FOOTNOTES:

[1] Swift's _Inquiry into the Behaviour of the Queen's Last

Ministry_; Mrs Delaney's _Correspondence_, 2 ser., iii. 168.

[2] _Berwick's Mem._ (Petitot), vol. lxvi. 219.

[3] _Hist. MSS. Comm., Portland MSS._ v. 235.

[4] _Stuart MSS._ (Roxburghe Club), ii. 383.

[5] _Hist. MSS. Comm., MSS. of H.M. the King, Stuart Papers_, i. p.

xlviii.

[6] Sichel's _Bolingbroke_, i. 340; _Lockhart Papers_, i. 460;

Macpherson, ii. 529.

[7] _Wentworth Papers_, 408.

[8] _Hist. MSS. Comm., Stuart Papers_, i. 500; Berwick's _Mem_.

(Petitot), vol. lxvi. 262.

[9] Coxe's _Walpole_, i. 200; _Stuart Papers_, ii. 511, and also 446,

460.

[10] _Hist. MSS. Comm., Onslow MSS._ 515.

[11] Bolingbroke to Swift, June 24th, 1727. He adds, "to hanker after

a court is below either you or me."

[12] Sichel's _Bolingbroke_, ii. 267; _Stanhope_, ii. 163; _Hist.

MSS. Comm., Onslow MSS._ 516, 8th Rep. Pt. III. App. p. 3. This

remarkable incident is discredited by H. Walpole in _Letters_ (ed.

1903), iii. 269; but he was not always well informed concerning his

father's career.

BOLIVAR, SIMON (1783-1830), the hero of South American independence, was

born in the city of Caracas, Venezuela, on the 24th of July 1783. His

father was Juan Vicente Bolivar y Ponte, and his mother Maria Concepcion

Palacios y Sojo, both descended from noble families in Venezuela.

Bolivar was sent to Europe to prosecute his studies, and resided at

Madrid for several years. Having completed his education, he spent some

time in travelling, chiefly in the south of Europe, and visited Paris,

where he was an eye-witness of some of the last scenes of the

Revolution. Returning to Madrid, he married, in 1801, the daughter of

Don N. Toro, uncle of the marquis of Toro in Caracas, and embarked with

her for Venezuela, intending, it is said, to devote himself to the

improvement of his large estate. But the premature death of his young

wife, who fell a victim to yellow fever, drove him again to Europe.

Returning home in 1809 he passed through the United States, where, for

the first time, he had an opportunity of observing the working of free

institutions; and soon after his arrival in Venezuela he appears to have

identified himself with the cause of independence which had already

agitated the Spanish colonies for some years. Being one of the

promoters of the insurrection at Caracas in April 1810, he received a

colonel's commission from the revolutionary junta, and was associated

with Louis Lopez Mendez in a mission to the court of Great Britain.

Venezuela declared its independence on the 5th of July 1811, and in the

following year the war commenced in earnest by the advance of Monteverde

with the Spanish troops. Bolivar was entrusted with the command of the

important post of Puerto Cabello, but not being supported he had to

evacuate the place; and owing to the inaction of Miranda the Spaniards

recovered their hold over the country.

Like others of the revolutionists Bolivar took to flight, and succeeded

in reaching Curacao in safety. He did not, however, remain long in

retirement, but in September 1812, hearing of important movements in New

Granada, repaired to Cartagena, where he received a commission to

operate against the Spanish troops on the Magdalena river. In this

expedition he proved eminently successful, driving the Spaniards from

post to post, until arriving at the confines of Venezuela he boldly

determined to enter that province and try conclusions with General

Monteverde himself. His troops did not number more than 500 men; but, in

spite of many discouragements, he forced his way to Merida and Truxillo,

towns of some importance in the west of Venezuela, and succeeded in

raising the population to his support. Forming his increased forces into

two divisions, he committed the charge of one to his colleague Rivas,

and pushing on for Caracas the capital, issued his decree of "war to the

death." A decisive battle ensued at Lastoguanes, where the Spanish

troops under Monteverde sustained a crushing defeat. Caracas was entered

in triumph on the 4th of August 1813, and Monteverde took refuge in

Puerto Cabello. General Marino effected the liberation of the eastern

district of Venezuela, and the patriots obtained entire possession of

the country in January 1814. This success was, however, of very brief

duration. The royalists, effectually roused by the reverses they had

sustained, concentrated all their means, and a number of sanguinary

encounters ensued. Bolivar was eventually defeated by Boves near Cura,

in the plains of La Puerta, and compelled to embark for Cumana with the

shattered remains of his forces. Caracas was retaken by the Spaniards in

July; and before the end of the year 1814 the royalists were again the

undisputed masters of Venezuela. From Cumana Bolivar repaired to

Cartagena, and thence to Tunja, where the revolutionary congress of New

Granada was sitting. Here, notwithstanding his misfortunes and the

efforts of his personal enemies, he was received and treated with great

consideration. The congress appointed him to conduct an expedition

against Santa Fe de Bogota, where Don Cundinamarca had refused to

acknowledge the new coalition of the provinces. In December 1814 he

appeared before Bogota with a force of 2000 men, and obliged the

recalcitrant leaders to capitulate,--a service for which he received the

thanks of congress. In the meanwhile Santa Martha had fallen into the

hands of the royalists, and Bolivar was ordered to the relief of the

place. In this, however, he was not successful, General Morillo having

landed an overwhelming Spanish force. Hopeless of the attempt he

resigned his commission and embarked for Kingston, Jamaica, in May 1814.

While residing there an attempt was made upon his life by a hired

assassin, who, in mistake, murdered his secretary.

From Kingston Bolivar went to Aux Cayes in Haiti, where he was furnished

with a small force by President Petion. An expedition was organized, and

landed on the mainland in May 1816, but proved a failure. Nothing

daunted, however, he obtained reinforcements at Aux Cayes, and in

December landed first in Margarita, and then at Barcelona. Here a

provisional government was formed, and troops were assembled to resist

Morillo, who was then advancing at the head of a strong division. The

hostile forces encountered each other on the 16th of February 1817, when

a desperate conflict ensued, which lasted during that and the two

following days, and ended in the defeat of the royalists. Morillo

retired in disorder, and being met on his retreat by J.A. Paez with his

_llaneros_, suffered an additional and more complete overthrow. Being

now recognized as commander-in-chief, Bolivar proceeded in his career

of victory, and before the close of the year had fixed his headquarters

at Angostura on the Orinoco. At the opening of the congress which

assembled in that city on the 15th February 1819 he submitted an

elaborate exposition of his views on government, and concluded by

surrendering his authority into the hands of congress. Being, however,

required to resume his power, and retain it until the independence of

the country had been completely established, he reorganized his troops,

and set out from Angostura, in order to cross the Cordilleras, effect a

junction with General Santander, who commanded the republican force in

New Granada, and bring their united forces into action against the

common enemy. This bold and original design was crowned with complete

success. In July 1819 he entered Tunja, after a sharp action on the

adjoining heights; and on the 7th of August he gained the victory of

Boyaca, which gave him immediate possession of Bogota and all New

Granada.

His return to Angostura was a sort of national festival. He was hailed

as the deliverer and father of his country, and all manner of

distinctions and congratulations were heaped upon him. Availing himself

of the favourable moment, he obtained the enactment of the fundamental

law of the 17th of December 1819, by which the republics of Venezuela

and New Granada were henceforth to be united in a single state, under

his presidency, by the title of the Republic of Colombia. The seat of

government was also transferred provisionally to Rosario de Cucuta, on

the frontier of the two provinces, and Bolivar again took the field.

Being now at the head of the most numerous and best appointed army the

republicans had yet assembled, he gained important advantages over the

Spaniards under Morillo, and on the 25th of November 1820 concluded at

Truxillo an armistice of six months, probably in the hope that the

Spaniards would come to terms, and that the further effusion of blood

might be spared. If such were his views, however, they were

disappointed. Morillo was recalled, and General Torre assumed the

command. The armistice was allowed to expire, and a renewal of the

contest became inevitable. Bolivar therefore resolved, if possible, to

strike a decisive blow; and this accordingly he did at Carabobo, where,

encountering Torre, he so completely routed the Spaniards that the

shattered remains of their army were forced to take refuge in Puerto

Cabello, where two years after they surrendered to Paez. The battle of

Carabobo may be considered as having put an end to the war in Venezuela.

On the 29th of June 1821 Bolivar entered Caracas, and by the close of

the year the Spaniards were driven from every part of the province

except Puerto Cabello. The next step was to secure, by permanent

political institutions, the independence which had been so dearly

purchased; and, accordingly, on the 30th of August 1821 the constitution

of Colombia was adopted with general approbation, Bolivar himself being

president, and Santander vice-president.

There was, however, more work for him to do. The Spaniards, though

expelled from Colombia, still held possession of the neighbouring

provinces of Ecuador and Peru; and Bolivar determined to complete the

liberation of the whole country. Placing himself at the head of the

army, he marched on Quito in Ecuador. A severe battle was fought at

Pichincha, where, by the prowess of his colleague Sucre, the Spaniards

were routed, and Quito was entered by the republicans in June 1822.

Bolivar then marched upon Lima, which the royalists evacuated at his

approach; and entering the capital in triumph, he was invested with

absolute power as dictator, and authorized to call into action all the

resources of the country. Owing, however, to the intrigues of the

republican factions in Peru he was forced to withdraw to Truxillo,

leaving the capital to the mercy of the Spaniards under Canterac, by

whom it was immediately occupied. But this misfortune proved only

temporary. By June 1824 the liberating army was completely organized;

and taking the field soon after, it routed the vanguard of the enemy.

Improving his advantage, Bolivar pressed forward, and on the 6th of

August defeated Canterac on the plains of Junin, after which he returned

to Lima, leaving Sucre to follow the royalists in their retreat to

Upper Peru--an exploit which the latter executed with equal ability and

success, gaining a decisive victory at Ayacucho, and thus completing the

dispersion of the Spanish force. The possessions of the Spaniards in

Peru were now confined to the castles of Callao, which Rodil maintained

for upwards of a year, in spite of all the means that could be employed

for their reduction. In June 1825 Bolivar visited Upper Peru, which,

having detached itself from the government of Buenos Aires, was formed

into a separate state, called Bolivia, in honour of the liberator. The

first congress of the new republic assembled in August 1825, when

Bolivar was declared perpetual protector, and requested to prepare for

it a constitution of government.

