Canning, Nova Scotia. In 1874 he was elected to
the Canadian parliament as Liberal member for King's county. In 1896 he
became minister of militia and defence in the Liberal ministry.
BORDEN, ROBERT LAIRD (1854- ), Canadian statesman, was born at Grand
Pre, Nova Scotia, on the 26th of June 1854. In 1878 he was called to the
bar, and became a leading lawyer in his native province. In 1896 he was
elected to the Canadian parliament for the city of Halifax, but later
lost his seat there and was elected for Carlton. In February 1901, on
the resignation of Sir Charles Tupper, he became leader of the
Conservative opposition. At the general election of 1908 he was returned
again for Halifax.
BORDENTOWN, a city of Burlington county, New Jersey, U.S.A., on the E.
bank of the Delaware river, 6 m. S. of Trenton and 28 m. N.E. of
Philadelphia. Pop. (1890) 4232; (1900) 4110; (1905) 4073; (1910) 4250.
It is served by the Pennsylvania railway, the Camden & Trenton railway
(an electric line, forming part of the line between Philadelphia and New
York) and by freight and passenger steamboat lines on the Delaware.
Bordentown is attractively situated on a broad, level plain, 65 ft.
above the river, with wide, beautifully shaded streets. The city is the
seat of the Bordentown Military Institute (with the Woodward memorial
library), of the state manual training and industrial school for
coloured youth, of the St Joseph's convent and mother-house of the
Sisters of Mercy, and of St Joseph's academy for girls. There are
ship-yards, iron foundries and forges, machine shops, shirt factories, a
pottery for the manufacture of sanitary earthenware, a woollen mill and
canning factories. The first settlers on the site of the city were
several Quaker families who came in the 18th century. Bordentown was
laid out by Joseph Borden, in whose honour it was named; was
incorporated as a borough in 1825; was re-incorporated in 1849, and was
chartered as a city in 1867. It was the home for some years of Francis
Hopkinson and of his son Joseph Hopkinson (whose residences are still
standing), and from 1817 to 1832 and in 1837-1839 was the home of Joseph
Bonaparte, ex-king of Spain, who lived on a handsome estate known as
"Bonaparte's Park," which he laid out with considerable magnificence.
Here he entertained many distinguished visitors, including Lafayette.
The legislature of New Jersey passed a special law, enabling him, as an
alien, to own real property, and it is said to have been in reference to
this that the state received its nickname "Spain." Prince Napoleon
Lucien Charles Murat, the second son of Joachim Murat, also lived here
for many years; and the estate known as "Ironsides" was long the home of
Rear-Admiral Charles Stewart. The Camden & Amboy railway, begun in 1831
and completed from Bordentown to South Amboy (34 m.) in 1832, was one of
the first railways in the United States; in September 1831 the famous
engine "Johnny Bull," built in England and imported for this railway,
had its first trial at Bordentown, and a monument now marks the site
where the first rails were laid.
See E.M. Woodward, _Bonaparte's Park and the Murats_ (Trenton, 1879).
BORDERS, THE, a name applied to the territory on both sides of the
boundary line between England and Scotland. The term has also a literary
and historical as well as a geographical sense, and is most frequently
employed of the Scottish side. The line begins on the coast of
Berwickshire at a spot 3 m. N. by W. of Berwick, and, after running a
short distance W. and S., reaches the Tweed near the village of Paxton,
whence it keeps to the river to a point just beyond Carham. There it
strikes off S.S.E. to the Cheviot Hills, the watershed of which for 35
m. constitutes the boundary, which is thereafter formed by a series of
streams--Bells Burn, the Kershope, Liddel and Esk. After following the
last named for 1 m. it cuts across country due west to the Sark, which
it follows to the river's mouth at the head of the Solway Firth. The
length of the boundary thus described is 108 m., but in a direct line
from the Solway to the North Sea the distance is only 70 m. At the
extreme east end a small district of 8 sq. m., consisting of the tract
north of the Tweed which is not included in Scotland, forms the "bounds"
or "liberties" of Berwick, or the country of the borough and town of
Berwick-on-Tweed. At the extreme west between the Sark and Esk as far up
the latter as its junction with the Liddel, there was a strip of
country, a "No man's land," for generations the haunt of outlaws and
brigands. This was called the Debatable Land, because the possession of
it was a constant source of contention between England and Scotland
until its boundaries were finally adjusted in 1552. The English Border
counties are Northumberland and Cumberland, the Scottish Berwick,
Roxburgh and Dumfries; though historically, and still by usage, the
Scottish shires of Selkirk and Peebles have always been classed as
Border shires. On the English side the region is watered by the Till,
Bowmont, Coquet, Rede and North Tyne; on the Scottish by the Tweed,
Whiteadder, Leet, Kale, Jed, Kershope, Liddel, Esk and Sark. Physically
there is a marked difference between the country on each side. On the
southern it mostly consists of lofty, bleak moorland, affording
subsistence for sheep and cattle, and rugged glens and ravines, while on
the northern there are many stretches of fertile soil, especially in the
valleys and dales, and the landscape is often romantic and beautiful.
