There were no kings or lords throughout _The Philippine Islands, 1493-1898 — Volume 16 of 55 1609 Explorations by Early Navigators, Descriptions of the Islands and Their Peoples, Their History and Records of the Catholic Missions, as Related in Contemporaneous Books and Manuscripts, Showing the Political, Economic, Commercial and Religious Conditions of Those Islands from Their Earliest Relations with European Nations to the Close of the Nineteenth Century

them as in the manner of our kingdoms and provinces; but in every

island, and in each province of it, many chiefs were recognized by

the natives themselves. Some were more powerful than others, and

each one had his followers and subjects, by districts and families;

and these obeyed and respected the chief. Some chiefs had friendship

and communication with others, and at times wars and quarrels. [139]

These principalities and lordships were inherited in the male

line and by succession of father and son and their descendants. If

these were lacking, then their brothers and collateral relatives

succeeded. Their duty was to rule and govern their subjects and

followers, and to assist them in their interests and necessities. What

the chiefs received from their followers was to be held by them in

great veneration and respect; and they were served in their wars and

voyages, and in their tilling, sowing, fishing, and the building of

their houses. To these duties the natives attended very promptly,

whenever summoned by their chief. They also paid the chiefs tribute

(which they called _buiz_), in varying quantities, in the crops that

they gathered. The descendants of such chiefs, and their relatives,

even though they did not inherit the lordship, were held in the

same respect and consideration. Such were all regarded as nobles,

and as persons exempt from the services rendered by the others, or

the plebeians, who were called _timaguas_. [140] The same right of

nobility and chieftainship was preserved for the women, just as for

the men. When any of these chiefs was more courageous than others

in war and upon other occasions, such a one enjoyed more followers

and men; and the others were under his leadership, even if they were

chiefs. These latter retained to themselves the lordship and particular

government of their own following, which is called _barangai_ among

them. They had _datos_ and other special leaders [_mandadores_]

who attended to the interests of the barangay.

The superiority of these chiefs over those of their barangai was so

great that they held the latter as subjects; they treated these well

or ill, and disposed of their persons, their children, and their

possessions, at will, without any resistance, or rendering account

to anyone. For very slight annoyances and for slight occasions, they

were wont to kill and wound them, and to enslave them. It has happened

that the chiefs have made perpetual slaves of persons who have gone

by them, while bathing in the river, or who have raised their eyes

to look at them less respectfully and for other similar causes. [141]

When some natives had suits or disputes with others over matters of

property and interest, or over personal injuries and wrongs received,

they appointed old men of the same district, to try them, the parties

being present. If they had to present proofs, they brought their

witnesses there, and the case was immediately judged according to

what was found, according to the usages of their ancestors on like

occasions; and that sentence was observed and executed without any

further objection or delay. [142]

The natives' laws throughout the islands were made in the same manner,

and they followed the traditions and customs of their ancestors,

without anything being written. Some provinces had different customs

than others in some respects. However, they agreed in most, and in

all the islands generally the same usages were followed. [143]

There are three conditions of persons among the natives of these

islands, and into which their government is divided: the chiefs,

of whom we have already treated; the timaguas, who are equivalent to

plebeians; and slaves, those of both chiefs and timaguas.

The slaves were of several classes. Some were for all kinds of work

and slavery, like those which we ourselves hold. Such are called

_saguiguilires_; [144] they served inside the house, as did likewise

the children born of them. There are others who live in their

own houses with their families, outside the house of their lord;

and come, at the season, to aid him in his sowings and harvests,

among his rowers when he embarks, in the construction of his house

when it is being built, and to serve in his house when there are

guests of distinction. These are bound to come to their lord's house

whenever he summons them, and to serve in these offices without any

pay or stipend. These slaves are called _namamahays_, [145] and their

children and descendants are slaves of the same class. From these

slaves--_saguiguilirs_ and _namamahays_--are issue, some of whom are

whole slaves, some of whom are half slaves, and still others one-fourth

slaves. It happens thus: if either the father or the mother was free,

and they had an only child, he was half free and half slave. If they

had more than one child, they were divided as follows: the first

follows the condition of the father, free or slave; the second that

of the mother. If there were an odd number of children, the last was

half free and half slave. Those who descended from these, if children

of a free mother or father, were only one-fourth slaves, because of

being children of a free father or mother and of a half-slave. These

half slaves or one-fourth slaves, whether saguiguilirs or namamahays,

served their masters during every other moon; and in this respect so

is such condition slavery.

In the same way, it may happen in divisions between heirs that a slave

will fall to several, and serves each one for the time that is due

him. When the slave is not wholly slave, but half or fourth, he has

the right, because of that part that is free, to compel his master to

emancipate him for a just price. This price is appraised and regulated

for persons according to the quality of their slavery, whether it be

saguiguilir or namamahay, half slave or quarter slave. But, if he is

wholly slave, the master cannot be compelled to ransom or emancipate

him for any price.

The usual price of a sanguiguilir slave among the natives is, at most,

generally ten taes of good gold, or eighty pesos; if he is namamahay,

half of that sum. The others are in the same proportion, taking into

consideration the person and his age.

No fixed beginning can be assigned as the origin of these kinds of

slavery among these natives, because all the slaves are natives of

the islands, and not strangers. It is thought that they were made in

their wars and quarrels. The most certain knowledge is that the most

powerful made the others slaves, and seized them for slight cause or

occasion, and many times for loans and usurious contracts which were

current among them. The interest, capital, and debt, increased so much

with delay that the borrowers became slaves. Consequently all these

slaveries have violent and unjust beginnings; and most of the suits

among the natives are over these, and they occupy the judges in the

exterior court with them, and their confessors in that of conscience.