His care was now directed to the administration of the affairs of the

freed provinces. His endeavours to satisfy his countrymen in this

respect did not always meet with encouragement, and sometimes exposed

him to slander. In December 1824 Bolivar convoked a constituent congress

for the February following; but this body, taking into consideration the

unsettled state of the country, thought it proper to invest him with

dictatorial power for another year. His project of a constitution for

Bolivia was presented to the congress of that state on the 25th of May

1826, accompanied with an address, in which he embodied his opinions

respecting the form of government which he conceived most expedient for

the newly established republics. This code, however, did not give

satisfaction. Its most extraordinary feature consisted in the provision

for lodging the executive authority in the hands of a president for

life, without responsibility and with power to nominate his successor, a

proposal which alarmed the friends of liberty, and excited lively

apprehensions amongst the republicans of Buenos Aires and Chile; whilst

in Peru, Bolivar was accused of a design to unite into one state

Colombia, Peru and Bolivia, and to render himself perpetual dictator of

the confederacy.

In the meanwhile the affairs of Colombia had taken a turn which demanded

the presence of Bolivar in his own country. During his absence Santander

had administered the government of the state ably and uprightly, and its

independence had been recognized by other countries. But Paez, who

commanded in Venezuela, having been accused of arbitrary conduct in the

enrolment of the citizens of Caracas in the militia, refused obedience

to the summons of the senate, and placed himself in a state of open

rebellion against the government, being encouraged by a disaffected

party in the northern departments who desired separation from the rest

of the republic.

Accordingly, having entrusted the government to a council nominated by

himself, with Santa Cruz at its head, Bolivar set out from Lima in

September 1826, and hastening to Bogota, arrived there on the 14th of

November. He immediately assumed the extraordinary powers which by the

constitution the president was authorized to exercise in case of

rebellion. After a short stay in the capital he pressed forward to stop

the effusion of blood in Venezuela, where matters had gone much farther

than he could have contemplated. On the 31st of December he reached

Puerto Cabello, and the following day he issued a decree offering a

general amnesty. He had then a friendly meeting with Paez and soon after

entered Caracas, where he fixed his headquarters, in order to check the

northern departments, which had been the principal theatre of the

disturbances. In the meanwhile Bolivar and Santander were re-elected to

the respective offices of president and vice-president, and by law they

should have qualified as such in January 1827. In February, however,

Bolivar formally resigned the presidency of the republic, at the same

time expressing a determination to refute the imputations of ambition

which had been so freely cast upon him, by retiring into private life,

and spending the remainder of his days on his patrimonial estate.

Santander combated this proposal, urging him to resume his station as

constitutional president, and declaring his own conviction that the

troubles and agitations of the country could only be appeased by the

authority and personal influence of the liberator himself. This view

being confirmed by a resolution of congress, although it was not a

unanimous one, Bolivar decided to resume his functions, and he repaired

to Bogota to take the oaths. Before his arrival, however, he issued

simultaneously three separate decrees--one granting a general amnesty,

another convoking a national convention at Ocana, and a third for

establishing constitutional order throughout Colombia. His arrival was

accelerated by the occurrence of events in Peru and the southern

departments which struck at the very foundation of his power. Not long

after his departure from Lima, the Bolivian code had been adopted as the

constitution of Peru, and Bolivar had been declared president for life

on the 9th of December 1826, the anniversary of the battle of Ayacucho.

At this time the Colombian auxiliary army was cantoned in Peru, and the

third division, stationed at Lima, consisting of veteran troops under

Lara and Sands, became distrustful of Bolivar's designs on the freedom

of the republic. Accordingly, in about six weeks after the adoption of

Bolivar's new constitution, a counter-revolution in the government of

Peru was effected by this body of dissatisfied veterans, and the

Peruvians, availing themselves of the opportunity, abjured the Bolivian

code, deposed the council appointed by the liberator, and proceeded to

organize a provisional government for themselves. After this bloodless

revolution the third division embarked at Callao on the 17th of March

1827, and landed in the southern department of Colombia in the following

month. Intelligence of these events reached Bolivar while in the north

of Colombia, and he lost no time in preparing to march against the

refractory troops, who formerly had placed such implicit confidence in

him. But he was spared the necessity of coming to blows, for the

leaders, finding the government in the hands of the national executive,

had peaceably submitted to General Ovando. In the meanwhile Bolivar had

accepted the presidency, and resumed the functions belonging to his

official position. But although Colombia was, to all external

appearance, restored to tranquillity, the nation was divided into two

parties. Bolivar had, no doubt, regained the personal confidence of the

officers and soldiers of the third division; but the republican party,

with Santander at their head, continued to regard with undisguised

apprehension his ascendancy over the army, suspecting him of a desire to

imitate the career of Napoleon. In the meanwhile all parties looked

anxiously to the convention of Ocana, which was to assemble in March

1828, for a decided expression of the national will. The republicans

hoped that the issue of its deliberations would be favourable to their

views; whilst the military, on the other hand, did not conceal their

conviction that a stronger and more permanent form of government was

essential to the public welfare. The latter view seems to have

prevailed. In virtue of a decree, dated Bogota, the 27th of August 1828,

Bolivar assumed the supreme power in Colombia, and continued to exercise

it until his death, which took place at San Pedro, near Santa Marta, on

the 17th of December 1830.

Bolivar spent nine-tenths of a splendid patrimony in the service of his

country; and although he had for a considerable period unlimited control

over the revenues of three countries--Colombia, Peru and Bolivia--he

died without a shilling of public money in his possession. He achieved

the independence of three states, and called forth a new spirit in the

southern portion of the New World. He purified the administration of

justice; he encouraged the arts and sciences; he fostered national

interests, and he induced other countries to recognize that independence

which was in a great measure the fruit of his own exertions. His remains

were removed in 1842 to Caracas, where a monument was erected to his

memory; a statue was put up in Bogota in 1846; in 1858 the Peruvians

followed the example by erecting an equestrian statue of the liberator

in Lima; and in 1884 a statue was erected in Central Park, New York.

Twenty-two volumes of official documents bearing on Bolivar's career

were officially published at Caracas in 1826-1833. There are lives by

Larrazabal (New York, 1866); Rojas (Madrid, 1883); and

Ducoudray-Holstein (Paris, 1831). Two volumes of his correspondence

were published in New York in 1866.

BOLIVAR, till 1908 a department of Colombia, bounded N. and W. by the

Caribbean Sea, E. by the departments of Magdalena and Santander, S. by

Antioquia and S.W. by Cauca. It has an area of 27,028 sq. m., composed

in great part of low, alluvial plains, densely wooded, but slightly

cultivated and unsuited for north European labour. The population,

estimated at 323,097 in 1899, is composed largely of mixed races; in

some localities the inhabitants of mixed race are estimated to

constitute four-fifths of the population. The capital, Cartagena on the

Caribbean coast, was once the principal commercial entrepot of Colombia.

Other important towns are Barranquilla and Mompox (8000), on the

Magdalena river, and Corozal (9000) and Lorica (10,596 in 1902), near

the western coast.

BOLIVAR, an inland state of Venezuela, lying S. of the Orinoco and

Apure, with the Yuruari territory on the E., the Caroni river forming

the boundary, and the Amazonas territory and Brazil on the S. Frequent

political changes in Venezuela have led to various modifications in the

size and outlines of this state, which comprises large areas of

uninhabited territory. It is a country of extensive plains (_llanos_)

covered in the rainy season with nutritious grass which disappears

completely in the dry season, and of great forests and numerous rivers.

Its population was given in 1894 as 135,232, but its area has been

largely reduced since then. The capital is Ciudad Bolivar, formerly

called Angostura, which is situated on the right bank of the Orinoco

about 240 m. above its mouth; pop. 11,686. Vessels of light draught

easily ascend the Orinoco to this point, and a considerable trade is

carried on, the exports being cocoa, sugar, cotton, hides, jerked beef

and various forest products.

BOLIVIA, an inland republic of South America, once a part of the Spanish

vice-royalty of Peru and known as the province of Charcas, or Upper

Peru. It is the third largest political division of the continent, and

extends, approximately, from 9 deg. 44' to 22 deg. 50' S. lat., and from

58 deg. to 70 deg. W. long. It is bounded N. and E. by Brazil, S. by

Paraguay and Argentina, and W. by Chile and Peru. Estimates of area vary

widely and have been considerably confused by repeated losses of

territory in boundary disputes with neighbouring states, and no figures

can be given which may not be changed to some extent by further

revisions. Official estimates are 640,226 and 703,633 sq. m., but Supan

(_Die Bevolkerung der Erde_, 1904) places it at 515,156 sq. m.

_Boundaries._--The boundary line between Bolivia and Brazil has its

origin in the limits between the Spanish and Portuguese colonies

determined by the treaties of Madrid and San Ildefonso (1750 and 1777),

which were modified by the treaties of 1867 and 1903. Beginning at the

outlet of Bahia Negra into the Paraguay river, lat. 28 deg. 08' 35" S.,

the line ascends the latter to a point on the west bank 9 kilometres

below Fort Coimbra, thence inland 4 kilometres to a point in lat. 19

deg. 45' 36" S. and long. 58 deg. 04' 12.7" W., whence it follows an

irregular course N. and E. of N. to Lakes Mandiore, Gaiba or Gahiba, and

Uberaba, then up the San Matias river and N. along the Sierra Ricardo

Franco to the headwaters of the Rio Verde, a tributary of the Guapore.