Railway communication is supplied by the east coast route to Berwick,
the Waverley route through Liddesdale, the London & North-Western by
Carlisle, the North British branch from Berwick to St Boswells, and the
North Eastern lines from Berwick to Kelso, Alnwick to Coldstream, and
Newcastle to Carlisle.
At frequent intervals during a period of 1500 years the region was the
scene of strife and lawlessness. The Roman road of Watling Street
crossed the Cheviots at Brownhartlaw (1664 ft.), close to the camp of
_Ad Fines_, by means of which the warlike Brigantes on the south and the
Gadeni and Otadeni on the north were held in check, while another Roman
road, the Wheel Causeway, passed into Scotland near the headwaters of
the North Tyne and Liddel. (For early history see LOTHIAN; NORTHUMBRIA;
STRATHCLYDE.) In the 12th century were founded the abbeys of Hexham and
Alnwick, the priory church of Lindisfarne and the cathedral of Carlisle
on the English side, and on the Scottish the abbeys of Jedburgh, Kelso,
Melrose and Dryburgh. The deaths of Alexander III. (1286) and Margaret
the Maid of Norway (1290), whose right to the throne had been
acknowledged, plunged the country into the wars of the succession and
independence, and until the union of the crowns in 1603 the borders were
frequently disturbed. Berwick and Carlisle were repeatedly assailed, and
battles took place at Halidon Hill (1333), Otterburn (1388), Nisbet
(1402), Homildon (1402), Piperden (1435), Hedgeley Moor (1464), Flodden
(1513), Solway Moss (1542), and Ancrum Moor (1544), in addition to many
fights arising out of family feuds and raids fomented by the Armstrongs,
Eliots, Grahams, Johnstones, Maxwells and other families, of which the
most serious were the encounters at Arkenholme (Langholm) in 1455, the
Raid of Reidswire (1575), and the bloody combat at Dryfe Sands (1593).
The English expeditions of 1544 and 1545 were exceptionally disastrous,
since they involved the destruction of the four Scottish border abbeys,
the sack of many towns, and the obliteration of Roxburgh. The only other
important conflict belongs to the Covenanters' time, when the marquess
of Montrose was defeated at Philiphaugh in 1645. Partly for the defence
of the kingdoms and partly to overawe the freebooters and mosstroopers
who were a perpetual menace to the peace until they were suppressed in
the 17th century, castles were erected at various points on both sides
of the border.
Even during the period when relations between England and Scotland were
strained, the sovereigns of both countries recognized it to be their
duty to protect property and regulate the lawlessness of the borders.
The frontier was divided into the East, Middle and West Marches, each
under the control of an English and a Scots warden. The posts were
generally filled by eminent and capable men who had to keep the peace,
enforce punishment for breach of the law, and take care that neither
country encroached on the boundary of the other. The wardens usually
conferred once a year on matters of common interest, and as a rule their
meetings were conducted in a friendly spirit, though in 1575 a display
of temper led to the affair of the Raid of Reidswire. The appointment
was not only one of the most important in this quarter of the kingdom,
but lucrative as well, part of the fines and forfeits falling to the
warden, who was also entitled to ration and forage for his retinue. On
the occasion of his first public progress to London, James I. of England
attended service in Berwick church (March 27, 1603) "to return thanks
for his peaceful entry into his new dominions." Anxious to blot out all
memory of the bitter past, he forbade the use of the word "Borders,"
hoping that the designation "Middle Shires" might take its place.
Frontier fortresses were also to be dismantled and their garrisons
reduced to nominal strength. In course of time this policy had the
desired effect, though the expression "Borders" proved too convenient
geographically to be dropped, the king's proposed amendment being in
point of fact merely sentimental and, in the relative positions then and
now of England and Scotland, meaningless. Some English strongholds, such
as Alnwick, Chillingham, Ford and Naworth, have been modernized; others,
like Norham, Wark and Warkworth, are picturesque ruins; but most of the
Scottish fortresses have been demolished and their sites built over, or
are now represented by grass-grown mounds. Another familiar feature in
the landscape is the chain of peel towers crossing the country from
coast to coast. Many were homes of marauding chiefs, and nearly all were
used as beacon-stations to give alarm of foray or invasion. Early in the
18th century the Scottish gipsies found a congenial home on the
Roxburghshire side of the Cheviots; and at a later period the Scottish
border became notorious for a hundred years as offering hospitality to
runaway couples who were clandestinely married at Gretna Green,
Coldstream or Lamberton. The toll-house of Lamberton displayed the
following intimation--"Ginger-beer sold here and marriages performed on
the most reasonable terms."