[146]

These slaves comprise the greatest wealth and capital of the natives

of these islands, for they are very useful to them and necessary

for the cultivation of their property. They are sold, traded, and

exchanged among them, just as any other mercantile article, from one

village to another, from one province to another, and likewise from

one island to another. Therefore, and to avoid so many suits as would

occur if these slaveries were examined, and their origin and source

ascertained, they are preserved and held as they were formerly.

The marriages of these natives, commonly and generally were, and

are: Chiefs with women chiefs; timaguas with those of that rank; and

slaves with those of their own class. But sometimes these classes

intermarry with one another. They considered one woman, whom they

married, as the legitimate wife and the mistress of the house; and

she was styled _ynasaba_. [147] Those whom they kept besides her

they considered as friends. The children of the first were regarded

as legitimate and whole heirs of their parents; the children of the

others were not so regarded, and were left something by assignment,

but they did not inherit.

The dowry was furnished by the man, being given by his parents. The

wife furnished nothing for the marriage, until she had inherited it

from her parents. The solemnity of the marriage consisted in nothing

more than the agreement between the parents and relatives of the

contracting parties, the payment of the dowry agreed upon to the father

of the bride, [148] and the assembling at the wife's parents' house of

all the relatives to eat and drink until they would fall down. At night

the man took the woman to his house and into his power, and there she

remained. These marriages were annulled and dissolved for slight cause,

with the examination and judgment of the relatives of both parties,

and of the old men, who acted as mediators in the affairs. At such

a time the man took the dowry (which they call _vigadicaya_), [149]

unless it happened that they separated through the husband's fault;

for then it was not returned to him, and the wife's parents kept

it. The property that they had acquired together was divided into

halves, and each one disposed of his own. If one made any profits in

which the other did not have a share or participate, he acquired it

for himself alone.

The Indians were adopted one by another, in presence of the

relatives. The adopted person gave and delivered all his actual

possessions to the one who adopted him. Thereupon he remained

in his house and care, and had a right to inherit with the other

children. [150]

Adulteries were not punishable corporally. If the adulterer paid the

aggrieved party the amount adjudged by the old men and agreed upon

by them, then the injury was pardoned, and the husband was appeased

and retained his honor. He would still live with his wife and there

would be no further talk about the matter.

In inheritances all the legitimate children inherited equally from

their parents whatever property they had acquired. If there were any

movable or landed property which they had received from their parents,

such went to the nearest relatives and the collateral side of that

stock, if there were no legitimate children by an ynasaba. This was

the case either with or without a will. In the act of drawing a will,

there was no further ceremony than to have written it or to have

stated it orally before acquaintances.

If any chief was lord of a barangai, then in that case, the eldest son

of an ynasaba succeeded him. If he died, the second son succeeded. If

there were no sons, then the daughters succeeded in the same order. If

there were no legitimate successors, the succession went to the

nearest relative belonging to the lineage and relationship of the

chief who had been the last possessor of it.

If any native who had slave women made concubines of any of them,

and such slave woman had children, those children were free, as was

the slave. But if she had no children, she remained a slave. [151]

These children by a slave woman, and those borne by a married woman,

were regarded as illegitimate, and did not succeed to the inheritance

with the other children, neither were the parents obliged to leave

them anything. Even if they were the sons of chiefs, they did not

succeed to the nobility or chieftainship of the parents, nor to their

privileges, but they remained and were reckoned as plebeians and in

the number and rank of the other timaguas.

The contracts and negotiations of these natives were generally illegal,

each one paying attention to how he might better his own business

and interest.

Loans with interest were very common and much practiced, and the

interest incurred was excessive. The debt doubled and increased all

the time while payment was delayed, until it stripped the debtor of

all his possessions, and he and his children, when all their property

was gone, became slaves. [152]

Their customary method of trading was by bartering one thing for

another, such as food, cloth, cattle, fowls, lands, houses, fields,

slaves, fishing-grounds, and palm-trees (both nipa and wild). Sometimes

a price intervened, which was paid in gold, as agreed upon, or in metal

bells brought from China. These bells they regard as precious jewels;

they resemble large pans and are very sonorous. [153] They play upon

these at their feasts, and carry them to the war in their boats instead

of drums and other instruments. There are often delays and terms for

certain payments, and bondsmen who intervene and bind themselves,

but always with very usurious and excessive profits and interests.

Crimes were punished by request of the aggrieved parties. Especially

were thefts punished with greater severity, the robbers being enslaved

or sometimes put to death. [154] The same was true of insulting words,

especially when spoken to chiefs. They had among themselves many

expressions and words which they regarded as the highest insult,

when said to men and women. These were pardoned less willingly and

with greater difficulty than was personal violence, such as wounding

and assaulting. [155]

Concubinage, rape, and incest, were not regarded at all, unless

committed by a timagua on the person of a woman chief. It was

a quite ordinary practice for a married man to have lived a long

time in concubinage with the sister of his wife. Even before having

communication with his wife he could have had access for a long

time to his mother-in-law, especially if the bride were very young,

and until she were of sufficient age. This was done in sight of all

the relatives.

