The country now forming the republic of Bolivia, named after the great
liberator Simon Bolivar (q.v.), was in early days simply a portion of
the empire of the Incas of Peru (q.v.). After the conquest of Peru by
the Spaniards in the 16th century the natives were subjected to much
tyranny and oppression, though it must in fairness be said that much of
it was carried out in defiance of the efforts and the wishes of the
Spanish home government, whose legislative efforts to protect the
Indians from serfdom and ill-usage met with scant respect at the hands
of the distant settlers and mine-owners, who bid defiance to the humane
and protective regulations of the council of the Indies, and treated the
unhappy natives little better than beasts of burden. The statement,
moreover, that some eight millions of Indians perished through forced
labour in the mines is a gross exaggeration. The annual diminution in
the number of the Indian population was undoubtedly very great, but it
was due far more to the result of European epidemics and to indulgence
in alcohol than to hard work. The abortive insurrection of 1780-82, led
by the Inca Tupac Amaru, was never a general rising, and was directed
rather against Creole tyranny than against Spanish rule. The heavy
losses sustained by the Indians during that outbreak, and their dislike
and distrust of the colonial Spaniard, account for the comparative
indifference with which they viewed the rise and progress of the 1814
colonial revolt against Spain, which gave the South American states
their independence.
War of Independence.
We are only concerned here with the War of Independence so far as it
affected Upper Peru, the Bolivia of later days. When the patriots of
Buenos Aires had succeeded in liberating from the dominion of Spain the
interior provinces of the Rio de la Plata, they turned their arms
against their enemies who held Upper Peru. An almost uninterrupted
warfare followed, from July 1809 till August 1825, with alternate
successes on the side of the Spanish or royalist and the South American
or patriot forces,--the scene of action lying chiefly between the
Argentine provinces of Salta and Jujuy and the shores of Lake Titicaca.
The first movement of the war was the successful invasion of Upper Peru
by the army of Buenos Aires, under General Balcarce, which, after twice
defeating the Spanish troops, was able to celebrate the first
anniversary of independence near Lake Titicaca, in May 1811. Soon,
however, the patriot army, owing to the dissolute conduct and negligence
of its leaders, became disorganized, and was attacked and defeated, in
June 1811, by the Spanish army under Gey fol Goyeneche, and driven back
into Jujuy. Four years of warfare, in which victory was alternately
with the Spaniards and the patriots, was terminated in 1815 by the total
rout of the latter in a battle which took place between Potosi and
Oruro. To this succeeded a revolt of the Indians of the southern
provinces of Peru, and the object being the independence of the whole
country, it was joined by numerous Creoles. This insurrection was,
however, speedily put down by the royalists. In 1816 the Spanish general
Laserna, having been appointed commander-in-chief of Upper Peru, made an
attempt to invade the Argentine provinces, intending to march on Buenos
Aires, but he was completely foiled in this by the activity of the
irregular _gaucho_ troops of Salta and Jujuy, and was forced to retire.
During this time and in the six succeeding years a guerrilla warfare was
maintained by the patriots of Upper Peru, who had taken refuge in the
mountains, chiefly of the province of Yungas, and who frequently
harassed the royalist troops. In June 1823 the expedition of General
Santa Cruz, prepared with great zeal and activity at Lima, marched in
two divisions upon Upper Peru, and in the following months of July and
August the whole country between La Paz and Oruro was occupied by his
forces; but later, the indecision and want of judgment displayed by
Santa Cruz allowed a retreat to be made before a smaller royalist army,
and a severe storm converted their retreat into a precipitate flight,
only a remnant of the expedition again reaching Lima. In 1824, after the
great battle of Ayacucho in Lower Peru, General Sucre, whose valour had
contributed so much to the patriot success of that day, marched with a
part of the victorious army into Upper Peru. On the news of the victory
a universal rising of the patriots took place, and before Sucre had
reached Oruro and Puno, in February 1825, La Paz was already in their
possession, and the royalist garrisons of several towns had gone over to
their side. The Spanish general Olaneta, with a diminished army of 2000
men, was confined to the province of Potosi, where he held out till
March 1825, when he was mortally wounded in an action with some of his
own revolted troops.
Bolivia a nation.