Border ballads occupy a distinctive place in English literature. Many of
them were rescued from oblivion by Sir Walter Scott, who ransacked the
district for materials for his _Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border_,
which appeared in 1802 and 1803. Border traditions and folklore, and the
picturesque, pathetic and stirring incidents of which the country was so
often the scene, appealed strongly to James Hogg ("the Ettrick
Shepherd"), John Wilson ("Christopher North"), and John Mackay Wilson
(1804-1835), whose _Tales of the Borders_, published in 1835, long
enjoyed popular favour.
Besides the works just mentioned see Sir Herbert Maxwell, _History of
Dumfries and Galloway_ (1896); George Ridpath, _Border History of
England and Scotland_ (1776); Professor John Veitch, _History and
Poetry of the Scottish Border_ (1877); Sir George Douglas, _History of
the Border Counties_ (Scots), (1890): W.S. Crockett, _The Scott
Country_ (1902).
BORDIGHERA, a town of Liguria, Italy, in the province of Porto Maurizio,
91 m. S.W. of Genoa by rail, and 3 m. E.N.E. of Ventimiglia. Pop. (1901)
4673. It is a favourite winter resort, especially for visitors from
England, and is situated in beautiful coast scenery. It has fine
gardens, and its flowers and palms are especially famous: the former are
largely exported, while the latter serve for the supply of palm branches
for St Peter's at Rome and other churches on Palm Sunday. The new museum
contains a unique collection of the flora of the Riviera. From 1682
until the Napoleonic period, Bordighera was the capital of a small
republic of the villages of the neighbouring valleys.
BORDONE, PARIS (1495-1570), Venetian painter, was born at Treviso, and
entered the _bottega_ of Titian in 1509. Vasari, to whom we are indebted
for nearly all the facts of Bordone's life--later research has not added
much to our knowledge--holds that he did not spend many years with
Titian and set himself to imitate the manner of Giorgione to the utmost
of his power. As a matter of fact, the Giorgionesque traits in Bordone's
earlier works are derived entirely from Titian, whom he imitated so
closely that to this day some of his paintings pass under Titian's name.
Crowe and Cavalcaselle and Dr Bode ascribe to Bordone the "Baptism of
Christ" in the Capitoline gallery, but Morelli sees in it an early work
of Titian. Paris Bordone subsequently executed many important mural
paintings in Venice, Treviso and Vicenza, all of which have perished. In
1538 he was invited to France by Francis I., at whose court he painted
many portraits, though no trace of them is to be found in French
collections, the two portraits at the Louvre being later acquisitions.
On his return journey he undertook works of great importance for the
Fugger palace at Augsburg, which again have been lost sight of.
Bordone's pictures are of very unequal merit. They have a certain
nobility of style, and that golden harmony of colour which he derived
from Titian, together with the realistic conception of the human figure
and the dignified character of his portraiture. On the other hand, his
nudes are a little coarse in form, and the action of his figures is
frequently unnatural and affected. A true child of the Renaissance, he
also painted a number of religious pictures, numerous mythological
scenes, allegories, nymphs, cupids and subjects from Ovid's fables, but
he excelled as a portraitist. His principal surviving work is the
"Fisherman and Doge" at the Venice Academy. The National Gallery,
London, has a "Daphnis and Chloe" and a portrait of a lady, whilst a
"Holy Family" from his brush is at Bridgwater House. Other important
works of his are the "Madonna" in the Tadini collection at Lovere, the
paintings in the Duomo of Treviso, two mythological pictures at the
Villa Borghese and the Doria palace in Rome, the "Chess Players" in
Berlin, a very little-known portrait of superb quality in the possession
of the landgrave of Hesse at Kronberg, and a "Baptism of Christ" in
Philadelphia. Besides these, there are examples of his art in Bergamo,
Milan, Genoa, Padua, Siena, Venice, Florence, Munich, Dresden and
Vienna.