Single men are called _bagontaos_, [156] and girls of marriageable age,

_dalagas_. Both classes are people of little restraint, and from early

childhood they have communication with one another, and mingle with

facility and little secrecy, and without this being regarded among

the natives as a cause for anger. Neither do the parents, brothers,

or relatives, show any anger, especially if there is any material

interest in it, and but little is sufficient with each and all.

As long as these natives lived in their paganism, it was not known

that they had fallen into the abominable sin against nature. But after

the Spaniards had entered their country, through communication with

them--and still more, through that with the Sangleys, who have come

from China, and are much given to that vice--it has been communicated

to them somewhat, both to men and to women. In this matter it has

been necessary to take action.

The natives of the islands of Pintados, especially the women, are very

vicious and sensual. Their perverseness has discovered lascivious

methods of communication between men and women; and there is one to

which they are accustomed from their youth. The men skilfully make

a hole in their virile member near its head, and insert therein a

serpent's head, either of metal or ivory, and fasten it with a peg of

the same material passed through the hole, so that it cannot become

unfastened. With this device, they have communication with their wives,

and are unable to withdraw until a long time after copulation. They are

very fond of this and receive much pleasure from it, so that, although

they shed a quantity of blood, and receive other harm, it is current

among them. These devices are called _sagras,_ and there are very few

of them, because since they have become Christians, strenuous efforts

are being made to do away with these, and not consent to their use;

and consequently the practice has been checked in great part. [157]

Herbalists and witches are common among these natives, but are not

punished or prohibited among them, so long as they do not cause any

special harm. But seldom could that be ascertained or known.

There were also men whose business was to ravish and take away

virginity from young girls. These girls were taken to such men, and

the latter were paid for ravishing them, for the natives considered it

a hindrance and impediment if the girls were virgins when they married.

In matters of religion, the natives proceeded more barbarously and

with greater blindness than in all the rest. For besides being pagans,

without any knowledge of the true God, they neither strove to discover

Him by way of reason, nor had any fixed belief. The devil usually

deceived them with a thousand errors and blindnesses. He appeared to

them in various horrible and frightful forms, and as fierce animals,

so that they feared him and trembled before him. They generally

worshiped him, and made images of him in the said forms. These they

kept in caves and private houses, where they offered them perfumes

and odors, and food and fruit, calling them _anitos_. [158]

Others worshiped the sun and the moon, and made feasts and

drunken revels at the conjunction of those bodies. Some worshiped a

yellow-colored bird that dwells in their woods, called _batala_. They

generally worship and adore the crocodiles when they see them, by

kneeling down and clasping their hands, because of the harm that

they receive from those reptiles; they believe that by so doing

the crocodiles will become appeased and leave them. Their oaths,

execrations, and promises are all as above mentioned, namely, "May

_buhayan_ eat thee, if thou dost not speak truth, or fulfil what thou

hast promised," and similar things.

There were no temples throughout those islands, nor houses generally

used for the worship of idols; but each person possessed and made

in his house his own _anitos_, [159] without any fixed rite or

ceremony. They had no priests or religious to attend to religious

affairs, except certain old men and women called _catalonas_. These

were experienced witches and sorcerers, who kept the other people

deceived. The latter communicated to these sorcerers their desires

and needs, and the catalonas told them innumerable extravagancies and

lies. The catalonas uttered prayers and performed other ceremonies to

the idols for the sick; and they believed in omens and superstitions,

with which the devil inspired them, whereby they declared whether the

patient would recover or die. Such were their cures and methods, and

they used various kinds of divinations for all things. All this was

with so little aid, apparatus, or foundation--which God permitted, so

that the preaching of the holy gospel should find those of that region

better prepared for it, and so that those natives would confess the

truth more easily, and it would be less difficult to withdraw them

from their darkness, and the errors in which the devil kept them for

so many years. They never sacrificed human beings as is done in other

kingdoms. They believed that there was a future life where those

who had been brave and performed valiant feats would be rewarded;

while those who had done evil would be punished. But they did not

know how or where this would be. [160]

They buried their dead in their own houses, and kept their bodies

and bones for a long time in chests. They venerated the skulls of the

dead as if they were living and present. Their funeral rites did not

consist of pomp or assemblages, beyond those of their own house--where,

after bewailing the dead, all was changed into feasting and drunken

revelry among all the relatives and friends. [161]

A few years before the Spaniards subdued the island of Luzon,

certain natives of the island of Borneo began to go thither to trade,

especially to the settlement of Manila and Tondo; and the inhabitants

of the one island intermarried with those of the other. These Borneans

are Mahometans, and were already introducing their religion among the

natives of Luzon, and were giving them instructions, ceremonies, and

the form of observing their religion, by means of certain _gazizes_

[162] whom they brought with them. Already a considerable number,

and those the chiefest men, were commencing, although by piecemeal,

to become Moros, and were being circumcised [163] and taking the

names of Moros. Had the Spaniards' coming been delayed longer, that

religion would have spread throughout the island, and even through the

others, and it would have been difficult to extirpate it. The mercy

of God checked it in time; for, because of being in so early stages,

it was uprooted from the islands, and they were freed from it, that

is, in all that the Spaniards have pacified, and that are under the

government of the Filipinas. That religion has spread and extended

very widely in the other islands outside of this government, so that

now almost all of their natives are Mahometan Moros, and are ruled

and instructed by their _gaçizes_ and other _morabitos_; [164] these

often come to preach to and teach them by way of the strait of Ma[la]ca

and the Red Sea, through which they navigate to reach these islands.