This part of the boundary was turned inland from the Paraguay to

include, within Brazilian jurisdiction, Fort Coimbra, Corumba and other

settlements on the west bank, and was modified in 1903 by the recession

of about 1158 sq. m. to Bolivia to provide better commercial facilities

on the Paraguay. The line follows the Verde, Guapore, Mamore and Madeira

rivers down to the mouth of the Abuna, in about lat. 9 deg. 44' S., as

determined by the treaty of 1903. This is a part of the original

colonial frontier, which extended down the Madeira to a point midway

between the Beni and the Amazon, and then ran due W. to the Javary. The

treaty of 1867 changed this starting-point to the mouth of the Beni, in

lat. 10 deg. 20' S., and designated a straight line to the source of the

Javary as the frontier, which gave to Brazil a large area of territory;

but when the valuable rubber forests of the upper Purus became known the

Brazilians invaded them and demanded another modification of the

boundary line. This was finally settled in 1903 by the treaty of

Petropolis, which provided that the line should ascend the Abuna river

to lat. 10 deg. 20' S., thence along that parallel W. to the Rapirran

river which is followed to its principal source, thence due W. to the

Ituxy river which is followed W. to its source, thence to the source of

Bahia Creek which is followed to the Acre or Aquiry river, thence up the

latter to its source, whence if east of the 69th meridian it runs direct

to the 11th parallel which will form the boundary line to the Peruvian

frontier. This frontier gave about 60,000 sq. m. of territory to Brazil,

for which the latter gave an indemnity of L2,000,000 and about 1158 sq.

m. of territory on the Matto Grosso frontier. The boundary with Paraguay

is unsettled, but an unratified treaty of the 23rd of November 1894

provides that the line shall start from a point on the Paraguay river 3

m. north of Fort Olimpo and run south-west in a straight line to an

intersection with the Pilcomayo in long. 61 deg. 28' W., where it unites

with the Argentine boundary. The boundary with Chile was greatly

modified by the results of the war of 1879-83, as determined by the

treaties of 1884, 1886 and 1895, Bolivia losing her department of the

littoral on the Pacific and all access to the coast except by the grace

of the conqueror. Provisions were made in 1895 for the cession of the

port of Mejillones del Norte and a right of way across the province of

Tarapaca, but Peru protested, and negotiations followed for the cession

of Cobija, in the province of Antofagasta. These negotiations proved

fruitless, and in 1904 Bolivia accepted a pecuniary indemnity in lieu of

territory. The new boundary line starts from the summit of the Sapaleri

(or Zapalegui), where the Argentine, Bolivian and Chilean boundaries

converge, and runs west to Licancaur, thence north to the most southern

source of Lake Ascotan which it follows to and across this lake in the

direction of the Oyahua volcano, and thence in a straight line to the

Tua volcano, on the frontier of the province of Tarapaca. From this

point the line follows the summits of the Cordillera Silillica north to

the Cerro Paquiza, on the Tacna frontier, and to the Nevado Pomarape,

near the frontier of Peru. Thence it continues north to an intersection

with the Desaguadero, in about 16 deg. 45' S. lat., follows that river

to the Winamarca lagoon and Lake Titicaca, and crosses the latter

diagonally to Huaicho on the north shore. From this point the line

crosses the Cordillera Real through the valley of the San Juan del Oro

to Suches Lake, follows the Cololo and Apolobamba ranges to the

headwaters of the Sina river, and thence down that stream to the

Inambari. Thence the line either follows the latter to its confluence

with the Madre de Dios, or the water-parting between that river and the

Tambopata or Pando, to the valley of the Madre de Dios, from which point

it runs due north to 12 deg. 40' S. lat., and north-west to the new

Brazilian frontier. The N.W. angle on the map represents the Bolivian

claim until the settlement of 1909, which gave the territory to Peru.

[Illustration: Map of Bolivia]

_Physiography._--Roughly calculated, two-fifths of the total area of

Bolivia is comprised within the Andean cordilleras which cross its

south-west corner and project east toward the Brazilian highlands in the

form of a great obtuse angle. The Cordilleras, divided into two great

parallel chains, with flanking ranges and spurs to the east, reach their

greatest breadth at this point and form the _massif_ of the Andean

system. It is made up of a number of parallel ranges enclosing great

elevated plateaus broken by transverse ranges and deep ravines.

North-east of Lake Titicaca there is a confused mass or knot (the Nudo

de Apolobamba) of lofty intersecting ridges which include some of the

highest peaks in South America. Below this mountainous area the ranges

open out and enclose extensive plateaus. The western range, the

Cordillera Occidental, a part of the boundary between Bolivia and the

northern provinces of Chile, closely follows the coast outline and forms

the western rampart of the great Bolivian tableland or _alta-planicie_,

which extends from the Vilcanota knot in Peru, south to the Serrania de

Lipez on the Argentine frontier, is 500 m. long, and about 80 m. broad,

and contains about 40,000 sq. m. The northern part of this plateau is

commonly called the _puna_; the southern part, the "desert of Lipez," in

character and appearance is part of the great Puna de Atacama. This

plateau has an average elevation of about 12,650 ft. near Lake Titicaca,

but descends about 1000 ft. toward its southern extremity. It is a great

lacustrine basin where once existed an inland sea having an outlet to

the east through the La Paz gorge. The plateau is bleak and inhospitable

in the north, barren and arid toward the south, containing great saline

depressions covered with water in the rainy season, and broken by ridges

and peaks, the highest being the Cerro de Tahua, 17,454 ft. Overlooking

the plateau from the west are the snow-clad peaks of Pomarape (20,505

ft.), Parinacota (20,918 ft.), Sajama (21,047), Huallatiri (21,654),

Lirima (19,128), and the three volcanic peaks, Oyahua (19,226), San

Pedro y Pablo (19,423) and Licancaur (19,685). The eastern rampart of

this great plateau is formed by the Cordillera Oriental, which extends

north-west into Peru under the name of Carabaya, and south to the

frontier in broken ranges, one of which trends south-east in the

vicinity of Sucre. The main part of this great range, known as the

Cordillera Real, and one of the most imposing mountain masses of the

world, extends from the Peruvian border south-east to the 18th parallel

and exhibits a series of snow-crowned peaks, notably the triple-crested

Illampu or Sorata (21,490 ft.), Illimani (Conway, 21,204), Cacaaca

(20,571) and Chachacomani (21,434). Of the ranges extending south from

the Cordillera Real and branching out between the 18th and 19th

parallels, the more prominent are the Frailes which forms the eastern

rampart of the great central plateau and which is celebrated for its

mineral deposits, the Chichas which runs south from the vicinity of

Potosi to the Argentine frontier, and the Livichuco which turns

south-east and forms the watershed between the Cachimayo and Pilcomayo.

The more prominent peaks in and between these ranges are the Asanaque

(16,857), Michaga (17,389), Cuzco (17,930), Potosi (15,381), Chorolque

(18,480) and Tuluma (15,584). At the southern extremity of the great

plateau is the transverse Serrania de Lipez, the culminating crest of

which stands 16,404 ft. above sea-level. The eastern rampart of the

Bolivian highlands comprises two distinct chains--the Sierra de

Cochabamba on the north-east and the Sierra de Misiones on the east.

Between these and the Cordillera Oriental is an apparently confused mass

of broken, intersecting ranges, which on closer examination are found to

conform more or less closely to the two outside ranges. These have been

deeply cut by rivers, especially on the north-east, where the rainfall

is heavier. The region enclosed by these ranges is extremely rugged in

character, but it is esteemed highly for its fertile valleys and its

fine climate, and is called the "Bolivian Switzerland." Lying wholly

within the tropics, these mountain masses form one of the most

interesting as well as one of the most imposing and difficult regions of

the world. At their feet and in their lower valleys the heat is intense

and the vegetation is tropical. Above these are cool, temperate slopes

and valleys, and high above these, bleak, wind-swept passes and

snow-clad peaks. West of the Cordillera Oriental, where special

conditions prevail, a great desert plateau stretches entirely across one

corner of the republic. Apart from the Andean system there is a group of

low, broken, gneiss ranges stretching along the east side of Bolivia

among the upper affluents of the Mamore and Guapore, which appear to

belong to the older Brazilian orographic system, from which they have

been separated by the erosive action of water. They are known as the

Sierras de Chiquitos, and are geologically interesting because of their

proximity to the eastern projection of the Andes. Their culminating

point is Cerro Cochii, 3894 ft. above sea-level, but for the most part

they are but little more than ranges of low wooded hills, having in

general a north-west and south-east direction between the 15th and 19th

parallels.

The popular conception of Bolivia is that of an extremely rugged

mountainous country, although fully three-fifths of it, including the

Chiquitos region, is composed of low alluvial plains, great swamps and

flooded bottomlands, and gently undulating forest regions. In the

extreme south are the Bolivian Chaco and the llanos (open grassy plains)

of Manzo, while above these in eastern Chuquisaca and southern Santa

Cruz are extensive swamps and low-lying plains, subject to periodical

inundations and of little value for agricultural and pastoral purposes.

There are considerable areas in this part of Bolivia, however, which lie

above the floods and afford rich grazing lands. The great drawback to

this region is defective drainage; the streams have too sluggish a

current to carry off the water in the rainy season. Between the

Chiquitos sierras and the Andes are the Llanos de Chiquitos, which have

a higher general elevation and a more diversified surface. North of this

elevation, which formed the southern shore of the ancient Mojos Lake,

are the llanos of Guarayos and Mojos, occupying an extensive region

traversed by the Guapore, San Miguel, Guapay, Mamore, Yacuma, Beni and

Madre de Dios rivers and their numerous tributaries. It was once covered

by the great Mojos Lake, and still contains large undrained areas, like

that of Lake Rojoagua (or Roguaguado). It contains rich agricultural

districts and extensive open plains where cattle-raising has been

successfully followed since the days of the Jesuit missions in that

region. The lower slopes of the Andes, especially toward the north-west,

where the country is traversed by the Beni and Madre de Dios, are

covered with heavy forests. This is one of the richest districts of

Bolivia and is capable of sustaining a large population.