Beyond some references in general works on Italian painting, very
little has been written on Paris Bordone since the days of Vasari. In
1900 the committee of the fourth centenary of Paris Bordone, Treviso,
published L. Barlo and G. Biscaro's _Della Vita e delle Opere di Paris
Bordone_; and the _Nuova Antologia_ (November 16, 1900) contains a
sixteen-page paper on Paris Bordone by P.G. Molmenti. (P. G. K.)
BORE, a high tidal wave rushing up a narrow estuary or tidal river. The
bore of the Severn is produced by a tide that rises 18 ft. in an hour
and a half. This body of water becomes compressed in the narrowing
funnel-shaped estuary, and heaped up into an advancing wave extending
from bank to bank. The phenomenon is also particularly well illustrated
in the Bay of Fundy. The origin of this word is doubtful, but it is
usually referred to a Scandinavian word _bara_, a wave, billow. The
other name by which the phenomenon is known, "eagre," is also of unknown
origin. There is, of course, no connexion with "bore," to make a hole by
piercing or drilling, which is a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger.
_bohren_, the Indo-European root being seen in Lat. _forare_, to pierce,
Gr. [Greek: pharos], plough. For the making of deep holes for shafts,
wells, &c., see BORING. The substantival use of this word is generally
confined to the circular cavity of objects of tubular shape,
particularly of a gun, hence the internal diameter of a gun, its
"calibre" (see GUN). A "bore" is also a tiresome, wearying person,
particularly one who persistently harps on one subject, in or out of
season, whatever interest his audience may take in it. This has
generally been taken to be merely a metaphorical use of "bore," to
pierce. The earliest sense, however, in which it is found in English
(1766, in certain letters printed in Jesse's _Life of George Selwyn_) is
that of _ennui_, and a French origin is suggested. The _New English
Dictionary_ conjectures a possible source in Fr. _bourrer_, to stuff,
satiate.
BOREAS, in Greek mythology, a personification of the north wind. He was
described as the son of Astraeus and Eos, brother of Hesperus, Notus and
Zephyrus. His dwelling-place was on Mount Haemus in Thrace, or at
Salmydessus, near the country of the Hyperboreans. He was said to have
carried off the beautiful Oreithyia, a daughter of Erechtheus, king of
Athens, when he found her leading the dance at a festival, or gathering
flowers on the banks of the Ilissus or some other spot in the
neighbourhood of Athens. He had before wooed her in vain, and now
carried her off to Mount Haemus, where they lived as king and queen of
the winds, and had two sons, Zetes and Calais, and two daughters,
Cleopatra and Chione (Apollodorus iii. 15; Ovid, _Metam._ vi. 677). For
the loss of Oreithyia the Athenians in after times counted on Boreas's
friendliness, and were assured of it when he sent storms which wrecked
the Persian fleet at Athos and at Sepias (Herodotus vii. 189). For this
they erected to him a sanctuary or altar near the Ilissus, and held a
festival (Boreasmos) in his honour. Thurii also, which was a colony of
Athens, offered sacrifice to him as Euergetes every year, because he had
destroyed the hostile fleet of Dionysius the elder (Aelian, _Var. Hist._
xii. 61). In works of art Boreas was represented as bearded, powerful,
draped against cold, and winged. On the Tower of the Winds at Athens he
is figured holding a shell, such as is blown by Tritons. Boreas carrying
off Oreithyia is the subject of a beautiful bronze relief in the British
Museum, found in the island of Calymna. The same subject occurs
frequently on painted Greek vases.
BOREL, PETRUS, whose full name was PIERRE JOSEPH BOREL D'HAUTERIVE
(1809-1859), French writer, was born at Lyons on the 26th of June 1809.
His father had been ruined by taking part in the resistance offered by
the Lyonnese royalists against the Convention, and Petrus Borel was
educated in Paris to be an architect. He soon abandoned his profession
to become one of the most violent partisans of the Romantic movement.
His extravagant sentiments were illustrated in various volumes:
_Rhapsodies_ (1832), poems; _Champavert, contes immoraux_ (1833);
_Madame Putiphar_ (1839), &c. His works did not rescue him from poverty,
but through the kindness of Theophile Gautier and Mme de Girardin he
obtained a small place in the civil service. He died at Mostaganem in
Algeria on the 14th of July 1859.
See Jules Claretie, _Petrus Borel, le Lycanthrope_ (1865); and Ch.
Asselineau, _Bibliographie romantique_ (1872).