General Sucre was now invested with the supreme command in Upper Peru,
until the requisite measures could be taken to establish in that country
a regular and constitutional government. Deputies from the various
provinces to the number of fifty-four were assembled at Chuquisaca, the
capital, to decide upon the question proposed to them on the part of the
government of the Argentine provinces, whether they would or would not
remain separate from that country. In August 1825 they decided this
question, declaring it to be the national will that Upper Peru should in
future constitute a distinct and independent nation. This assembly
continued their session, although the primary object of their meeting
had thus been accomplished, and afterwards gave the name of Bolivia to
the country,--issuing at the same time a formal declaration of
independence.
The first general assembly of deputies of Bolivia dissolved itself on
the 6th of October 1825, and a new congress was summoned and formally
installed at Chuquisaca on the 25th of May 1826, to take into
consideration the constitution prepared by Bolivar for the new republic.
A favourable report was made to that body by a committee appointed to
examine it, on which it was approved by the congress, and declared to be
the constitution of the republic; and as such, it was sworn to by the
people. General Sucre was chosen president for life, according to the
constitution, but only accepted the appointment for the space of two
years, and on the express condition that 2000 Colombian troops should be
permitted to remain with him.
The independence of the country, so dearly bought, did not, however,
secure for it a peaceful future. Repeated risings occurred, till in the
end of 1827 General Sucre and his Colombian troops were driven from La
Paz. A new congress was formed at Chuquisaca in April 1828, which
modified the constitution given by Bolivar, and chose Marshal Santa Cruz
for president; but only a year later a revolution, led by General
Blanco, threw the country into disorder and for a time overturned the
government. Quiet being again restored in 1831, Santa Cruz promulgated
the code of laws which bore his name, and brought the financial affairs
of the country into some order; he also concluded a treaty of commerce
with Peru, and for several years Bolivia remained in peace. In 1835,
when a struggle for the chief power had made two factions in the
neighbouring republic of Peru, Santa Cruz was induced to take a part in
the contest; he marched into that country, and after defeating General
Gamarra, the leader of one of the opposing parties, completed the
pacification of Peru in the spring of 1836, named himself its protector,
and had in view a confederation of the two countries. At this juncture
the government of Chile interfered actively, and espousing the cause of
Gamarra, sent troops into Peru. Three years of fighting ensued till in a
battle at Jungay in June 1839 Santa Cruz was defeated and exiled,
Gamarra became president of Peru, and General Velasco provisional chief
in Bolivia. The Santa Cruz party, however, remained strong in Bolivia,
and soon revolted successfully against the new head of the government,
ultimately installing General Ballivian in the chief power. Taking
advantage of the disturbed condition of Bolivia, Gamarra made an attempt
to annex the rich province of La Paz, invading it in August 1841 and
besieging the capital; but in a battle with Ballivian his army was
totally routed, and Gamarra himself was killed. The Bolivian general was
now in turn to invade Peru, when Chile again interfered to prevent him.
Ballivian remained in the presidency till 1848, when he retired to
Valparaiso, and in the end of that year General Belzu, after leading a
successful military revolution, took the chief power, and during his
presidency endeavoured to promote agriculture, industry and trade.
General Jorge Cordova succeeded him, but had not been long in office
when a new revolt in September 1857, originating with the garrison of
Oruro, spread over the land, and compelled him to quit the country. His
place was taken by Dr Jose Maria Linares, the originator of the
revolution, who, taking into his own hands all the powers of government,
and acting with the greatest severity, caused himself to be proclaimed
dictator in March 1858. Fresh disturbances led to the deposition of
Linares in 1861, when Dr Maria de Acha was chosen president. In 1862 a
treaty of peace and commerce with the United States was ratified, and in
the following year a similar treaty was concluded with Belgium; but new
causes of disagreement with Chile had arisen in the discovery of rich
beds of guano on the eastern coast-land of the desert of Atacama, which
threatened warfare, and were only set at rest by the treaty of August
1866, in which the 24th parallel of latitude was adopted as the boundary
between the two republics. A new military revolution, led by Maria
Melgarejo, broke out in 1865, and in February of that year the troops of
President Acha were defeated in a battle near Potosi, when Melgarejo
took the dominion of the country. After defeating two revolutions, in
1865 and 1866, the new president declared a political amnesty, and in
1869, after imposing a revised constitution on the country, he became
its dictator.
Recent history.