The river-systems of Bolivia fall naturally into three distinct

regions--the Amazon, La Plata and Central Plateau. The first includes

the rivers flowing directly and indirectly into the Madeira, one of the

great tributaries of the Amazon, together with some small tributaries of

the Acre and Purus in the north, all of which form a drainage basin

covering more than one-half of the republic. The two principal rivers of

this system are the Mamore and Beni, which unite in lat. 10 deg. 20' S.

to form the Madeira. The Mamore, the upper part of which is called the

Chimore, rises on the north-east slopes of the Sierra de Cochabamba a

little south of the 17th parallel, and follows a northerly serpentine

course to its confluence with the Beni, the greater part of which course

is between the 65th and 66th meridians. The river has a length of about

600 m., fully three-fourths of which, from Chimore (925 ft. above sea

level) to the rapids near its mouth, passes across a level plain and is

navigable. The principal Bolivian tributary of the Mamore, the Guapay or

Grande, which is larger and longer than the former above their

confluence and should be considered the main stream, rises in the

Cordillera Oriental east of Lake Pampa Aullaguas, and flows east to the

north extremity of the Sierra de Misiones, where it emerges upon the

Bolivian lowlands. Turning to the north in a magnificent curve, it

passes around the south-east extremity of the Sierra de Cochabamba,

skirts the Llanos de Chiquitos, and, turning to the north-west, unites

with the Mamore at Junta de los Rios in about 15 deg. 20' S. lat. and 64

deg. 40' W. long. It has a tortuous course of over 700 m., which is

described as not navigable. The principal tributaries of the Guapay are

the Mizque, Piray or Sara and Yapacani, the last rising on the east

slopes of the Cordillera Real, flowing east by Cochabamba to the

sierras of that name where it breaks through with a great bend to the

north. The other large Bolivian tributaries of the Mamore, all rising on

the north-east flanks of the Andes, are the Chapare, Secure, Manique or

Apere and Yacuma, the last draining a region of lakes and swamps north

of the Sierra Chamaya. The Beni and its great affluent, the Madre de

Dios, though of smaller volume and extent than the Mamore, are of much

greater economic importance, owing to their navigability, the fertility

of the region they drain, and the great forests along their banks. North

of the Beni, the Abuna flows into the Madeira. Several of its south

tributaries belong to Bolivia. The Guapore, or Itenez, an affluent of

the Mamore, is the third large river of this Bolivian drainage basin,

but it rises in Brazil, on the south slopes of the Sierra dos Parecis,

where it flows in a great bend to the south and then west of north to

the Bolivian frontier in 14 deg. S. lat. From this point to its junction

with the Mamore, a little north of the 12th parallel, it flows in a

northwesterly direction and forms the boundary line between the two

republics. Its Brazilian tributaries are comparatively unimportant, but

from Bolivia it receives the Baures and the San Miguel, both rising in

the Sierras de Chiquitos and flowing north-west across the llanos to the

Guapore. The Baures has one large tributary, the Blanco, and the Itonama

(San Miguel) has its origin in Lake Conception, lying among the west

ranges of the Chiquitos mountains 952 ft. above sea-level.

The south-east drainage basin, which is smaller and economically less

important than that of the Madeira, discharges into the Paraguay and

extends from the Sierras de Chiquitos south to the Argentine frontier,

and from the Cordillera Oriental east to the Paraguay. It possesses only

one large river in Bolivia, the Pilcomayo, which rises on the east

slopes of the Cordillera Oriental opposite the south end of Lake Pampa

Aullaguas and flows east and south-east through the sierra region to the

Bolivian Chaco. It flows through a nearly level country with so sluggish

a current that its channels are greatly obstructed. Nothing definite is

known of its tributaries in the Chaco, but in the sierra region it

possesses a number of small tributaries, the largest of which are the

Cachimayo, Mataca and Pilaya or Camblaya, the latter formed by the

Cotagaita and San Juan. The Bermejo, which is an Argentine river,

receives one large tributary from the Bolivian uplands, the Tarija or

Rio Grande, which drains a small district south-east of the Santa

Victoria sierra. The Bolivian tributaries of the upper Paraguay are

small and unimportant. The Otuquis, the most southern of the group, is

formed by the San Rafael and Tucabaca, which drain both slopes of the

Cerro Cochii range; but is lost in some great marshes 50 m. from the

Paraguay. Another considerable stream of this region, which is lost in

the great marshy districts of the Bolivian plain, is the Parapiti, which

rises on the eastern slopes of the Sierra de Misiones and flows

north-east through a low plain for about 150 m. until lost.

The third drainage basin is that of the great central plateau, or

_alta-planicie_. This is one of the most elevated lacustrine basins in

the world, and though it once drained eastward, now has no surface

outlet. Lake Titicaca receives the waters of several short streams from

the neighbouring heights and discharges through the Desaguadero, a

sluggish river flowing south for 184 m. with a gradually diminishing

depth to Lake Pampa Aullaguas or Poopo. The Desaguadero is navigable for

small craft, and has two or three small tributaries from the west. Two

small streams empty into Lake Pampa Aullaguas, which has a small outlet

in the Lacahahuira flowing west for 60 m. to the Cienegas de

(salt-swamps of) Coipasa. The drainage of this extensive district seems

to be wholly absorbed by the dry soil of the desert and by evaporation.

In the extreme south the Rio Grande de Lipez is absorbed in the same

way.

Few of the Bolivian lakes are at all well known. The great lacustrine

basin between the Beni and the Mamore contains several lakes and

lagoons, two of them of large size. These are Lake Rogagua whose waters

find their way into the Beni through Rio Negro, and the Roguaguado

lagoon and marshes which cover a large area of territory near the

Mamore. The latter has an elevation little, if any, above the level of

the Mamore, which apparently drains this region, and its area has been

estimated at about 580 sq. m. Lake Conception, in the Chiquitos

mountains, belongs to this same hydrographic area. In the south-east

there are several large shallow lakes whose character and size change

with the season. They fill slight depressions and are caused by

defective drainage. Near the Paraguay there are several of these lakes,

partly caused by obstructed outlets, such as Bahia Negra, Caceres,

Mandiore, Gaiba and Uberaba, some of them of sufficient depth to be

navigable by small craft. Above the latter are the great Xarayes swamps,

sometimes described as a lake. This region, like that of the north, is

subject to periodical inundations in the summer months (November-March

or even May), when extensive areas of level country are flooded and

traffic is possible only by the use of boats. The two principal lakes of

the plateau region are Titicaca and Pampa Aullaguas or Poopo. The former

lies near the north end of the great Bolivian _alta-planicie_, 12,644

ft. above sea-level, being one of the most elevated lakes of the world.

It is indented with numerous bays and coves; its greatest length is 138

m., and its greatest breadth 69 m. According to a survey made by Dr M.

Neveau-Lemaire (_La Geographie_, ix. p. 409, Paris, 1904), its water

surface, excluding islands and peninsulas, is 1969 sq. m., and its

greatest depth is 892 ft. The level of the lake rises about 5 in. in

summer; the loss in winter is even greater. The lake belongs to both

Bolivia and Peru, and is navigated by steamers running between Bolivian

ports and the Peruvian railway port of Puno. The outlet of the lake is

through the Desaguadero river. It has several islands, the largest of

which bears the same name and contains highly interesting archaeological

monuments of a prehistoric civilization usually attributed to the Incas.

Lake Pampa Aullaguas or Poopo is about 180 m. south-east of Titicaca,

and is fed principally by its outflow. It lies 505 ft. below the level

of Titicaca, which gives an average fall for the Desaguadero of very

nearly 21 ft. per mile. The Pampa Aullaguas has an estimated area of 386

sq. m., and has one large inhabited island. The lake is shallow and the

district about it is sparsely populated. Its outlet is through the

Lacahahuira river into the Coipasa swamp, and it is estimated that the

outflow is much less than the inflow, showing a considerable loss by

evaporation and earth absorption.

Having no sea-coast, Bolivia has no seaport except what may be granted

in usufruct by Chile.

_Geology._--The eastern ranges of ihe Bolivian Andes are formed of

Palaeozoic rocks with granitic and other intrusions; the Western

Cordillera consists chiefly of Jurassic and Cretaceous beds, together

with the lavas and ashes of the great volcanoes; while the intervening

plateau is covered by freshwater and terrestrial deposits through

which rise ridges of Palaeozoic rock and of a series of red sandstones

and gypsiferous marls of somewhat uncertain age (probably, in part at

least, Cretaceous). The Palaeozoic beds have yielded fossils of

Cambrian, Ordovician, Devonian and Carboniferous age. In southern

Bolivia Cambrian and Ordovician beds form the greater part of the

eastern Andes, but farther north the Devonian and Carboniferous are

extensively developed, especially in the north-eastern ranges. The

hills, known as the Chiquitos, which rise from the plains of eastern

Bolivia, are composed of ancient sedimentary rocks of unknown age. The

Palaeozoic beds are directly overlaid by a series of red sandstones

and gypsiferous marls, similar to the _formacion petrolifera_ of

Argentina and Brazil. At the base there is frequently a conglomerate

or tuff of porphyritic rocks. Marine fossils found by Gustav Steinmann

in the middle of the series are said to indicate an age not earlier

than the Jurassic, and Steinmann refers them to the Lower Cretaceous.

It is, however, not improbable that the series may represent more than

one geological system. No later marine deposits have been found either

in the eastern Andes or in the plains of Bolivia, but freshwater beds

of Tertiary and later date occupy a wide area. The recent deposits,

which cover so large a part of the depression between the Eastern and

the Western Cordillera, appear to be partly of torrential origin, like

the talus-fans at the foot of mountain ranges in other dry regions;

but Lakes Titicaca and Pampa Aullaguas (Poopo) were undoubtedly at one

time rather more extensive than they are to-day. The volcanoes of

Bolivia lie almost entirely in the Western Cordillera--the great

summits of the eastern range, such as Illimani and Sorata, being

formed of Palaeozoic rocks with granitic and other intrusions. The

gold, silver and tin of Bolivia occur chiefly in the Palaeozoic rocks

of the eastern ranges. The copper belongs mostly to the red sandstone

series.

_Climate._--Bolivia lies wholly within the torrid zone, and variations

in temperature are therefore due to elevation, mountain barriers and

prevailing winds. The country possesses every gradation of temperature,

from that of the tropical lowlands to the Arctic cold of the snow-capped

peaks directly above. This vertical arrangement of climatic zones is

modified to some extent (less than in Argentina) by varying rainfall

conditions, which are governed by the high mountain ranges crossing one

corner of the republic, and also by the prevailing winds. The trade

winds give to S. Bolivia a wet and dry season similar to that of N.

Argentina. Farther north, and east of the Cordillera Oriental, rains

fall throughout the year, though the summer months (November-March) are

usually described as the rainy season. On the west side of the

Cordillera, which extracts the moisture from the prevailing easterly

winds, the elevated plateaus have a limited rainfall in the north, which

diminishes toward the south until the surface becomes absolutely barren.

Brief and furious rain-storms sometimes sweep the northern plateau, but

these are not frequent and occur during a short season only. Electrical

wind storms are frequent in these high altitudes.