BORELLI, GIOVANNI ALFONSO (1608-1679), Italian physiologist and
physicist, was born at Naples on the 28th of January 1608. He was
appointed professor of mathematics at Messina in 1649 and at Pisa in
1656. In 1667 he returned to Messina, but in 1674 was obliged to retire
to Rome, where he lived under the protection of Christina, queen of
Sweden, and died on the 31st of December 1679. His best-known work is
_De motu animalium_ (Rome, 1680-1681), in which he sought to explain the
movements of the animal body on mechanical principles; he thus ranks as
the founder of the iatrophysical school. In a letter, _Del movimento
della cometa apparsa il mese di decembre 1664_, published in 1665 under
the pseudonym Pier Maria Mutoli, he was the first to suggest the idea of
a parabolic path; and another of his astronomical works was _Theorica
mediceorum planetarum ex causis physicis deducta_ (Florence, 1666), in
which he considered the influence of attraction on the satellites of
Jupiter. He also wrote: _Della Causa delle Febbri maligni_ (Pisa, 1658);
_De Renum usu Judicium_ (Strassburg, 1664); _Euclides Restitutus_ (Pisa,
1658); _Apollonii Pergaei Conicorum libri v., vi. et vii._ (Florence,
1661); _De vi percussionis_ (Bologna, 1667); _Meteorologia Aetnea_
(Reggio, 1669); and _De motionibus naturalibus a gravitate pendentibus_
(Bologna, 1670).
BORGA (Finnish _Porvoo_), a seaport in the province of Nyland, grand
duchy of Finland, situated at the entrance of the river Borga into the
Gulf of Finland, about 33 m. by rail N.W. of Helsingfors. Pop. (1810)
1693; (1870) 3478; (1904) 5255. It is the seat of a Lutheran bishopric
which extends over the provinces of Viborg and St Michel with portions
of Tavastehus and Nyland; it possesses a beautiful cathedral, and a high
school (where the well-known Finnish poet Runeberg lectured for many
years), and is the seat of a court of appeal. The weaving of sail-cloth
and the manufacture of tobacco are the principal industries, and the
chief articles of trade are wood, butter and furs. Borga was once a city
of great dignity and importance, but the rapid growth of Helsingfors has
somewhat eclipsed it. In 1809, when the estates of Finland were summoned
to a special diet to decide the future of the country, Borga was the
place of meeting, and it was in the cathedral that the emperor Alexander
I. pledged himself as grand duke of Finland to maintain the constitution
and liberties of the grand duchy.
BORGHESE, a noble Italian family of Sienese origin, first mentioned in
1238, a member of which, Marcantonio Borghese, settled in Rome and was
the father of Camillo Borghese (1550-1620), elected pope under the title
of Paul V. (1605). Paul created his nephew prince of Vivero on the 17th
of November 1609, and Philip III. of Spain conferred the title of prince
of Sulmona on him in 1610. The family took its place among the higher
Roman nobility by the marriage of the prince's son Paolo with Olimpia,
heiress of the Aldobrandini family, in 1614. In 1803 Camillo Filippo
Ludovico, Prince Borghese (b. 1775), married Pauline, sister of the
emperor Napoleon, and widow of General Leclerc. In 1806 he was made duke
of Guastalla, and for some years acted as governor of the Piedmontese
and Genoese provinces. After the fall of Napoleon he fixed his residence
at Florence, where he died in 1832. The Borghese palace at Rome is one
of the most magnificent buildings in the city, and contained a splendid
gallery of pictures, most of which have been transferred to the Villa
Borghese outside the Porto del Popolo, now Villa Umberto I., the
property of the Italian government.
See A. von Reumont, _Geschichte der Stadt Rom_, iii. 605, 609 617,
&c.; _Almanach de Gotha_ (Gotha, 1902); J.H. Douglas, _The Principal
Noble Families of Rome_ (Rome, 1905).
BORGHESI, BARTOLOMMEO (1781-1860), Italian antiquarian, was born at
Savignano, near Rimini, on the 11th of July 1781. He studied at Bologna
and Rome. Having weakened his eyesight by the study of documents of the
middle ages, he turned his attention to epigraphy and numismatics. At
Rome he arranged and catalogued several collections of coins, amongst
them those of the Vatican, a task which he undertook for Pius VII. In
consequence of the disturbances of 1821, Borghesi retired to San Marino,
where he died on the 16th of April 1860. Although mainly an enthusiastic
student, he was for some time podesta of the little republic. His
monumental work, _Nuovi Frammenti dei Fasti Consolari Capitolini_
(1818-1820), attracted the attention of the learned world as furnishing
positive bases for the chronology of Roman history, while his
contributions to Italian archaeological journals established his
reputation as a numismatist and antiquarian. Before his death, Borghesi
conceived the design of publishing a collection of all the Latin
inscriptions of the Roman world. The work was taken up by the Academy of
Berlin under the auspices of Mommsen, and the result was the _Corpus
Inscriptionum Latinarum_. Napoleon III. ordered the publication of a
complete edition of the works of Borghesi. This edition, in ten volumes,
of which the first appeared in 1862, was not completed until 1897.