In January 1871 President Melgarejo was in his turn deposed and driven
from the country by a revolution headed by Colonel Augustin Morales. The
latter, becoming president, was himself murdered in November 1872 and
was succeeded by Colonel Adolfo Ballivian, who died in 1874. Under this
president Bolivia entered upon a secret agreement with Peru which was
destined to have grave consequences for both countries. To understand
the reasons that urged Bolivia to take this step it is necessary to go
back to the above-mentioned treaty of 1866 between Chile and Bolivia. By
this instrument Bolivia, besides conceding the 24th parallel as the
boundary of Chilean territory, agreed that Chile should have a half
share of the customs and full facilities for trading on the coast that
lay between the 23rd and 24th parallels, Chile at that time being
largely interested in the trade of that region. It was also agreed that
Chile should be allowed to mine and export the products of this district
without tax or hindrance on the part of Bolivia. In 1870, in further
consideration of the sum of $10,000, Bolivia granted to an Anglo-Chilean
company the right of working certain nitrate deposits north of the 24th
parallel. The great wealth which was passing into Chilean hands owing to
these compacts created no little discontent in Bolivia, nor was Peru
any better pleased with the hold that Chilean capital was establishing
in the rich district of Tarapaca. On 6th February 1873 Bolivia entered
upon a secret agreement with Peru, the ostensible object of which was
the preservation of their territorial integrity and their mutual defence
against exterior aggression. There can be no doubt that the aggression
contemplated as possible by both countries was a further encroachment on
the part of Chile.
Upon the death of Adolfo Ballivian, immediately after the conclusion of
this treaty with Peru, Dr Tomas Frias succeeded to the presidency. He
signed yet another treaty with Chile, by which the latter agreed to
withdraw her claim to half the duties levied in Bolivian ports on
condition that all Chilean industries established in Bolivian territory
should be free from duty for twenty-five years. This treaty was never
ratified, and four years later General Hilarion Daza, who had succeeded
Dr Frias as president in 1876, demanded as the price of Bolivia's
consent that a tax of 10 cents per quintal should be paid on all
nitrates exported from the country, further declaring that, unless this
levy was paid, nitrates in the hands of the exporters would be seized by
the Bolivian government. As an answer to these demands, and in order to
protect the property of Chilean subjects, the Chilean fleet was sent to
blockade the ports of Antofagasta, Cobija and Tocapilla. On the 14th
February 1879 the Chilean colonel Sotomayor occupied Antofagasta, and on
1st March, a fortnight later, the Bolivian government declared war.
An offer on the part of Peru to act as mediator met with no favour from
Chile. The existence of the secret treaty, well known to the Chilean
government, rendered the intervention of Peru more than questionable,
and the law passed by the latter in 1875, which practically created a
monopoly of the Tarapaca nitrate beds to the serious prejudice of
Chilean enterprise, offered no guarantee of her good faith. Chile
replied by curtly demanding the annulment of the secret treaty and an
assurance of Peruvian neutrality. Both demands being refused, she
declared war upon Peru.
The superiority of the Chileans at sea, though checked for some time by
the heroic gallantry of the Peruvians, soon enabled them to land a
sufficient number of troops to meet the allied forces which had
concentrated at Arica and other points in the south. The Bolivian ports
were already in Chilean hands, and a sea attack upon Pisagua surprised
and routed the troops under the Peruvian general Buendia and opened the
way into the southern territory of Peru. General Daza, who should have
cooperated with Buendia, turned back, on receiving news of the Peruvian
defeat, and led the Bolivian troops to Tacna in a hasty and somewhat
disorderly retreat. The fall of San Francisco followed, and Iquique,
which was evacuated by the allies without a struggle, was occupied.
Severe fighting took place before Tarapaca surrendered, but the end of
1879 saw the Chileans in complete possession of the province.
Meanwhile a double revolution took place in Peru and Bolivia. In the
former country General Prado was deposed and Colonel Pierola proclaimed
dictator. The Bolivians followed the example of their allies. The troops
at Tacna, indignant at the inglorious part they had been condemned to
play by the incompetence or cowardice of their president, deprived him
of their command and elected Colonel Camacho to lead them. At the same
time a revolution in La Paz proclaimed General Narciso Campero
president, and he was elected to that post in the following June by the
ordinary procedure of the constitution. During 1880 the war was chiefly
maintained at sea between Chile and Peru, Bolivia taking little or no
part in the struggle. In January of 1881 were fought the battles of
Chorillos and Miraflores, attended by heavy slaughter and savage
excesses on the part of the Chilean troops. They were followed almost
immediately by the surrender of Lima and Callao, which left the Chileans
practically masters of Peru. In the interior, however, where the
Peruvian admiral Montero had formed a provisional government, the war
still lingered, and in September 1882 a conference took place between
the latter and President Campero, at which it was decided that they
should hold out for better terms. But the Peruvians wearied of the
useless struggle. On the 20th of October 1883 they concluded a treaty of
peace with Chile; the troops at Arequipa, under Admiral Montero,
surrendered that town, and Montero himself, coldly received in Bolivia,
whither he had fled for refuge, withdrew from the country to Europe. On
the 9th of November the Chilean army of occupation was concentrated at
Arequipa, while what remained of the Bolivian army lay at Oruro.