Bolivia has a wide range of temperature between places of the same

latitude. The natives designate the Bolivian climatic zones as

_yungas, valle_ or _medio yungas, cabezera de valle, puna_ and _puna

brava_. The _yungas_ comprises all the lowlands and the mountain

valleys up to an elevation of 5000 ft. The temperature is tropical,

winter is unknown and the atmosphere is exceedingly humid. The mean

temperature, according to official estimates, is 70 deg. F., but this

probably represents the average between the higher elevations and the

low country. The _valle_ zone includes the deep valleys from 5000 to

9500 ft., has a warm climate with moderate variations in temperature

and no cold weather, is sub-tropical in character and productions, and

is sometimes described as a region of perpetual summer. The _cabezera

de valle_, as the name indicates, includes the heads of the deep

valleys above the _valle_ zone, with elevations ranging from 9500 to

11,000 ft.; its climate is temperate, is divided into regular seasons,

and is favourable to the production of cereals and vegetables. The

_puna_, which lies between 11,000 and 12,500 ft., includes the great

central plateau of Bolivia. It has but two seasons, a cold summer or

autumn and winter. The air is cold and dry, and the warmer season is

too short for the production of anything but potatoes and barley. The

mean temperature is officially estimated as 54 deg. F. The _puna

brava_ extends from 12,500 ft. up to the snow limit (about 17,500

ft.), and covers a bleak, inhospitable territory, inhabited only by

shepherds and miners. Above this is the region of eternal snow, an

Arctic zone within the tropics. In general, the sub-tropical (_valle_)

and temperate (_cabezera de valle_) regions of Bolivia are healthy and

agreeable, have a plentiful rainfall, moderate temperature in the

shade, and varied and abundant products. There is a high rate of

mortality among the natives, due to unsanitary habits and diet, and

not to the climate. In the tropical _yungas_ the ground is covered

with decaying vegetation, and malaria and fevers are common. There are

localities in the open country and on exposed elevations where healthy

conditions prevail, but the greater part of this region is considered

unhealthy. The prevailing winds are easterly, bringing moisture across

Brazil from the Atlantic, but eastern Bolivia is also exposed to hot,

oppressive winds from the north, and to violent cold winds (_surazos_)

from the Argentine plains, which have been known to cause a fall of

temperature of 36 deg. within a few hours. According to the _Sinopsis

Estadistica y Geografica de la Republica de Bolivia_ (La Paz, 1903),

the average mean temperature and the annual rainfall in eastern

Bolivia are as follows: 10 deg. S. lat., 90.8 deg. F. and 31.5 in.

rainfall; 15 deg. S. lat., 86 deg. F. and 30.7 in. rainfall; 20 deg.

S. lat., 81 deg. F. and 30 in. rainfall; and 25 deg. S. lat., 76.8

deg. F. and 29.3 in. rainfall.

_Fauna._--The indigenous fauna of Bolivia corresponds closely to that of

the neighbouring districts of Argentina, Brazil and Peru. Numerous

species of monkeys inhabit the forests of the tropical region, together

with the puma, jaguar, wildcat, coati, tapir or _anta_, sloth, ant-bear,

paca (_Coelogenys paca_) and capybara. A rare species of bear, the

_Ursus ornatus_ (spectacled bear) is found among the wooded Andean

foothills. The chinchilla (_C. laniger_), also found in northern

Argentina and Chile, inhabits the colder plateau regions and is prized

for its fur. The plateau species of the viscacha (_Lagidium cuvieri_)

and the widely distributed South American otter (_Lutra paranensis_) are

also hunted for their skins. The peccary, which prefers a partially open

country, ranges from the Chaco to the densely wooded districts of the

north. There are two or three species of deer, the most common being the

large marsh deer of the Chaco; but the deer are not numerous. The

armadillo, opossum, ferret and skunk are widely distributed. The

amphibia are well represented throughout the lower tropical districts.

Alligators are found in the tributaries of the Paraguay and their

lagoons, lizards and turtles are numerous, and the batrachians are

represented by several species. Snakes are also numerous, including

rattlesnakes and the great boa-constrictors of the Amazon region.

The most interesting of all the Bolivian animals, however, are the

guanaco (_Auchenia huanaco_) and its congeners, the llama (_A. llama_),

alpaca (_A. pacos_) and vicuna (_A. vicugna_), belonging to the

Camelidae, with the structure and habits of the African camel, but

smaller, having no hump, and inhabiting a mountainous and not a level

sandy region. They are able to go without food and drink for long

periods, and inhabit the arid and semi-arid plateaus of the Andes and

the steppes of Patagonia. The guanaco is supposed to be the original

type, is the largest of the four, and has the greatest range from Peru

to Tierra del Fuego. The llama and alpaca were domesticated long before

the discovery of America, but the guanaco and vicuna are found in a wild

state only. The llama is used as a pack animal in Bolivia and Peru, and

its coarse wool is used in the making of garments for the natives. The

alpaca is highly prized for its fine wool, which is a staple export from

Bolivia, but the animal is reared with difficulty and the product cannot

be largely increased. The vicuna also is celebrated for its wool, which

the natives weave into beautiful and costly _ponchos_ (blanket cloaks)

and other wearing apparel. The guanaco is hunted for its skin, which,

when dressed, makes an attractive rug or robe. The slaughter of the

guanaco and vicuna is rapidly diminishing their number. The rearing of

llamas and alpacas is a recognized industry in the Bolivian highlands

and is wholly in the hands of the Indians, who alone seem to understand

the habits and peculiarities of these interesting animals.

Of birds and insects the genera and species are very numerous and

interesting. The high sierras are frequented by condors and eagles of

the largest size, and the whole country by the common vulture, while the

American ostrich (_Rhea americanus_) and a species of large stork (the

_bata_ or _jaburu_, _Mycteria americana_; maximum height, 8 ft.; spread

of wings, 8 ft. 6 in.) inhabit the tropical plains and valleys.

Waterfowl are numerous and the forests of the warm valleys are filled

with song-birds and birds of beautiful plumage. Many species of

humming-birds are found even far up in the mountains, and great numbers

of parrots, araras and toucans, beautiful of feather but harsh of voice,

enliven the forests of the lowlands.

Like other South American states, Bolivia benefited greatly from the

introduction of European animals. Horses, cattle, sheep, goats, swine

and poultry were introduced, and are now sources of food and wealth to a

large part of the population. Mules are used to a large extent as pack

animals, but they are imported from Argentina. Silkworms have been bred

with success in some departments, and the cochineal insect is found

wherever the conditions are favourable for the cactus.

_Flora._--Owing to the diversities in altitude the flora of Bolivia

represents every climatic zone, from the scanty Arctic vegetation of the

lofty Cordilleras to the luxuriant tropical forests of the Amazon basin.

Between these extremes the diversity in vegetable life is as great as

that of climate and soil. The flora of Bolivia has been studied less

than the flora of the neighbouring republics, however, because of the

inaccessibility of these inland regions. Among the more important

productions, the potato, oca (_Oxalis tuberosa_), quinoa (_Chenopodium

quinoa_) and some coarse grasses characterize the puna region, while

barley, an exotic, is widely grown for fodder. Indian corn was

cultivated in the temperate and warm regions long before the advent of

Europeans, who introduced wheat, rye, oats, beans, pease and the fruits

and vegetables of the Old World, for each of which a favourable soil and

climate was easily found. In the sub-tropical and tropical zones the

indigenous plants are the sweet potato, cassava (_Manihot utilissima_

and _M. aipi_), peanuts, pineapple, guava, chirimoya (_Anona

cherimolia_), pawpaw (_Carica papaya_), _ipecacuanha_ (_Cephaelis_),

sarsaparilla, vanilla, false jalap (_Mirabilis jalapa_), copaiba, tolu

(_Myroxylon toluiferum_), rubber-producing trees, dyewoods, cotton and

a great number of beautiful hardwoods, such as jacaranda, mahogany,

rosewood, quebracho, colo, cedar, walnut, &c. Among the fruits many of

the most common are exotics, as the orange, lemon, lime, fig, date,

grape, &c., while others, as the banana, caju or cashew (_Anacardium

occidentale_) and aguacate avocado or alligator pear, have a disputed

origin. Coca, one of the most important plants of the country, is

cultivated on the eastern slopes of the Andes at an altitude of 5000 to

6000 ft., where the temperature is uniform and frosts are unknown. Quina

or calisaya is a natural product of the eastern Andes, and is found at

an altitude of 3000 to 9000 ft. above sea-level. The calisaya trees of

Bolivia rank among the best, and their bark forms an important item in

her foreign trade. The destructive methods of collecting the bark are

steadily diminishing the natural sources of supply, and experiments in

cinchona cultivation were undertaken during the last quarter of the 19th

century, with fair prospects of success. The most important of the

indigenous forest products, however, is rubber, derived principally from

the _Hevea guayanensis_ (var. _brasiliensis_), growing along the river

courses in the _yungas_ regions of the north, though Manicoba rubber is

also obtained from _Manihot Glaziovii_ on the drier uplands. Among the

exotics, sugar-cane, rice and tobacco are cultivated in the warm

districts.

_Population._--The population of Bolivia is composed of Indians,

Caucasians of European origin, and a mixture of the two races, generally

described as _mestizos_. There is also a very small percentage of

Africans, descendants of the negro slaves introduced in colonial times.