BORGIA, CESARE, duke of Valentinois and Romagna (1476-1507) was the son
of Pope Alexander VI. by Vanozza dei Cattanei. He was born at Rome while
his father was cardinal, and on the latter's elevation to the papacy
(1492) he was created archbishop of Valencia, and a year later cardinal.
Cesare was Alexander's favourite son, and it was for him that the pope's
notorious nepotism was most extensively practised. In the early years of
his father's pontificate he led a profligate life at the Vatican. When
Charles VIII. left Rome for the conquest of Naples (January 25, 1495),
Cesare accompanied him as a hostage for the pope's good behaviour, but
he escaped at Velletri and returned to Rome. He soon began to give
proofs of the violence for which he afterwards became notorious; when in
1497 his brother Giovanni, duke of Gandia, was murdered, the deed was
attributed, in all probability with reason, to Cesare. It was suggested
that the motive of the murder was the brothers' rivalry in the affection
of Donna Sancha, wife of Giuffre, the pope's youngest son, while there
were yet darker hints at incestuous relations of Cesare and the duke
with their sister Lucrezia. But it is more probable that Cesare, who
contemplated exchanging his ecclesiastical dignities for a secular
career, regarded his brother's splendid position with envy, and was
determined to enjoy the whole of his father's favours.
In July 1497 Cesare went to Naples as papal legate and crowned Frederick
of Aragon king. Now that the duke of Gandia was dead, the pope needed
Cesare to carry out his political schemes, and tried to arrange a
wealthy marriage for him. Cesare wished to marry Carlotta, the daughter
of the king of Naples, but both she and her father resolutely refused an
alliance with "a priest, the bastard of a priest." In August 1498,
Cesare in the consistory asked for the permission of the cardinals and
the pope to renounce the priesthood, and the latter granted it "for the
good of his soul." On the 1st of October he set forth for France with a
magnificent retinue as papal legate to Louis XII., to bring him the
pope's bull annulling his marriage with Jeanne of France (Louis wished
to marry Anne of Brittany). In exchange he received the duchy of
Valentinois, as well as military assistance for his own enterprises. He
found Carlotta of Naples in France, and having again tried to win her
over in vain, he had to content himself with Charlotte d'Albret, sister
of the king of Navarre (May 1499). Alexander now contemplated sending
Cesare to Romagna to subdue the turbulent local despots, and with the
help of the French king carve a principality for himself out of those
territories owing nominal allegiance to the pope. Cesare made Cesena his
headquarters, and with an army consisting of 300 French lances, 4000
Gascons and Swiss, besides Italian troops, he attacked Imola, which
surrendered at once, and then besieged Forli, held by Caterina Sforza
(q.v.), the widow of Girolamo Riario. She held out gallantly, but was
at last forced to surrender on the 22nd of January 1500; Cesare treated
her with consideration, and she ended her days in a convent. The Sforzas
having expelled the French from Milan, Cesare returned to Rome in
February, his schemes checked for the moment; his father rewarded him
for his successes by making him _gonfaloniere_ of the church and
conferring many honours on him; he remained in Rome and took part in
bull fights and other carnival festivities. In July occurred the murder
of the duke of Bisceglie, Lucrezia Borgia's third husband. He was
attacked by assassins on the steps of St Peter's and badly wounded;
attendants carried him to a cardinal's house, and, fearing poison, he
was nursed only by his wife and Sancha, his sister-in-law. Again Cesare
was suspected as the instigator of the deed, and in fact he almost
admitted it himself. Bisceglie was related to the Neapolitan dynasty,
with whose enemies the pope was allied, and he had had a quarrel with
Cesare. When it appeared that he was recovering from his wounds, Cesare
had him murdered, but not apparently without provocation, for, according
to the Venetian ambassador Cappello, the duke had tried to murder Cesare
first.
In October 1500 Cesare again set out for the Romagna, on the strength of
Venetian friendship, with an army of 10,000 men. Pandolfo Malatesta of
Rimini and Giovanni Sforza of Pesaro fled, and those cities opened their
gates to Cesare. Faenza held out, for the people were devoted to their
lord, Astorre Manfredi, a handsome and virtuous youth of eighteen.