Negotiations were opened, and on 11th December a peace was signed
between Chile and Bolivia. By this treaty Bolivia ceded to Chile the
whole of its sea-coast, including the port of Cobija.
On the 18th of May 1895 a treaty was signed at Santiago between Chile
and Bolivia, "with a view to strengthening the bonds of friendship which
unite the two countries," and, "in accord with the higher necessity that
the future development and commercial prosperity of Bolivia require her
free access to the sea." By this treaty Chile declared that if, in
consequence of the plebiscite (to take place under the treaty of Ancon
with Peru), or by virtue of direct arrangement, she should "acquire
dominion and permanent sovereignty over the territories of Tacna and
Arica, she undertakes to transfer them to Bolivia in the same form and
to the same extent as she may acquire them"; the republic of Bolivia
paying as an indemnity for that transfer $5,000,000 silver. If this
cession should be effected, Chile should advance her own frontier north
of Camerones to Vitor, from the sea up to the frontier which actually
separates that district from Bolivia. Chile also pledged herself to use
her utmost endeavour, either separately or jointly with Bolivia, to
obtain possession of Tacna and Arica. If she failed, she bound herself
to cede to Bolivia the roadstead (_caleta_) of Vitor, or another
analogous one, and $5,000,000 silver. Supplementary protocols to this
treaty stipulated that the port to be ceded must "fully satisfy the
present and future requirements" of the commerce of Bolivia.
On the 23rd of May 1895 further treaties of peace and commerce were
signed with Chile, but the provisions with regard to the cession of a
seaport to Bolivia still remained unfulfilled. During those ten years of
recovery on the part of Bolivia from the effects of the war, the
presidency was held by Dr Pacheco, who succeeded Campero, and held
office for the full term; by Dr Aniceto Arce, who held it until 1892,
and by Dr Mariano Baptista, his successor. In 1896 Dr Severe Alonso
became president, and during his tenure of office diplomatic relations
were resumed with Great Britain, Senor Aramayo being sent to London as
minister plenipotentiary in July 1897. As an outcome of his mission an
extradition treaty was concluded with Great Britain in March 1898.
In December an attempt was made to pass a law creating Sucre the
perpetual capital of the republic. Until this Sucre had taken its turn
with La Paz, Cochabamba and Oruro. La Paz rose in open revolt. On the
17th of January of the following year a battle was fought some 40 m.
from La Paz between the insurgents and the government forces, in which
the latter were defeated with the loss of a colonel and forty-three men.
Colonel Pando, the insurgent leader, having gained a strong following,
marched upon Oruro, and entered that town on 11th April 1899, after
completely defeating the government troops. Dr Severo Alonso took refuge
in Chilean territory; and Colonel Pando formed a provisional government.
He had no difficulty in obtaining his election to the presidency without
opposition. He entered upon office on the 26th of October, and proved
himself to be a strong and capable chief magistrate. He had to deal with
two difficult settlements as to boundaries with Chile and Brazil, and to
take steps for improving the means of communication in the country, by
this means reviving its mining and other industries. The dispute with
Brazil over the rich Acre rubber-producing territory was accentuated by
the majority of those engaged in the rubber industry being Brazilians,
who resented the attempts of Bolivian officials to exercise authority in
the district. This led to a declaration of independence on the part of
the state of Acre, and the despatch of a body of Bolivian troops in 1900
to restore order. There was no desire, however, on the part of
President Pando to involve himself in hostilities with Brazil, and in a
spirit of concession the dispute was settled amicably by diplomatic
means, and a treaty signed in November 1903. A new boundary line was
drawn, and a portion of the Acre province ceded to Brazil in
consideration of a cash indemnity of $10,000,000.
The long-standing dispute with Chile with regard to its occupation of
the former Bolivian provinces of Tacna and Arica under the Parto de
Tregna of the 4th of April 1884 was more difficult to arrange
satisfactorily. In 1895 there had been some prospect of Chile conceding
an outlet on the sea in exchange for a recognition of the Chilean
ownership of Tacna and Arica. The discovery, however, of secret
negotiations between Bolivia and Argentina caused Chile to change its
conciliatory attitude. Bolivia was in no position to venture upon
hostilities or to compel the Chileans to make concessions, and the final
settlement of the boundary dispute between Argentina and Chile deprived
the Bolivians of the hope of obtaining the support of the Argentines.