The arrival of the Spaniards in these Filipinas Islands, since the

year one thousand five hundred and sixty-four, the pacification and

conversion that has been made therein, their mode of governing, and

the provisions of his Majesty during these years for their welfare,

have caused innovations in many things, such as are usual to kingdoms

and provinces that change their religion and sovereign. The foremost

has been that, besides the name of Filipinas which all the islands

took and received from the beginning of their conquest, they belong

to a new kingdom and seigniory to which his Majesty, Filipo Second,

our sovereign, gave the name of Nuevo Reyno de Castilla ["New Kingdom

of Castilla"]. By his royal concession, he made the city of Manila

capital of it, and gave to it as a special favor, among other things,

a crowned coat-of-arms which was chosen and assigned by his royal

person. This is an escutcheon divided across. In the upper part is a

castle on a red field, and in the lower a lion of gold, crowned and

rampant, holding a naked sword in its right paw. One-half of the body

is in the form of a dolphin upon the waters of the sea, to signify

that the Spaniards crossed the sea with their arms to conquer this

kingdom for the crown of Castilla. [165]

The city of Manila was founded by the adelantado Miguel Lopez de

Legazpi, first governor of the Filipinas, in the island of Luzon. It

occupies the same site where Rajamora had his settlement and fort--as

has been related more at length--at the mouth of the river which

empties into the bay, on a point between the river and the sea. The

whole site was occupied by this new settlement, and Legazpi apportioned

it to the Spaniards in equal building-lots. It was laid out with

well-arranged streets and squares, straight and level. A sufficiently

large main square [_Plaza mayor_] was left, fronting which were erected

the cathedral church and municipal buildings. He left another square,

that of arms [_Plaza de armas_], fronting which was built the fort, as

well as the royal buildings. He gave sites for the monasteries, [166]

hospital, and chapels which were to be built, as being a city which

was to grow and increase continually--as already it has done; for,

in the course of the time that has passed, that city has flourished

as much as the best of all the cities in those regions.

The city is completely surrounded with a stone wall, which is more

than two and one-half varas wide, and in places more than three. It

has small towers and traverses at intervals. [167] It has a fortress

of hewn stone at the point that guards the bar and the river, with a

ravelin close to the water, upon which are mounted some large pieces

of artillery. This artillery commands the sea and river, while other

pieces are mounted farther up to defend the bar, besides some other

moderate-sized field-pieces and swivel-guns. These fortifications

have their vaults for storing supplies and munitions, and a magazine

for the powder, which is well guarded and situated in the inner

part; and a copious well of fresh water. There are also quarters

for the soldiers and artillerymen, and the house of the commandant

[alcayde]. The city has been lately fortified on the land side at the

Plaza de armas, where it is entered by a strong wall and two salient

towers, defended with artillery, which command the wall and gate. This

fortress is called Santiago, and has a company of thirty soldiers

with their officers, and eight artillerymen who guard the gate and

entrance by watches--all in charge of a commandant who lives inside,

and has the guard and custody of the fort.

There is another fortress, also of stone, in the same wall, within

culverin range, located at the end [168] of the curtain, which extends

along the shore of the bay. It is called Nuestra Señora de Guia, and

is a very large round tower. It has its own court, well, and quarters

inside, as well as the magazine, and other rooms for work. It has a

traverse extending to the beach, on which are mounted a dozen large and

moderate-sized pieces, which command the bay and sweep the wall, which

extends along the shore to the gate and to the fort of Santiago. On

the other side the fortress has a large salient tower, mounted with

four large pieces, which command the shore ahead in the direction of

the chapel of Nuestra Señora de Guia. The gate and entrance is within

the city and is guarded by a company of twenty soldiers and their

officers, six artillerymen, and one commandant and his lieutenant,

who live inside.

On the land side, where the wall extends, there is a rampart called

Sant Andres, which mounts six pieces of artillery that command in

all directions, and some swivel-guns. Farther on is another traverse

called San Gabriel, opposite the parián of the Sangleys, with a like

amount of artillery. Both have some soldiers and an ordinary guard.

The wall has a sufficient height, and is furnished with battlements and

turrets, built in the modern style, for its defense. It has a circuit

of about one legua, which can be made entirely on top. It has many

broad steps of the same hewn stone, at intervals inside. There are

three principal city gates on the land side, and many other posterns

opening at convenient places on the river and beach, for the service

of the city. Each and all of them are locked before nightfall by

the ordinary patrols. These carry the keys to the guard-room of the

royal buildings. In the morning when day comes, the patrols return

with the keys and open the city. [169]

The royal arsenals front on the Plaza de armas. In them are kept and

guarded all the supplies of ammunition, food, rigging, iron, copper,

lead, artillery, arquebuses, and other things belonging to the royal

estate. They have their own officers and workmen, and are placed in

charge of the royal officials.