A roughly-taken census of 1900 gives the total population as 1,816,271,

including the Litoral department, now belonging to Chile (49,820), and

estimates the number of wild Indians of the forest regions at 91,000. Of

this total, 50.7% were classed as Indians, 12.8% as whites, 26.8% as

_mestizos_, 0.3% as negroes, and 9.4% as unknown. In 1904 an official

estimate made the population 2,181,415, also including the Litoral

(59,784), but of course all census returns and estimates in such a

country are subject to many allowances. The Indian population (920,860)

is largely composed of the so-called civilized tribes of the Andes,

which once formed part of the nationality ruled by the Incas, and of

those of the Mojos and Chiquitos regions, which were organized into

industrial communities by the Jesuits in the l7th century. The former,

which are chiefly Aymaras south of the latitude of Lake Titicaca,

attained a considerable degree of civilization before the discovery of

America and have been in closer contact with Europeans than the other

tribes of Bolivia. It is doubtful, however, whether their condition has

been improved under these influences. The Mojos and Chiquitos tribes,

also, have been less prosperous since the expulsion of the Jesuits, but

they have remained together in organized communities, and have followed

the industries and preserved the religion taught them as well as

circumstances permitted. Both these groups of Indians are peaceable and

industrious, and form an important labouring element. They are addicted

to the excessive use of _chica_ (a native beer made from Indian corn),

and have little or no ambition to improve their condition, but this may

be attributed in part to their profound ignorance and to the state of

peonage in which they are held. Inhabiting the southern part of the

Bolivian plain are the Chiriguanos, a detached tribe of the Guarani race

which drifted westward to the vicinity of the Andes long ago. They are

of a superior physical and mental type, and have made noteworthy

progress toward civilization. They are agriculturists and stock-raisers

and have the reputation of being peaceable and industrious. The

remaining native tribes under the supervision of the state have made

little progress, and their number is said to be decreasing

(notwithstanding the favourable climatic conditions under which most of

them live) because of unsanitary and intemperate habits, and for other

causes not well understood, one being the custom noticed by early

travellers among some of the tribes of the La Plata region of avoiding

the rearing of children. (See Southey's _History of Brazil_, iii. pp.

402, 673.) Of the wild Indians very little is known in regard to either

numbers or customs.

The white population (231,088) is descended in great part from the early

Spanish adventurers who entered the country in search of mineral wealth.

To these have been added a small number of Spanish Americans from

neighbouring republics and some Portuguese Americans from Brazil. There

has been no direct immigration from Europe, though Europeans of various

nationalities have found their way into the country and settled there as

miners or traders. The percentage of whites therefore does not increase

as in Argentina and Brazil, and cannot until means are found to promote

European immigration.

The _mestizos_ (486,018) are less numerous than the Indians, but

outnumber the whites by more than two to one. It has been said of the

_mestizos_ elsewhere that they inherit the vices of both races and the

virtues of neither. Yet, with a decreasing Indian population, and with a

white population wanting in energy, barely able to hold its own and

comprising only one-eighth of the total, the future of Bolivia mainly

depends on them. As a rule they are ignorant, unprogressive and

apathetic, intensely superstitious, cruel and intemperate, though

individual strong characters have been produced. It may be that

education and experience will develop the _mestizos_ into a vigorous

progressive nationality, but the first century of self-government can

hardly be said to have given much promise of such a result.

_Divisions and Towns._--The republic is divided into eight departments

and one territory, and these are subdivided into 54 provinces, 415

cantons, 232 vice-cantons, 18 missions and one colony. The names, areas

and populations of the departments, with their capitals, according to

the census of 1900, to which corrections must be made on account of the

loss of territory to Brazil in 1903, are as follows:--

+----------------+-------------+----------+--------------+----------+

| | Area sq. m. |Population| |Population|

| Department. |from Official| 1900.[*] | Capitals. | 1900. |

| | Sources. | | | |

+----------------+-------------+----------+--------------+----------+

| La Paz | 53,777 | 445,616 | La Paz | 54,713 |

| El Beni | 102,111 | 32,180 | Trinidad | 2,556 |

| Oruro | 19,127 | 86,081 | Oruro | 13,575 |

| Cochabamba | 23,328 | 328,163 | Cochabamba | 21,886 |

| Santa Cruz | 141,368 | 209,592 | Santa Cruz de| 15,874 |

| | | | la Sierra | |

| Potosi | 48,801 | 325,615 | Potosi | 20,910 |

| Chuquisaca | 26,418 | 204,434 | Sucre | 20,967 |

| Tarija | 33,036 | 102,887 | Tarija | 6,980 |

| Nat. Territory | 192,260 | 31,883 | | |

+----------------+-------------+----------+--------------+----------+

| | 640,226 |1,766,451 | | |

+----------------+-------------+----------+--------------+----------+

[*] The figures for population include a 5% addition for omissions,

sundry corrections and the estimated number of wild Indians.

The total area according to Gotha computations, with corrections for

loss of territory to Brazil in 1903, is 515,156 sq. m.

There are no populous towns other than the provincial capitals above

enumerated. Four of these capitals--Sucre or Chuquisaca, La Paz,

Cochabamba and Oruro--have served as the national capital, and Sucre was

chosen, but after the revolution of 1898 the capital was at La Paz,

which is the commercial metropolis and is more accessible than Sucre.

Among the smaller towns prominent because of an industry or commercial

position, may be mentioned the Huanchaca mining centre of Pulacayo (pop.

6512), where 3200 men are employed in the mines and surface works of

this great silver mining company; Uyuni (pop. 1587), the junction of the

Pulacayo branch with the Antofagasta and Oruro railway, and also the

converging point for several important highways and projected railways;

and Tupiza (pop. 1644), a commercial and mining centre near the

Argentine frontier, and the terminus of the Argentine railway extension

into Bolivia. All these towns are in the department of Potosi. Viacha

(pop. 1670), a small station on the railway from Guaqui to Alto de La

Paz, 14 m. from the latter, is the starting point of an important

projected railway to Oruro. In the department of Cochabamba, Tarata

(4681) and Totora (3501) are two important trading centres, and in the

department of Santa Cruz, Ascension (pop. 4784) is a large mission

station in the Chiquitos hills.

_Communications._--Under a treaty with Brazil in 1903 and with Chile in

1904 (ratified 1905) provisions were made for railway construction in

Bolivia to bring this isolated region into more effective communication

with the outside world. Brazil agreed to construct a railway around the

falls of the Madeira (about 180 m. long) to give north-eastern Bolivia

access to the Amazon, and paid down L2,000,000 in cash which Bolivia was

to expend on railway construction within her own territory. Chile also

agreed to construct a railway from Arica to La Paz, 295 m. (the Bolivian

section becoming the property of Bolivia fifteen years after

completion), and to pay the interest (not over 5%) which Bolivia might

guarantee on the capital invested in certain interior railways if

constructed within thirty years, providing these interest payments

should not exceed L100,000 a year, nor exceed L1,600,000 in the

aggregate. Argentina had already undertaken to extend her northern

railway from Jujuy to the Bolivian frontier town of Tupiza, and the

Peruvian Corporation had constructed for the Bolivian government a short

line (54 m. long) from Guaqui, on Lake Titicaca, to Alto de La Paz,

which is connected with the city of La Paz, 1493 ft. below, by an

electric line 5 m. long. This line gives La Paz access to the Peruvian

port of Mollendo, 496 m. distant, and promises in time to give it

railway communication with Cuzco. Rivalry for the control of her trade,

therefore, promises to give Bolivia the railways needed for the

development of her resources. Up to 1903 the only railways in Bolivia

were the Antofagasta and Oruro line, with a total length of 574 m., of

which 350 m. are within Bolivian territory, a private branch of that

line (26 m. long) running to the Pulacayo mines, and the line (54 m.

long) from Guaqui to Alto de La Paz--a total of only 430 m. As a result

of her war with Chile in 1878-81, the railways (282 m. long) of her

Litoral department passed under Chilean control. Lines were in 1907

projected from La Paz to the navigable waters of the Beni, from La Paz

to Cochabamba, from Viacha to Oruro, from Uyuni to Potosi and Sucre,

from Uyuni to Tupiza, and from Arica to La Paz via Corocoro. The central

northern line of the Argentine government was completed to the Bolivian

frontier in 1908, and this line was designed to extend to Tupiza. The

undertaking of the Arica-La Paz line by the Chilean government, also,

was an important step towards the improvement of the economic situation

in Bolivia. Both these lines offer the country new outlets for its

products.

Public highways have been constructed between the large cities and to

some points on the frontiers, and subsidized stage coaches are run on

some of them. The roads are rough and at times almost impassable,

however, and the river crossings difficult and dangerous. The large

cities are connected with one another by telegraph lines and are in

communication with the outside world through Argentina, Chile and Peru.

Telegraph service dates from 1880, and in 1904 there were 3115 m. in

operation, of which 1936 belonged to the state and 1179 to private

corporations. The latter includes the lines belonging to the Antofagasta

and Oruro railway, which are partly within Chilean territory. Bolivia is

a member of the International Postal Union, and has parcel and money

order conventions with some foreign countries. Special agreements have

been made, also, with Argentina, Chile and Peru for the transmission of

the Bolivian foreign mails.

The loss of her maritime department has left Bolivia with no other ports

than those of Lake Titicaca (especially Guaqui, or Huaqui, which trades

with the Peruvian port of Puno), and those of the Madeira and Paraguay

rivers and their affluents. As none of these can be reached without

transhipment in foreign territory, the cost of transport is increased,

and her neighbours are enabled to exclude Bolivia from direct commercial

intercourse with other nations. An exception formerly existed at Puerto

Acre, on the Acre river, to which ocean-going steamers could ascend from

Para, but Brazil first closed the Purus and Acre rivers to foreign

vessels seeking this port, and then under a treaty of 1903 acquired

possession of the port and adjacent territory. Since then Bolivia's

outlet to the Amazon is restricted to the Madeira river, the navigation

of which is interrupted by a series of falls before Bolivian territory

is reached. The Bolivian port of entry for this trade, Villa Bella, is

situated above the falls of the Madeira at the confluence of the Beni

and Mamore, and is reached from the lower river by a long and costly

portage. It is also shut off from the navigable rivers above by the

falls of the Beni and Mamore. The railway to be built by Brazil will

remedy this unfavourable situation, will afford a better outlet for

north-eastern Bolivia, and should promote a more rapid development of

that region, which is covered with an admirable system of navigable

rivers above the falls of the Beni and Mamore. Connected with the upper

Paraguay are Puerto Pacheco on Bahia Negra, Puerto Suarez (about 1600 m.

from Buenos Aires by river), on Lake Caceres, through which passes the

bulk of Bolivian trade in that direction, and Puerto Quijarro, on Lake

Gaiba, a projected port said to be more accessible than any other in

this region. Whenever the trade of southern Bolivia becomes important

enough to warrant the expense of opening a navigable channel in the

Pilcomayo, direct river communication with Buenos Aires and Montevideo

will be possible.