President Pando and his successor, Ismail Montes, who became president
in 1904, saw that it was necessary to yield, and to make the best terms
they could. A treaty was accordingly ratified in 1905, which was in many
ways advantageous to Bolivia, though the republic was compelled to cede
to Chile the maritime provinces occupied by the latter power since the
war of 1881, and to do without a seaport. The government of Chile
undertook to construct a railway at its own cost from Arica to the
Bolivian capital, La Paz, and to give the Bolivians free transit through
Chilean territory to certain towns on the coast. Chile further agreed to
pay Bolivia a cash indemnity and lend certain pecuniary assistance to
the construction of other railways necessary for the opening out of the
country.
See C. Wiener, _Bolivie et Perou_ (Paris, 1880); E. Mossbach,
_Bolivia_ (Leipzig, 1875); Theodore Child, _The South American
Republics_ (New York, 1801); Vicente de Ballivian y Rizas, _Archive
Boliviano. Collecion de documentes relativos a la historia de Bolivia_
(Paris, 1872); Ramon Sotomayor Valdes, _Estudio historico de Bolivia
bajo la administracion del General don Jose Maria Acha con una
introducion que contiene el compendio de la Guerra de la independencia
i de los gobiernos de dicha Republica hasta 1861_ (Santiago de Chile,
1874). (W. Hd.; G. E.)
BOLKHOV, a town of Russia, in the government of Orel, and 35 m. N. of
the city of Orel. Pop. (1897) 20,703. It is prettily situated amongst
orchards and possesses a cathedral. There is a lively trade in hemp,
hemp-seed oil, hemp goods and cattle, and there are hemp-mills,
soap-works and tanneries. The much-venerated monastery, Optina Pustyn,
is close by.
BOLL, a botanical term for a fruit-pod, particularly of the cotton
plant. The word is in O. Eng. _bolla_, which is also represented in
"bowl," a round vessel for liquids, a variant due to "bowl," ball, which
is from the Fr. _boule_. "Boll" is also used, chiefly in Scotland and
the north of England, as a measure of weight for flour = 140 lb., and of
capacity for grain: 16 pecks = 1 boll.
BOLLANDISTS, the Belgian Jesuits who publish the _Acta Sanctorum_, the
great collection of biographies and legends of the saints, arranged by
days, in the order of the calendar. The original idea was conceived by a
Jesuit father, Heribert Rosweyde (see HAGIOLOGY), and was explained by
him in a sort of prospectus, which he issued in 1607 under the title of
_Fasti sanctorum quorum vitae in Belgicis Bibliothecis manuscriptae_.
His intention was to publish in eighteen volumes the lives of the saints
compiled from the MSS., at the same time adding sober notes. At the time
of his death (1629) he had collected a large amount of material, but had
not been able actually to begin the work. A Jesuit father, John Bolland,
was appointed to carry on the project, and was sent to Antwerp. He
continued to amass material, and extended the scope of the work. In 1643
the two volumes for January appeared. The three volumes for February
appeared in 1658, the three for March in 1668, the three for April in
1675, and so on. In 1635 Henschenius (Godfried Henschen) was associated
with Bolland, and collaborated in the work until 1681. From 1659 to 1714
Papebroch (Daniel van Papenbroeck) collaborated. This was the most
brilliant period in the history of the _Acta Sanctorum_. The freedom of
Papebroch's criticism made him many enemies, and he had often to defend
himself against their attacks. The work was continued--with some
inequalities, but always in the same spirit--until the suppression of
the Society of Jesus in 1773. The last volume published was vol. iii. of
October, which appeared in 1770.
On the dispersion of the Jesuits the Bollandists were authorized to
continue their work, and remained at Antwerp until 1778, when they were
transferred to Brussels, to the monastery of canons regular of
Coudenberg. Here they published vol. iv. of October in 1780, and vol. v.
of October in 1786, when the monastery of Coudenberg was suppressed. In
1788 the work of the Bollandists ceased. The remains of their library
were acquired by the Premonstratensians of Tongerloo, who endeavoured to
continue the work, and in their abbey vol. vi. of October appeared in
1794.