Near these arsenals is located the powder-house, with its master,

workmen, and convicts, where powder is generally ground in thirty

mortars, and that which is spoiled is refined. [170]

The building for the founding of artillery is located on a suitable

site in another part of the city. It has its molds, ovens, and tools,

founders, and workmen who work it. [171]

The royal buildings are very beautiful and sightly, and contain many

rooms. They have many windows opening toward the sea and the Plaza

de armas. They are all built of stone and have two courts, with

upper and lower galleries raised on stout pillars. The governor and

president lives inside with his family. There is a hall for the royal

Audiencia, which is very large and stately; also a separate chapel,

a room for the royal seal, [172] and offices for the scriveners of the

Audiencia, and the government. There are also other apartments for the

royal treasury and the administration of the royal officials, while a

large porch opens on the street with two principal doors, where the

guardroom is located. There is one company of regular arquebusiers,

who come in daily with their banners to stand guard. Opposite, on the

other side of the street, is another edifice for the royal treasury

and those in charge of it. [173]

The houses of the cabildo, located on the square, are built of

stone. They are very sightly and have handsome halls. On the ground

floor is the prison, and the court of the alcaldes-in-ordinary. [174]

On the same square is situated the cathedral church. It is built

of hewn stone, and has three naves, and its main chapel, and choir,

with high and low seats. The choir is shut in by railings, and has

its organ, missal-stands, and other necessary things. The cathedral

has also its sacristan [175] and his apartments and offices.

Within the city is the monastery of St. Augustine. It is very large

and has many dormitories, a refectory and kitchens. They are now

completing a church, which is one of the most sumptuous in those

districts. This convent has generally fifty religious. [176]

The monastery of St. Dominic is inside the walls. It contains

about forty religious. It was built of stone, and was very well

constructed. It has a church, house, and all offices. It has lately

been rebuilt, and much better; for it was completely destroyed in

the burning of the city in the year six hundred and three.

The monastery of St. Francis is farther on. It is well constructed

of stone, and its church is being rebuilt. It contains about forty

discalced religious.

The residence [_colegio_] of the Society of Jesus is established near

the fortress of Nuestra Señora de Guia. It contains twenty religious

of their order, and is an excellent stone house and church. There

they study Latin, the arts, and cases of conscience. Connected with

them is a seminary and convictorio [177] for Spanish scholars, with

their rector. These students wear gowns of tawny-colored frieze with

red facings. [178]

In another part of the city stands a handsome house, walled in, with

its stone church, called San Andres and Santa Potenciana. It is a royal

foundation, and a rectoress lives there. It has a revolving entrance

and a parlor, and the rectoress has other confidential assistants;

and there shelter is given to needy women and girls of the city,

in the form of religious retirement. Some of the girls leave the

house to be married, while others remain there permanently. It has

its own house for work, and its choir. His Majesty assists them with

a portion of their maintenance; the rest is provided by their own

industry and property. They have their own steward and their priest,

who administers the sacraments to them. [179]

In another part is the royal hospital for Spaniards, with its

physician, apothecary, surgeons, managers, and servants. It and its

church are built of stone; and it has its sick rooms and the bed

service. In it all the Spaniards are treated. It is usually quite

full; it is under the royal patronage. His Majesty provides the most

necessary things for it. Three discalced religious of St. Francis

act there as superintendents, and they prove very advantageous for

the corporal and spiritual relief of the sick. It was burned in the

conflagration of the former year six hundred and three, and is now

being rebuilt.

There is another charitable hospital in charge of the Confraternity of

that name. It was founded in the city of Manila by the Confraternity

of La Misericordia of Lisboa, and by the other confraternities of

India. [180] It has apostolic bulls for works of charity, such as

burying the dead, supporting the modest poor, marrying orphans, and

relieving many necessities. There the slaves of the city are treated,

and lodgings are likewise provided for poor women.

Next to the monastery of St. Francis is located the hospital for

natives, [181] which is under royal patronage. It was founded with

alms, by a holy lay-brother of St. Francis, one Fray Joan Clemente. A

great many natives, suffering from all diseases, are treated there

with great care and attention. It has a good edifice and workrooms

built of stone. The discalced religious of St. Francis manage it;

and three priests and four lay-brothers, of exemplary life, live

there. These are the physicians, surgeons, and apothecaries of the

hospital, and are so skilful and useful, that they cause many marvelous

cures, both in medicine and in surgery.

The streets of the city are compactly built up with houses, mostly of

stone, although some are of wood. Many are roofed with clay tiling, and

others with nipa. They are excellent edifices, lofty and spacious, and

have large rooms and many windows, and balconies, with iron gratings,

that embellish them. More are daily being built and finished. There

are about six hundred houses within the walls, and a greater number,

built of wood, in the suburbs; and all are the habitations and homes

of Spaniards.

The streets, squares, and churches are generally filled with people

of all classes, especially Spaniards--all, both men and women,

clad and gorgeously adorned in silks. They wear many ornaments and

all kinds of fine clothes, because of the ease with which these are

obtained. Consequently this is one of the settlements most highly

praised, by the foreigners who resort to it, of all in the world,

both for the above reason, and for the great provision and abundance

of food and other necessaries for human life found there, and sold

at moderate prices.

Manila has two drives for recreation. One is by land, along the point

called Nuestra Señora de Guia. It extends for about a legua along

the shore, and is very clean and level. Thence it passes through a

native street and settlement, called Bagunbayan, to a chapel, much

frequented by the devout, called Nuestra Señora de Guia, and continues

for a goodly distance further to a monastery and mission-house of

the Augustinians, called Mahalat. [182]

The other drive extends through one of the city gates to a native

settlement, called Laguio, by which one may go to a chapel of San

Anton, and to a monastery and mission-house of discalced Franciscans,

a place of great devotion, near the city, called La Candelaria. [183]

This city is the capital of the kingdom and the head of the

government of all the islands. It is the metropolis of the other

cities and settlements of the islands. In it reside the Audiencia and

Chancillería of his Majesty, and the governor and captain-general of

the islands. [184]

Manila has a city cabildo with two alcaldes-in-ordinary, twelve

perpetual regidors, an alguaçil-mayor [_i.e._, chief constable],

a royal standard-bearer, the scrivener of the cabildo, and other

officials.