Manfredi surrendered in April 1501, on the promise that his life should
be spared; but Cesare broke his word, and sent him a prisoner to Rome,
where he was afterwards foully outraged and put to death. After taking
Castel Bolognese he returned to Rome in June, to take part in the
Franco-Spanish intrigues for the partition of Naples. He was now lord of
an extensive territory, and the pope created him duke of Romagna. His
cruelty, his utter want of scruple, and his good fortune made him a
terror to all Italy. His avidity was insatiable and he could brook no
opposition; but, unlike his father, he was morose, silent and
unsympathetic. His next conquests were Camerino and Urbino, but his
power was now greatly shaken by the conspiracy of La Magione (a castle
near Perugia where the plotters met). Several of the princes deposed by
him, the Orsinis, and some of his own captains, such as Vitellozzo
Vitelli (q.v.), Oliverotto da Fermo, and G.P. Baglioni, who had been
given estates but feared to lose them, joined forces to conspire against
the Borgias. Risings broke out at Urbino and in Romagna, and the papal
troops were defeated; Cesare could find no allies, and it seemed as
though all Italy was about to turn against the hated family, when the
French king promised help, and this was enough to frighten the
confederates into coming to terms. Most of them had shown very little
political or military skill, and several were ready to betray each
other. But Cesare, while trusting no one, proved a match for them all.
During his operations in northern Romagna, Vitelli, Oliverotto, Paolo
Orsini, and the duke of Gravina, to show their repentance, seized
Senigallia, which still held for the duke of Urbino, in his name. Cesare
arrived at that town, decoyed the unsuspecting _condottieri_ into his
house, had them all arrested, and two of them, Vitelli and Oliverotto,
strangled (December 31, 1502).
He was back in Rome early in 1503, and took part in reducing the last
rebel Orsinis. He was gathering troops for a new expedition in central
Italy in the summer, when both he and his father were simultaneously
seized with fever. The pope died on the 18th of August, while Cesare was
still incapacitated, and this unfortunate coincidence proved his ruin;
it was the one contingency for which he had not provided. On all sides
his enemies rose up against him; in Romagna the deposed princes prepared
to regain their own, and the Orsinis raised their heads once more in
Rome. Cesare's position was greatly shaken, and when he tried to
browbeat the cardinals by means of Don Michelotto and his bravos, they
refused to be intimidated; he had to leave Rome in September, trusting
that the Spanish cardinals would elect a candidate friendly to his
house. At the conclave Francesco Todeschini-Piccolomini was elected as
Pius III., and he showed every disposition to be peaceful and
respectable, but he was old and in bad health. Cesare's dominion at
once began to fall to pieces; Guidobaldo, duke of Urbino, returned to
his duchy with Venetian help; and the lords of Piombino, Rimini and
Pesaro soon regained their own; Cesena, defended by a governor faithful
to Cesare, alone held out. Pius III. died on the 18th of October 1503,
and a new conclave was held. Cesare, who could still count on the
Spanish cardinals, wished to prevent the election of Giuliano della
Rovere, the enemy of his house, but the latter's chances were so greatly
improved that it was necessary to come to terms with him. On the 1st of
November he was elected, and assumed the name of Julius II. He showed no
ill-will towards Cesare, but declared that the latter's territories must
be restored to the church, for "we desire the honour of recovering what
our predecessors have wrongfully alienated." Venice hoped to intervene
in Romagna and establish her protectorate over the principalities, but
this Julius was determined to prevent, and after trying in vain to use
Cesare as a means of keeping out the Venetians, he had him arrested.
Borgia's power was now at an end, and he was obliged to surrender all
his castles in Romagna save Cesena, Forli and Bettinoro, whose governors
refused to accept an order of surrender from a master who was a
prisoner. Finally, it was agreed that if Cesare were set at liberty he
would surrender the castles; this having been accomplished, he departed
for Naples, where the Spaniards were in possession. The Spanish
governor, Gonzalo de Cordova, had given him a safe-conduct, and he was
meditating fresh plans, when Gonzalo arrested him by the order of
Ferdinand of Spain as a disturber of the peace of Italy (May 1504). In
August he was sent to Spain, where he remained a prisoner for two years;
in November 1506 he made his escape, and fled to the court of his
brother-in-law, the king of Navarre, under whom he took service. While
besieging the castle of Viana, held by the rebellious count of Lerin, he
was killed (March 12, 1507).
Cesare Borgia was a type of the adventurers with which the Italy of the
Renaissance swarmed, but he was cleverer and more unscrupulous than his
rivals. His methods of conquest were ferocious and treacherous; but once
the conquest was made he governed his subjects with firmness and
justice, so that his rule was preferred to the anarchy of factions and
local despots. But he was certainly not a man of genius, as has long
been imagined, and his success was chiefly due to the support of the
papacy; once his father was dead his career was at an end, and he could
no longer play a prominent part in Italian affairs. His fall proved on
how unsound a basis his system had been built up.