After the re-establishment of the Society of Jesus in Belgium the work
was again taken up in 1837, at the suggestion of the Academie Royale of
Belgium and with the support of the Belgian government, and the
Bollandists were installed at the college of St Michael in Brussels. In
1845 appeared vol. vii. of October, the first of the new series, which
reached vol. xiii. of October in 1883. In this series the Jesuit fathers
Joseph van der Moere, Joseph van Hecke, Benjamin Bossue, Victor and Remi
de Buck, Ant. Tinnebroeck, Edu. Carpentier and Henr. Matagne
collaborated. Father John Martinov of Theazan was entrusted with the
editing of the _Annus Graeco-Slavicus_, which appeared in the beginning
of vol. xi. of October in 1864.
In 1882 the activities of the Bollandists were exerted in a new
direction, with a view to bringing the work more into line with the
progress of historical methods. A quarterly review was established under
the title of _Analecta Bollandiana_ by the Jesuit fathers C. de Smedt,
G. van Hooff and J. de Backer. This reached its 25th volume in 1906, and
was edited by the Bollandists de Smedt, F. van Ontroy, H. Delehaye, A.
Porcelet and P. Peeters. This review contains studies in preparation for
the continuation and remoulding of the _Acta Sanctorum_, inedited texts,
dissertations, and, since 1892, a _Bulletin des publications
hagiographiques_, containing criticisms of recent works on hagiographic
questions. In addition to this review, the Bollandists undertook the
analysis of the hagiographic MSS. in the principal libraries. Besides
numerous library catalogues published in the _Analecta_ (e.g. those of
Chartres, Namur, Ghent, Messina, Venice, etc.), separate volumes were
devoted to the Latin MSS. in the Bibliotheque Royale at Brussels (2
vols., 1886-1889), to the Latin and Greek MSS. in the Bibliotheque
Nationale at Paris (5 vols., 1889-1896), to the Greek MSS. in the
Vatican (1899), and to the Latin MSS. in the libraries of Rome (1905
seq.). They also prepared inventories of the hagiographic texts hitherto
published, and of these there have appeared the _Bibliotheca
hagiographica graeca_ (1895), the _Bibliotheca hagiographica latina_
(1899) and the _Bibliotheca hagiographica Orientalis_. These
indispensable works delayed the publication of the principal collection,
but tended to give it a more solid basis and a strictly scientific
stamp. In 1887 appeared vol. i. for November; in 1894, vol. ii.,
preceded by the _Martyrologium Hieronymianum_ by J.B. de Rossi and the
abbe Louis Duchesne; in 1902, the _Propylaeum ad Acta Sanctorum
Novembris_, comprising the _Synaxarium ecclesiae Constantinopolitanae_.
There are three editions of the _Acta Sanctorum_: the original edition
(Antwerp, Tongerloo and Brussels, 63 vols., 1643-1902); the Venice
edition, stopping at vol. v. of September (1734-1770); and the Paris
edition, stopping at vol. xiii. of October (61 vols., 1863-1883). In
addition to these, there is a volume of tables, edited by the abbe
Rigollot.
See _Acta Sanctorum apologelicis libris ... vindicata_ (Antwerp,
1755); L.P. Gachard, _Memoire historique sur les Bollandistes_
(Brussels, 1835); van Hecke, "De ratione operis Bollandiani" (_Acta
Sanctorum Octobris_, vii.); and Cardinal J.B. Pitra, _Etudes sur la
collection des Actes des Saints_ (Paris, 1880). (H. De.)
BOLOGNA, GIOVANNI DA (1524-1608) [Ital. for his real name, JEAN BOLOGNE
or BOULLONGNE], French sculptor, was born at Douai in 1524. His early
training as a sculptor was conducted at Antwerp, but at the age of
twenty-five he went to Italy and he settled in 1553 in Florence, where
his best works still remain. His two most celebrated productions are the
single bronze figure of Mercury, poised on one foot, resting on the head
of a zephyr, as if in the act of springing into the air (in the Bargello
gallery), and the marble group known as the Rape of the Sabines, which
was executed for Francesco de' Medici and received this name, Lanzi
informs us, after it was finished. It is now in the Loggia de Lanzi of
the ducal piazza. Giovanni was also employed at Genoa, where he executed
various excellent works, chiefly in bronze. Most of his pieces are
characterized by great spirit and elegance. His great fountain at
Bologna (1563-1567) is remarkable for beauty of proportion. Noteworthy
also are his two fountains in the Boboli gardens, one completed in 1576
and the other in 1585. He also cast the fine bronze equestrian statue of
Cosimo de' Medici at Florence and the very richly decorated west door of
Pisa cathedral. One of Bologna's best works, a group of two nude figures
fighting, is now lost. A fine copy in lead was at one time in the front
quadrangle of Brasenose College, Oxford. In 1881 it was sold for old
lead by the principal and fellows of the college, and was melted down by
the plumber who bought it.