The archbishop of the Filipinas Islands resides in this city. He has

his metropolitan church, and all the cathedral dignitaries--canons,

racioneros, medias racioneros, [185] chaplains, and sacristans--and a

music-choir, who chant to the accompaniment of the organ and of flutes

[_ministriles_]. The cathedral is quite ornate and well decorated,

and the Divine offices are celebrated there with the utmost gravity

and ceremony. As suffragans the cathedral has three bishops--namely,

in the island of Sebu, and in Cagayan and Camarines. [186]

There is a royal treasury with three royal officials--factor,

accountant, and treasurer--by whom the royal revenue of all the

islands is managed. [187]

The vessels sailing annually to Nueva España with the merchandise and

investments of all the islands are despatched from the city of Manila;

and they return thither from Nueva España with the proceeds of this

merchandise, and the usual reënforcements.

In the city is established the camp of the regular soldiers whom his

Majesty has had stationed in the islands.

Several galleys are also stationed at Manila with their general and

captains, as well as other war-vessels, of deep draft, and smaller

ones built like those used by the natives, to attend to the needs of

all the islands.

The majority of the vessels from China, Japon, Maluco, Borney, Sian,

Malaca, and India, that come to the Filipinas with their merchandise

and articles of trade, gather in the bay and river of Manila. In that

city they sell and trade for all the islands and their settlements.

In the province [of Cagayán] of this same island of Luzon was founded

the city of Segovia, [188] during the term of Don Gonçalo Ronquillo,

the third governor. It has two hundred Spanish inhabitants who live in

wooden houses on the shore of the Tajo River, two leguas from the sea

and port of Camalayuga. There is a stone fort near the city for the

defense of it and of the river. This fort mounts some artillery, and

has its own commandant. Besides the inhabitants, there are generally

one hundred regular soldiers, arquebusiers, and their officers. They

are all in charge and under command of the alcalde-mayor of the

province, who is its military commander.

In that city is established a bishop and his church, although at

present the latter has no dignitaries or prebendaries. [189] There

is a city cabildo consisting of two alcaldes, six regidors, and an

alguacil-mayor. The city abounds in all kinds of food and refreshment

at very cheap prices.

The city of Caçeres was founded in the province of Camarines of the

same island of Luzon, during the term of Doctor Sande, governor of

the Filipinas. It has about one hundred Spanish inhabitants; and

has its cabildo, consisting of alcaldes, regidors, and officials. A

bishop of that province is established there and has his church,

although without dignitaries or prebendaries. A monastery of discalced

Franciscans is located there. The government and military affairs of

that province are under one alcalde-mayor and war-captain, who resides

in Caçeres. The latter is a place abounding in and furnished with all

kinds of provisions, at very low rates. It is founded on the bank of

a river, four leguas inland from the sea, and its houses are of wood.

The fourth city is that called Santisimo Nombre de Jesus; it is located

in the island of Sebu, in the province of Bicayas or Pintados. It was

the first Spanish settlement and was founded by the adelantado Miguel

Lopez de Legazpi, the first governor. It is a fine seaport, whose water

is very clear and deep, and capable of holding many vessels. The city

has an excellent stone fort, which mounts a considerable quantity of

artillery, and which has its commandant and officers for the guard

and defense of the port and of the city. It is sufficiently garrisoned

with regulars, and is under command of the alcalde-mayor, the military

commander of the province, who lives in the city. The settlement

contains about two hundred Spanish inhabitants who live in houses

of wood. It has a cabildo, consisting of two alcaldes-in-ordinary,

eight regidors, and an alguacil-mayor and his officers. It has a

bishop and his church, like those of other cities of these islands,

without prebendaries. [190]

The city is provided with food by, and is a station for, the ships

going from Maluco to Manila. Through his Majesty's concession they keep

there a deep-draft merchant vessel, which generally leaves its port

for Nueva España, laden with the merchandise of the products gathered

in those provinces. It has a monastery of Augustinian religious and

a seminary of the Society of Jesus.

The town of Arevalo was founded on the island of Oton [Panay], during

the term of Don Gonçalo Ronquillo. [191] It contains about eighty

Spanish inhabitants, and is located close to the sea. It has a wooden

fort, which mounts some artillery, and a monastery of the Order of

St. Augustine; also a parish church, with its own vicar and secular

priest. This church belongs to the diocese of the Sebu bishopric.

It has a cabildo, consisting of alcaldes, regidors, and other

officials. There is one alcalde-mayor and military leader in those

provinces. The town is well supplied with all kinds of provisions,

sold at very low rates.

The settlement of Villa Fernandina, [192] which was founded in the

province of the Ilocos on the island of Luzon, is settled by Spaniards,

but very few of them remain there. It has a church, with its own vicar

and secular priest. Now no mention will be made of it, on account of

what has been said. The alcalde-mayor of the province resides there,

and the town is situated in the diocese of the Cagayan bishopric.