_Industries._--Stock-raising was one of the earliest industries of the

country after that of mining. Horses, formerly successfully raised in

certain parts of the north, have not flourished there since the

introduction of a _peste_ from Brazil, but some are now raised in La Paz

and other departments of the temperate region. The Jesuit founders of

the Mojos missions took cattle with them when they entered that region

to labour among the Indians, with the result that the Mojos and

Chiquitos llanos were soon well stocked, and have since afforded an

unfailing supply of beef for the neighbouring inland markets. Their

inaccessibility and the costs of transportation have prevented a

development of the industry and a consequent improvement in stock, but

the persistency of the industry under conditions so unfavourable is

evidence that the soil and climate are suited to its requirements.

Farther south the llanos of Chuquisaca and Tarija also sustain large

herds of cattle on the more elevated districts, and on the well-watered

plains of the Chaco. There are small districts in La Paz, Potosi and

Cochabamba, also, where cattle are raised. Apart from the cattle driven

into the mining districts for consumption, a number of _saladeros_ are

employed in preparing (usually salting and sun-drying) beef for the home

markets. The hides are exported. Goats are raised in the warm and

temperate regions, and sheep for their wool in the latter. On the higher

and colder plateaus much attention is given to the breeding of llamas

and alpacas. Another industry of a different character is that of

breeding the fur-bearing chinchilla (_C. laniger_), which is a native of

the higher plateaus. The Bolivian government has prohibited the

exportation of the live animals and is encouraging their production.

The agricultural resources of the republic are varied and of great

value, but their development has been slow and hesitating. The

cultivation of cereals, fruits and vegetables in the temperate and warm

valleys of the Andes followed closely the mining settlements. Sugar-cane

also was introduced at an early date, but as the demand for sugar was

limited the product was devoted chiefly to the manufacture of rum, which

is the principal object of cane cultivation in Bolivia to-day. The

climatic conditions are highly favourable for this product in eastern

Bolivia, but it is heavily taxed and is restricted to a small home

market. Rice is another exotic grown in the tropical districts of

eastern Bolivia, but the quantity produced is far from sufficient to

meet local requirements. Tobacco of a fair quality is produced in the

warm regions of the east, including the _yungas_ valleys of La Paz and

Cochabamba; cacao of a superior grade is grown in the department of

Beni, where large orchards were planted at the missions, and also in the

warm Andean valleys of La Paz and Cochabamba; and coffee of the best

flavour is grown in some of the warmer districts of the eastern Andes.

The two indigenous products which receive most attention, perhaps, are

those of quinoa and coca. Quinoa is grown in large quantities, and is a

staple article of food among the natives. Coca is highly esteemed by

the natives, who masticate the leaf, and is also an article of export

for medicinal purposes. It is extensively cultivated in the departments

of Cochabamba and La Paz, especially in the province of Yungas.

In the exploitation of her forest products, however, are to be found the

industries that yield the greatest immediate profit to Bolivia. The most

prominent and profitable of these is that of rubber-collecting, which

was begun in Bolivia between 1880 and 1890, and which reached a

registered annual output of nearly 3500 metric tons just before

Bolivia's best rubber forests were transferred to Brazil in 1903. There

still remain extensive areas of forest on the Beni and Madre de Dios in

which the rubber-producing _Hevea_ is to be found. Although representing

less value in the aggregate, the collecting of cinchona bark is one of

the oldest forest industries of Bolivia, which is said still to have

large areas of virgin forest to draw upon. The Bolivian product is of

the best because of the high percentage of quinine sulphate which it

yields. The industry is destructive in method, and the area of cinchona

forests is steadily diminishing. Many other Bolivian plants are

commercially valuable, and organized industry and trade in them will

certainly be profitable.

The industrial activities of the Bolivian people are still of a very

primitive character. An act was passed in 1894 authorizing the

government to offer premiums and grant advantageous concessions for the

development of manufacturing industries, especially in sugar production,

but conditions have not been favourable and the results have been

disappointing. Spinning and weaving are carried on among the people as a

household occupation, and fabrics are made of an exceptionally

substantial character. It is not uncommon to see the natives busily

twirling their rude spindles as they follow their troops of pack animals

over rough mountain roads, and the yarn produced is woven into cloth in

their own houses on rough Spanish looms of colonial patterns. Not only

is coarse cloth for their own garments made in this manner from the

fleece of the llama, but cotton and woollen goods of a serviceable

character are manufactured, and still finer fabrics are woven from the

wool of the alpaca and vicuna, sometimes mixed with silk or lamb's wool.

The Indian women are expert weavers, and their handiwork often commands

high prices. In the Mojos and Chiquitos districts the natives were

taught by the Jesuit missionaries to weave an excellent cotton cloth,

and the industry still exists. Cashmere, baize, waterproof _ponchos_ of

fine wool and silk, and many other fabrics are made by the Indians of

the Andean departments. They are skilled in the use of dyes, and the

Indian women pride themselves on a large number of finely-woven,

brilliantly-coloured petticoats. Tanning and saddlery are carried on by

the natives with primitive methods, but with excellent results. They are

skilful in the preparation of lap robes and rugs from the skins of the

alpaca and vicuna. The home markets are supplied, by native industry,

with cigars and cigarettes, soap, candles, hats, gloves, starch, cheese

and pottery. Sugar is still made in the old way, and there is a small

production of wine and silk in certain districts. No country is better

supplied with water power, and electric lighting and electric power

plants have been established at La Paz.

_Commerce._--The foreign trade of Bolivia is comparatively unimportant,

but the statistical returns are incomplete and unsatisfactory; the

imports of 1904 aggregated only L1,734,551 in value, and the exports

only L1,851,758. The imports consisted of cottons, woollens, live-stock,

provisions, hardware and machinery, wines, spirits and clothing. The

principal exports were (in 1903) silver and its ores (L636,743), tin and

its ores (L1,039,298), copper ores (L157,609), bismuth (L16,354), other

minerals (L20,948), rubber (L260,559), coca (L28,907), and cinchona

(L9197)--total exports, L2,453,638. These figures, however, do not

correctly represent the aggregates of Bolivian trade, as her imports and

exports passing through Antofagasta, Arica and Mollendo are to a large

extent credited to Chile and Peru. The import trade of Bolivia is

restricted by the poverty of the people. The geographical position

limits the exports to mineral, forest and some pastoral products, owing

to cost of transportation and the tariffs of neighbouring countries.

_Government._--The government of Bolivia is a "unitarian" or centralized

republic, representative in form, but autocratic in some important

particulars. The constitution in force (1908) was adopted on the 28th of

October 1880, and is a model in form and profession. The executive

branch of the government is presided over by a president and two

vice-presidents, who are elected by direct popular vote for a period of

four years, and are not eligible for re-election for the next succeeding

term. The president is assisted by a cabinet of five ministers of state,

viz.: foreign relations and worship; finance and industry; interior and

fomento; justice and public instruction; war and colonization. Every

executive act must be countersigned by a minister of state, who is held

responsible for its character and enforcement, and may be prosecuted

before the supreme court for its illegality and effects. The legislative

branch is represented by a national congress of two houses--a Senate and

Chamber of Deputies. The Senate is composed of 16 members, two from each

department, who are elected by direct popular vote for a period of six

years, one-third retiring every two years. The Chamber of Deputies is

composed of 72 members, who are elected for a period of four years,

one-half retiring every two years. In impeachment trials the Chamber

prosecutes and the Senate sits as a court, as in the United States. One

of the duties of the Chamber is to elect the justices of the supreme

court. Congress meets annually and its sessions are for sixty days,

which may be extended to ninety days. The chambers have separate and

concurrent powers defined by the constitution. The right of suffrage is

exercised by all male citizens, twenty-one years of age, or over, if

single, and eighteen years, or over, if married, who can read and write,

and own real estate or have an income of 200 bolivianos a year, said

income not to be compensation for services as a servant. The electoral

body is therefore small, and is under the control of a political

oligarchy which practically rules the country, no matter which party is

in power.

The Bolivian judiciary consists of a national supreme court, eight

superior district courts, lower district courts, and _juzgados de

instruccion_ for the investigation and preparation of cases. The

_corregidores_ and _alcaldes_ also exercise the functions of a justice

of the peace in the cantons and rural districts. The supreme court is

composed of seven justices elected by the Chamber of Deputies from lists

of three names for each seat sent in by the Senate. A justice can be

removed only by impeachment proceedings before the Senate.

The supreme administration in each department is vested in a prefect

appointed by and responsible solely to the president. As the prefect has

the appointment of subordinate department officials, including the

_alcaldes_, the authority of the national executive reaches every hamlet

in the republic, and may easily become autocratic. There are no

legislative assemblies in the departments, and their government rests

with the national executive and congress. Subordinate to the prefects

are the sub-prefects in the provinces, the _corregidores_ in the cantons

and the _alcaldes_ in the rural districts--all appointed officials. The

national territory adjacent to Brazil and Peru is governed by two

_delegados nacionales_, appointees of the president. The department

capitals are provided with municipal councils which have jurisdiction

over certain local affairs, and over the construction and maintenance of

some of the highways.

_Army._--The military forces of the republic in 1905 included 2890

regulars and an enrolled force of 80,000 men, divided into a first

reserve of 30,000, a second reserve of 40,000, and 10,000 territorial

guards. The enrolled force is, however, both unorganized and unarmed.

The strength of the army is fixed in each year's budget. That for 1903

consisted of 2933 officers and men, of which 275 were commissioned and

558 non-commissioned officers, 181 musicians, and only 1906 rank and

file. A conscription law of 1894 provides for a compulsory military

service between the ages of twenty-one and fifty years, with two years'

actual service in the regulars for those between twenty-one and

twenty-five, but the law is practically a dead letter. There is a

military school with 60 cadets, and an arsenal at La Paz.

_Education._--Although Bolivia has a free and compulsory school system,

education and the provision for education have made little progress.

Only a small percentage of the people can read and write. Although

Spanish is the language of the dominant minority, Quichua, Aymara and

Guarani are the languages of the natives, who form a majority of the

population. A considerable percentage of the Indians do not understand

Spanish at all, and they even resist every effort to force it upon them.