See _La Vie et l'oeuvre de Jean Bologne, par Abel Desjardins, d'apres
les manuscrits--recueillis par Foucques de Vagnonville_ (1883,
numerous illustrations; list of works).
BOLOGNA, a city and archiepiscopal see of Emilia, Italy, the capital of
the province of Bologna, and headquarters of the VI. army corps. It is
situated at the edge of the plain of Emilia, 180 ft. above sea-level at
the base of the Apennines, 82 m. due N. of Florence by rail, 63 m. by
road and 50 m. direct, and 134 m. S.E. of Milan by rail. Pop. (1901)
town, 102,122; commune, 153,501. The more or less rectangular Roman
city, orientated on the points of the compass, with its streets arranged
at right angles, can be easily distinguished from the outer city, which
received its fortifications in 1206 (see G. Gozzadini, _Studi
archeologico-topografici sulla citta di Bologna_, Bologna, 1868). The
streets leading to the gates of the latter radiate from the outskirts,
and not from the centre, of the former. Some of the oldest churches,
however, lie outside the limits of the Roman city (of which no buildings
remain above ground) such as S. Stefano, S. Giovanni in Monte and SS.
Vitale ed Agricola. The first consists of a group of no less than seven
different buildings, of different dates; the earliest of which, the
former cathedral of SS. Pietro e Paolo, was constructed about the middle
of the 4th century, in part with the debris of Roman buildings; while S.
Sepolcro, a circular church with ornamentation in brick and an imitation
of _opus reticulatum_, should probably be attributed to the 6th or 7th
centuries. The present cathedral (S. Pietro), erected in 910, is now
almost entirely in the baroque style. The largest church in the town,
however, is that of S. Petronio, the patron saint of Bologna, which was
begun in 1390; only the nave and aisles as far as the transepts were,
however, completed, but even this is a fine fragment, in the Gothic
style, measuring 384 ft. long, and 157 wide, whereas the projected
length of the whole (a cruciform basilica) was over 700 ft., with a
breadth across the transepts of 460 ft., and a dome 500 ft. high over
the crossing (see F. Cavazza in _Rassegna d' Arte_, 1905, 161). The
church of S. Domenico, which contains the body of the saint, who died
here in 1221, is unfinished externally, while the interior was
remodelled in the 18th century. There are many other churches of
interest, among them S. Francesco, perhaps the finest medieval building
in Bologna, begun in 1246 and finished in 1260; it has a fine brick
campanile of the end of the 14th century. It was restored to sacred uses
in 1887, and has been carefully liberated from later alterations (U.
Berti in _Rassegna d' Arte_, 1901, 55). The church of Corpus Dominii has
fine 15th-century terra cottas on the facade (F. Malaguzzi Valeri in
_Archivio Storico dell' Arte_, ser. ii. vol. ii. (Rome, 1896), 72). The
centre of the town is formed by the Piazza Vittorio Emanuele (formerly
Piazza Maggiore), and the Piazza del Nettuno, which lie at right angles
to one another. Here are the church of S. Petronio, the massive Palazzo
Comunale, dating from 1245, the Palazzo del Podesta, completed in the
same year, and the fine bronze statue of Neptune by Giovanni da Bologna
(Jean Bologne of Douai).
The famous university of Bologna was founded in the 11th century (its
foundation by Theodosius the Great in A.D. 425 is legendary), and
acquired a European reputation as a school of jurisprudence under Pepo,
the first known teacher at Bologna of Roman law (about 1076), and his
successor Irnerius and their followers the glossators. The students
numbered between three and five thousand in the 12th to the 15th
century, and in 1262, it is said, nearly ten thousand (among them were
both Dante and Petrarch). Anatomy was taught here in the 14th century.