From the earliest beginning of the conquest and pacification of

the Filipinas Islands, the preaching of the holy gospel therein

and the conversion of the natives to our holy Catholic faith were

undertaken. The first to set hand to this task were the religious

of the Order of St. Augustine, who went there with the adelantado

Legazpi in the fleet of discovery, and those of the same order who

went afterward to labor in this work, and toiled therein with great

fervor and zeal. Thus, finding the harvest in good season, they

gathered the first fruits of it, and converted and baptized many

infidels throughout the said islands. [193]

Next to them in the fame of this conversion, the discalced religious

of the Order of St. Francis went to the islands by way of Nueva

España; then those of the Order of St. Dominic, and of the Society of

Jesus. [194] Lastly, the discalced Augustinian Recollects went. One and

all, after being established in the islands, worked in the conversion

and instruction of the natives. Consequently they have made--and

there are now in all the islands--a great number of baptized natives,

besides many others in many parts, who, for want of laborers, have been

put off, and are awaiting this blessing and priests to minister to

them. Hitherto there have been but few missions in charge of secular

priests, as not many of these have gone to the islands; and as very

few have been ordained there, for lack of students.

The Order of St. Augustine has many missions in the islands of Pintados

and has established and occupied monasteries and various visitas. [195]

In the island of Luzon, they have those of the province of Ylocos,

some in Pangasinan, and all those of La Pampanga--a large number of

monasteries; while in the province of Manila and its vicinity they

have others, which are flourishing.

The Order of St. Dominic has the missions of the province of Cagayan,

and others in the province of Pangasinan, where are many monasteries

and visitas. They also administer others about the city.

The Order of St. Francis has some missions and monasteries about

Manila, all the province of Camarines and the coast opposite, and La

Laguna de Bay. These include many missions.

The Society of Jesus has three large missions in the neighborhood

of Manila, which have many visitas. In the Pintados it has many

others on the islands of Sebu, Leite, Ybabao, Camar [Samar], Bohol,

and others near by. They have good men, who are solicitous for the

conversion of the natives.

These four orders have produced many good results in the conversion

of these islands, as above stated; and in good sooth the people

have taken firm hold of the faith, as they are a people of so good

understanding. They have recognized the errors of their paganism

and the truths of the Christian religion; and they possess good and

well-built churches and monasteries of wood with their reredoses and

beautiful ornaments, and all the utensils, crosses, candlesticks,

and chalices of silver and gold. Many devotions are offered, and there

are many confraternities. There is assiduity in taking the sacraments

and in attendance on the Divine services; and the people are careful

to entertain and support their religious (to whom they show great

obedience and respect) by the many alms that they give them, as well

as by those that they give for the suffrages and the burial of their

dead, which they provide with all punctuality and liberality.

At the same time that the religious undertook to teach the natives

the precepts of religion, they labored to instruct them in matters

of their own improvement, and established schools for the reading

and writing of Spanish among the boys. They taught them to serve in

the church, to sing the plain-song, and to the accompaniment of the

organ; to play the flute, to dance, and to sing; and to play the

harp, guitar, and other instruments. In this they show very great

adaptability, especially about Manila; where there are many fine

choirs of chanters and musicians composed of natives, who are skilful

and have good voices. There are many dancers, and musicians on the

other instruments which solemnize and adorn the feasts of the most

holy sacrament, and many other feasts during the year. The native

boys present dramas and comedies, both in Spanish and in their own

language, very charmingly. This is due to the care and interest of

the religious, who work tirelessly for the natives' advancement. [196]

In these islands there is no native province or settlement which

resists conversion or does not desire it. But, as above stated,

baptism has been postponed in some districts, for lack of workers

to remain with the people, in order that they may not retrograde and

return to their idolatries. In this work, the best that is possible

is done, for the mission-fields are very large and extensive. In many

districts the religious make use, in their visitas, of certain of the

natives who are clever and well instructed, so that these may teach

the others to pray daily, instruct them in other matters touching

religion, and see that they come to mass at the central missions; and

in this way they succeed in preserving and maintaining their converts.

Hitherto, the orders who control these missions in virtue of the

_omnimodo_ and other apostolic concessions [197] have attended to the

conversion of the natives, administered the sacraments, looked after

the spiritual and temporal and ecclesiastical affairs of the natives,

and absolved them in cases of difficulty. But now that there are an

archbishop and bishops, this is being curtailed, and the management

of these affairs is being given to the bishops, as the archbishop's

vicars--although not to such an extent, nor has the administration

of these natives been placed in their charge, in matters of justice,

and under the inspection and superintendence of the bishops, as they

have endeavored to obtain. [198]

The governor and royal Audiencia of Manila attend to what it is

advisable to provide and direct for the greatest accomplishment and

advancement of this conversion, and the administration of the natives

and their missions--both by causing the encomenderos to assist

the religious and churches, in the encomiendas that they enjoy,

with the stipends and necessary expenses of the missions; and by

furnishing from the royal revenues what pertains to it, which is no

less a sum. [199] They also ordain whatever else is required to be

provided and remedied for the said missions and for the advancement

of the natives. This also is attended to by the archbishop and the

bishops in what pertains to them in their duty and charge as pastors.

The Holy Office of the Inquisition, residing in Mexico of Nueva

España, has its commissaries, servants, and helpers in Manila and

in the bishoprics of the islands, who attend to matters touching

the Holy Office. They never fail to have plenty to do there because

of the entrance of so many strangers into those districts. However,

this holy tribunal does not have jurisdiction of the causes pertaining

to the natives, as the latter are so recently converted.