The chief authorities for the life of Cesare Borgia are the same as
those of Alexander VI., especially M. Creighton's _History of the
Papacy_, vol. v. (London, 1897); F. Gregorovius's _Geschichte der
Stadt Rom_, vol. vii. (Stuttgart, 1881); and P. Villari's
_Machiavelli_ (London 1892); also C. Yriarte, _Cesar Borgia_ (Paris,
1889), an admirable piece of writing; Schubert-Soldern, _Die Borgia
und ihre Zeit_ (Dresden, 1902), which contains the latest discoveries
on the subject; and E. Alvisi, _Cesare Borgia, Duca di Romagna_
(Imola, 1878). (L. V.*)
BORGIA, FRANCIS (1510-1572), Roman Catholic saint, duke of Gandia, and
general of the order of Jesuits, was born at Gandia (Valencia) on the
10th of October 1510, and from boyhood was remarkable for his piety.
Educated from his twelfth year at Saragossa under the charge of his
uncle the archbishop, he had begun to show a strong inclination towards
the monastic life, when his father sent him in 1528 to the court of
Charles V. Here he distinguished himself, and on his marriage with
Eleanor de Castro, a Portuguese lady of high rank, he was created
marquis of Lombay, and was appointed master of the horse to the empress.
He accompanied Charles on his African expedition in 1535, and also into
Provence in 1536; and on the death of the empress in 1539 he was deputed
to convoy the body to the burial-place in Granada. This sad duty
confirmed his determination to leave the court, and also, should he
survive his consort, to embrace the monastic life. On his return to
Toledo, however, new honours were thrust upon him, much against his
will; he was made viceroy of Catalonia and commander of the order of St
James. At Barcelona, the seat of his government, he lived a life of
great austerity, but discharged his official duties with energy and
efficiency until 1543, when, having succeeded his father in the
dukedom, he at length obtained permission to resign his viceroyalty and
to retire to a more congenial mode of life at Gandia. Having already
held some correspondence with Ignatius Loyola, he now powerfully
encouraged the recently founded order of Jesus. One of his first cares
at Gandia was to build a Jesuit college; and on the death of Eleanor in
1546, he resolved to become himself a member of the society. The
difficulties arising from political and family circumstances were
removed by a papal dispensation, which allowed him, in the interests of
his young children, to retain his dignities and worldly possessions for
four years after taking the vows. In 1550 he visited Rome, where he was
received with every mark of distinction, and where he furnished the
means for building the Collegium Romanum. Returning to Spain in the
following year, he formally resigned his rank and estate in favour of
his eldest son, assumed the Jesuit habit, was ordained priest, and
entered upon a life of penance and prayer. At his own earnest request,
seconded by Loyola, a proposal that he should be created a cardinal by
Julius III. was departed from; and at the command of his superior he
employed himself in the work of itinerant preaching. In 1554 he was
appointed commissary-general of the order in Spain, Portugal and the
Indies, in which capacity he showed great activity, and was successful
in founding many new and thriving colleges. In 1556, shortly after
Charles V. retired, Borgia had an interview with him, but would not
yield to his inducements to transfer his allegiance to the older order
of Hieronymites. Some time afterwards Borgia was employed by Charles to
conduct negotiations with reference to a project which was to secure for
Don Carlos of Spain the Portuguese succession in the event of the death
of his cousin Don Sebastian. On the death of Lainez in 1565, Francis
Borgia was chosen to succeed him as third general of the Jesuits. In
this capacity he showed great zeal and administrative skill; and so
great was the progress of the society under his government that he has
sometimes been called "its second founder," The peculiarities which are
most characteristic of the order were, however, derived from Loyola and
Lainez, rather than from Borgia, whose ideal was a simple monasticism
rather than a life of manifold and influential contact with the world.
He died at Rome on the 30th of September 1572. He was beatified by Urban
VIII. in 1624, and canonized by Clement X. in 1671, his festival being
afterwards (1683) fixed by Innocent XI. for the 10th of October.
Several works by St Francis Borgia have been published, the principal
of these being a series of _Exercises_ similar to the _Exercitia
Spiritualia_ of Loyola, and a treatise _Rhetorica Concionandi_. The
_Opera Omnia_ were published at Brussels in 1675. His life was written
by his confessor Pedro de Ribadeneira. See also A. Butler's _Lives of
the Saints_, and the _Breviarium Romanum_ (second nocturn for October
10).