But despite its fame, the university, though an autonomous corporation,
does not seem to have had any fixed residence: the professors lectured
in their own houses, or later in rooms hired or lent by the civic
authorities. It was only in 1520 that the professors of law were given
apartments in a building belonging to the church of S. Petronio; and in
1562, by order of Pius IV., the university itself was constructed close
by, by Carlo Borromeo, then cardinal legate. The reason of this measure
was no doubt partly disciplinary, Bologna itself having in 1506 passed
under the dominion of the papacy. Shortly after this, in 1564, Tasso was
a student there, and was tried for writing a satirical poem. One of the
most famous professors was Marcello Malpighi, a great anatomist of the
17th century. The building has served as the communal library since
1838. Its courtyard contains the arms of those students who were elected
as representatives of their respective nations or faculties. The
university has since 1803 been established in the (16th century) Palazzo
Poggi. Between 1815 and 1848 the number of students sank to about a
hundred in some years, chiefly owing to the political persecutions of
the government: in 1859 the number had risen to 355. It now possesses
four faculties and is attended by some 1700 students. Among its
professors women have more than once been numbered.
The Museo Civico is one of the most important museums in Italy,
containing especially fine collections of antiquities from Bologna and
its neighbourhood. The picture gallery is equally important in its way,
affording a survey both of the earlier Bolognese paintings and of the
works of the Bolognese eclectics of the 16th and 17th centuries, the
Caracci, Guido Reni, Domenichino, Guercino, &c. The primitive masters
are not of great excellence, but the works of the masters of the 15th
century, especially those of Francesco Francia (1450-1517) and Lorenzo
Costa of Ferrara (1460-1535), are of considerable merit. The great
treasure of the collection is, however, Raphael's S. Cecilia, painted
for the church of S. Giovanni in Monte, about 1515.
The two leaning towers, the Torre Asinelli and the Torre Garisenda,
dating from 1109 and 1110 respectively, are among the most remarkable
structures in Bologna: they are square brick towers, the former being
320 ft. in height and 4 ft. out of the perpendicular, the latter
(unfinished) 163 ft. high and 10 ft. out of the perpendicular. The town
contains many fine private palaces, dating from the 13th century
onwards. The streets are as a rule arcaded, and this characteristic has
been preserved in modern additions, which have on the whole been made
with considerable taste, as have also the numerous restorations of
medieval buildings. A fine view may be had from the Madonna di S. Luca,
on the south-west of the town (938 ft.).
Among the specialities of Bologna may be noted the _salami_ or
_mortadella_ (Bologna sausage), _tortellini_ (a kind of macaroni) and
liqueurs.
Bologna is an important railway centre, just as the ancient Bononia was
a meeting-point of important roads. Here the main line from Milan
divides, one portion going on parallel to the line of the ancient Via
Aemilia (which it has followed from Piacenza downwards) to Rimini,
Ancona and Brindisi, and the other through the Apennines to Florence and
thence to Rome. Another line runs to Ferrara and Padua, another
(eventually to be prolonged to Verona) to S. Felice sul Panaro, and a
third to Budrio and Portomaggiore (a station on the line from Ferrara to
Ravenna). Steam tramways run to Vignola, Pieve di Cento and Malalbergo.
Bologna was only for a short while subject to the Lombards, remaining
generally under the rule of the exarchate of Ravenna, until this in 756
was given by Pippin to the papacy. It was sacked by the Hungarians in
902, but otherwise its history is little known, and it is uncertain when
it acquired its freedom and its motto _Libertas_. But the first
"constitution" of the commune of Bologna dates from about 1123, and at
that time we find it a free and independent city. From the 12th to the
14th century it was very frequently at war, and strongly supported the
Guelph cause against Frederick II. and against the neighbouring cities
of Romagna and Emilia; indeed, in 1249 the Bolognese took Enzio, the
emperor's son, prisoner, and kept him in confinement for the rest of his
life. But the struggles between Guelphs and Ghibellines in Bologna
itself soon followed, and the commune was so weakened that in 1337
Taddeo de' Pepoli made himself master of the town, and in 1350 his son
sold it to Giovanni Visconti of Milan. Ten years later it was given to
the papacy, but soon revolted and recovered its liberty. In 1401
Giovanni Bentivoglio made himself lord of Bologna, but was killed in a
rebellion of 1402. It then returned to the Visconti, and after various
struggles with the papacy was again secured in 1438 by the Bentivoglio,
who held it till 1506, when Pope Julius II. drove them out, and brought
Bologna once more under the papacy, under the sway of which it remained
(except in the Napoleonic period between 1796 and 1815 and during the
revolutions of 1821 and 1831) until in 1860 it became part of the
kingdom of Italy.
Among the most illustrious natives of Bologna may be noted Luigi Galvani
(1737-1798), the discoverer of galvanism, and Prospero Lambertini (Pope
Benedict XIV.).