Even the _cholos_ (mestizos) are more familiar with the native idioms

than with Spanish, as is the case in some parts of Argentina and

Paraguay. According to official estimates for 1901, the total number of

primary schools in the republic was 733, with 938 teachers and 41,587

pupils--the total cost of their maintenance being estimated at 585,365

bolivianos, or only 14.07 bolivianos per pupil (about L1:4:6). The

school enrolment was only one in 43.7 of population, compared with one

in 10 for Argentina. The schools are largely under the control of the

municipalities, though nearly half of them are maintained by the

national government, by the Church and by private means. There were in

the same year 13 institutions of secondary and 14 of superior

instruction. The latter include so-called universities at Sucre

(Chuquisaca), La Paz, Cochabamba, Tarija, Potosi, Santa Cruz and

Oruro--all of which give instruction in law, the first three in medicine

and the first four in theology. The university at Sucre, which dates

from colonial times, and that at La Paz, are the only ones on the list

sufficiently well equipped to merit the title. Secondary instruction is

under the control of the universities, and public instruction in general

is under the direction of a cabinet minister. All educational matters,

however, are practically under the supervision of the Church. The total

appropriation for educational purposes in 1901 was 756,943 bolivianos,

or L66,232:6s. There are a military academy at La Paz, an agricultural

school at Umala in the department of La Paz, a mining and civil

engineering school at Oruro, commercial schools at Sucre and Trinidad,

and several mission schools under the direction of religious orders.

_Religion._--The constitution of Bolivia, art. 2, defines the attitude

of the republic toward the Church in the following words:--"The state

recognizes and supports the Roman Apostolic Catholic religion, the

public exercise of any other worship being prohibited, except in the

colonies where it is tolerated." This toleration is tacitly extended to

resident foreigners belonging to other religious sects. The census of

1900 enumerated the Roman Catholic population at 1,609,365, and that of

other creeds at 24,245, which gives the former 985 and the latter 15 in

every thousand. The domesticated Indians profess the Roman Catholic

faith, but it is tinged with the superstitions of their ancestors. They

hold the clergy in great fear and reverence, however, and are deeply

influenced by the forms and ceremonies of the church, which have changed

little since the first Spanish settlements. Bolivia is divided into an

archbishopric and three bishoprics. The first includes the departments

of Chuquisaca, Oruro, Potosi, Tarija and the Chilean province of

Antofagasta, with its seat at Sucre, and is known as the archbishopric

of La Plata. The sees of the three bishoprics are La Paz, Cochabamba and

Santa Cruz. Mission work among the Indians is entrusted to the

_Propaganda Fide_, which has five colleges and a large number of

missions, and receives a small subvention from the state. It is

estimated that these missions have charge of fully 20,000 Indians. The

annual appropriation for the Church is about L17,150. The religious

orders, which have never been suppressed in Bolivia, maintain several

convents.

_Finance._--No itemized returns of receipts and expenditures are ever

published, and the estimates presented to congress by the cabinet

ministers furnish the only source from which information can be drawn.

The expenditures are not large, and taxation is not considered heavy.

The estimated revenues and expenditures for 1904 and 1905 at 21 pence

per boliviano, were as follows: 1904, revenue L632,773:15s., expenditure

L748,571:10s.; 1905, revenue L693,763:17:6, expenditure L828,937:19:9.

The revenues are derived principally from duties and fees on imports,

excise taxes on spirits, wines, tobacco and sugar, general, mining

taxes and export duties on minerals (except silver), export duties on

rubber and coca, taxes on the profits of stock companies, fees for

licences and patents, stamp taxes, and postal and telegraph revenues.

Nominally, the import duties are moderate, so much so that Bolivia is

sometimes called a "free-trade country," but this is a misnomer, for in

addition to the schedule rates of 10 to 40% _ad valorem_ on imports,

there are a consular fee of 1-1/2% for the registration of invoices

exceeding 200 bolivianos, a consumption tax of 10 centavos per quintal

(46 kilogrammes), fees for viseing certificates to accompany merchandise

in transit, special "octroi" taxes on certain kinds of merchandise

controlled by monopolies (spirits, tobacco, &c.), and the import and

consumption taxes levied by the departments and municipalities. The

expenditures are chiefly for official salaries, subsidies, public works,

church and mission support, justice, public instruction, military

expenses, and interest on the public debt. The appropriations for 1905

were as follows: war, 2,081,119 bolivianos; finance and industry,

1,462,259; government and fomento, 2,021,428; justice and public

instruction, 1,878,941.

The acknowledged public debt of the country is comparatively small. At

the close of the war with Chile there was an indemnity debt due to

citizens of that republic of 6,550,830 bolivianos, which had been nearly

liquidated in 1904 when Chile took over the unpaid balance. This was

Bolivia's only foreign debt. In 1905 her internal debt, including

1,998,500 bolivianos of treasury bills, amounted to 6,243,270 bolivianos

(L546,286). The government in 1903 authorized the issue of treasury

notes for the department of Beni and the National Territory to the

amount of one million bolivianos (L87,500), for the redemption of which

10% of the customs receipts of the two districts is set apart. The paper

currency of the republic consists of bank-notes issued by four private

banks, and is therefore no part of the public debt. The amount in

circulation on the 30th of June 1903 was officially estimated at

9,144,254 bolivianos (L800,122), issued on a par with silver. The

coinage of the country is of silver, nickel and copper. The silver coins

are of the denominations of 1 boliviano, or 100 centavos, 50, 20, 10 and

5 centavos, and the issue of these coins from the Potosi mint is said to

be about 1,500,000 bolivianos a year. The silver mining companies are

required by law to send to the mint 20% of their product. The silver

boliviano, however, is rarely seen in circulation because of the cheaper

paper currency. To check the exportation of silver coin, the fractional

denominations have been slightly debased. The nickel coins are of 5 and

10 centavos, and the copper 1 and 2 centavos.

The departmental revenues, which are derived from excise and land taxes,

mining grants, tithes, inheritance taxes, tolls, stamp taxes, subsidies

from the national treasury and other small taxes, were estimated at

2,296,172 bolivianos in 1903, and the expenditures at 2,295,791

bolivianos. The expenditures were chiefly for justice, police, public

works, public instruction and the Church. The municipal revenues

aggregated 2,317,670 bolivianos in 1902, and the expenditures 61,510

bolivianos in excess of that sum. These revenues are derived from a

lighting tax, leases and ground rents, cemetery fees, consumption and

market taxes, licences, tolls, taxes on hides and skins, personal and

various minor taxes. There is a multiplication of taxes in trade which

recalls the old colonial _alcabala_ tax, and it serves to restrict

commerce and augment the cost of goods in much the same way, if not to

the same degree.

AUTHORITIES.--M.V. Ballivian, _Apuntes sobre la industria de goma

elastica, &c._ (La Paz, 1896); _Noticia Politica, Geografica,

Industrial, y Estadistica de Bolivia_ (La Paz, 1900); _Breves

Indicaciones para el Inmigrante y el Viajero a Bolivia_ (La Paz,

1898); _Monografias de la Industria Minera en Bolivia_, three parts

(La Paz, 1899-1900); _Relaciones Geograficas de Bolivia existentes en

el Archivo de la Oficina Nacional de Inmigracion, &c._ (La Paz, 1898);

M.V. Ballivian and Eduardo Idiaquez, _Diccionario Geografico de la

Republica de Bolivia_ (La Paz, 1900); Andre Bresson, _Sept annees

d'explorations, de voyages et de sejours dans l'Amerique australe_

(Paris, 1886); Enrique Bolland, _Exploraciones practicadas en el Alto

Paraguay y en la Laguna Gaiba_ (Buenos Aires, 1901); G.E. Church _The

Route to Bolivia via the River Amazon_ (London, 1877); G.E. Church,

"Bolivia by the Rio de la Plata Route," _Geogr. Jour._ xix. pp. 64-73

(London, 1902); C.B. Cisneros and R.E. Garcia, _Geografia Comercial de

la America del Sur_ (Lima, 1898); Sir W.M. Conway, _Climbing and

Exploration in the Bolivian Andes_ (London, 1903); M. Dalence,

_Bosquejo estadistico de Bolivia_ (Chuquisaca, 1878); J.L. Moreno,

_Nociones de geografia de Bolivia_ (Sucre, 1889); Edward D. Mathews,

_Up the Amazon and Madeira Rivers, through Bolivia and Peru_ (London,

1879); Carlos Matzenauer, _Bolivia in historischer, geographischer und

cultureller Hinsicht_ (Vienna, 1897); M.F. Soldan, _Narracion de

Guerra de Chile contra Peru y Bolivia_ (La Paz, 1884); C.M. Pepper,

_Panama to Patagonia_ (Chicago, 1906); A. Petrocokino, _Along the

Andes, in Bolivia, Peru, and Ecuador_ (London, 1903); Comte C.

d'Ursel, _Sud Amerique: Sejours et voyages au Bresil, en Bolivie, &c._

(Paris, 1879); Charles Wiener, _Perou et Bolivie_ (Paris, 1880);

_Bolivia, Geographical Sketch, Natural Resources, &c._, Intern. Bur.

of the American Republics (Washington, 1904); _Boletin de la Oficina

Nacional de Inmigracion, Estadistica y Propaganda Geografica_ (La

Paz); _Sinopsis estadistica y geografica de la Republica de Bolivia_

(3 vols., La Paz, 1902-1904); G. de Crequi-Montfort, "Exploration en

Bolivie," in _La Geographie_, ix. pp. 79-86 (Paris, 1904); M.

Neveau-Lemaire, "Le Titicaca et le Poopo," &c., in _La Geographie_,

ix. pp. 409-430 (Paris, 1904); _British Foreign Office Diplomatic and

Consular Reports_ (London); _United States Consular Reports_;

Stanford's _Compendium of Geography and Travel_, vol. i., _South and

Central America_ (London, 1904). For Geology see A. d'Orbigny, _Voyage

dans l'Amerique meridionale_, vol. iii. pt. iii. (Paris, 1842); D.

Forbes, "On the Geology of Bolivia and Peru," _Quart. Journ. Geol.

Soc._ vol. xvii. (London, 1861), pp. 7-62, pls. i.-iii.; A. Ulrich,

"Palaeozoische Versteinerungen aus Bolivien," _Neues Jahrb. f. Min._

Band viii. (1893), pp. 5-116, pls. i.-v.; G. Steinmann, &c., "Geologie

des sudostlichen Boliviens," _Centralb. f. Min., Jahrg._ (1904), pp.

1-4. (A. J. L.)