All these islands are subdued, and are governed from Manila by means

of alcaldes-mayor, corregidors, and lieutenants, each of whom rules

and administers justice in his own district and province. Appeals from

their acts and sentences go to the royal Audiencia. The governor and

captain-general provides what pertains to government and war.

The chiefs, who formerly held the other natives in subjection,

now have no power over them in the tyrannical manner of former

days. This was not the least benefit received by these natives in

having been freed from such servitude. However, it is true that

matters touching the slavery of former days have remained on the

same footing as before. The king our sovereign has ordered by his

decrees that the honors of the chiefs be preserved to them as such;

and that the other natives recognize them and assist them with certain

of the labors that they used to give when pagans. This is done with

the lords and possessors of barangays, and those belonging to such and

such a barangay are under that chief's control. When he harvests his

rice, they go one day to help him; and the same if he builds a house,

or rebuilds one. This chief lord of a barangay collects tribute from

his adherents, and takes charge of these collections, to pay them to

the encomendero. [200]

Besides the above, each village has a governor [201] who is elected. He

and his constables who are called _vilangos_ [202] comprise the

usual magistracy among the natives. The governor hears civil suits

where a moderate sum is involved; in appeal, the case goes to the

corregidor or alcalde-mayor of the province. These governors are

elected annually by the votes of all the married natives of such

and such a village. The governor of Manila confirms the election,

and gives the title of governor to the one elected, and orders him to

take the residencia of the outgoing governor. [203] This governor,

in addition to the vilangos and scrivener (before whom he makes his

acts in writing, in the language of the natives of that province),

[204] holds also the chiefs--lords of barangays, and those who are

not so--under his rule and government, and, for any special service,

such as collections of tributes, and assignments of personal services,

as his _datos_ and _mandones_. [205] They do not allow the chiefs to

oppress the timaguas or slaves under their control.

The same customs observed by these natives in their paganism, are

observed by them since they have become Christians, in so far as

they are not contrary to natural law, especially as to their slavery,

successions, inheritances, adoptions, wills, and lawful trading. In

their suits, they always allege and prove the custom, and are judged

by it, according to royal decrees to that effect. In other causes

which do not involve their customs, and in criminal cases, the matter

is determined by law as among Spaniards.

All of these islands and their natives, so far as they were pacified,

were apportioned into encomiendas from the beginning. To the royal

crown were allotted those which were chief towns and ports, and the

dwellers of the cities and towns; and also other special encomiendas

and villages in all the provinces, for the necessities and expenses

of the royal estate. All the rest was assigned to the conquerors and

settlers who have served and labored for the conquest and pacification,

and in the war. This matter is in charge of the governor, who takes

into consideration the merits and services of the claimants. [206]

In like manner the villages that become vacant are assigned. There

are many very excellent encomiendas throughout the islands, and they

offer many profits, both by the amount of their tributes and by the

nature and value of what is paid as tribute. [207] The encomienda

lasts, according to the royal laws and decrees, and by the regular

order and manner of succession to them, for two lives; but it may

be extended to a third life, by permission. After it becomes vacant,

it is again assigned and granted anew.

The tributes paid to their encomenderos by the natives were assigned

by the first governor, Miguel Lopez de Legazpi, in the provinces of

Vicayas and Pintados, and in the islands of Luzon and its vicinity;

they were equal to the sum of eight reals annually for an entire

tribute from each tributario. The natives were to pay it in their

products--in gold, cloth, cotton, rice, bells, fowls, and whatever

else they possessed or harvested. The fixed price and value of each

article was assigned so that, when the tribute was paid in any one

of them, or in all of them, it should not exceed the value of the

eight reals. So it has continued until now, and the governors have

increased the appraisements and values of the products at different

times, as they have deemed advisable.

The encomenderos have made great profits in collecting in kind, for,

after they acquired possession of the products, they sold them at

higher prices. By this they increased their incomes and the proceeds

of their encomiendas considerably; until a few years ago his Majesty,

by petition of the religious and the pressure that they brought to

bear on him in this matter, ordered for this region that the natives

should pay their tribute in whatever they wished--in kind or in

money--without being compelled to do otherwise. Consequently, when

they should have paid their eight reals, they would have fulfilled

their obligation. Accordingly this rule was initiated; but experience

demonstrates that, although it seemed a merciful measure, and one

favorable to the natives, it is doing them great injury. For, since

they naturally dislike to work, they do not sow, spin, dig gold,

rear fowls, or raise other food supplies, as they did before, when

they had to pay the tribute in those articles. They easily obtain,

without so much work, the peso of money which is the amount of their

tribute. Consequently it follows that the natives have less capital

and wealth, because they do not work; and the country, which was

formerly very well provided and well-supplied with all products,

is now suffering want and deprivation of them. The owners of the

encomiendas, both those of his Majesty and those of private persons

who possess them, have sustained considerable loss and reduction in

the value of the encomiendas.

When Gomez Perez Dasmariñas was appointed governor of the Filipinas,

he brought royal decrees ordering the formation of the camp in Manila,

with an enrollment of four hundred paid soldiers, with their officers,

galleys, and other military supplies, for the defense and security

of the country. Before that time all the Spanish inhabitants had

attended to that without any pay. Then an increase of two reals to

each tributario over the eight reals was ordered. This was to be

collected by the encomenderos at the same time when they collected

the eight reals of the tribute, and was to be delivered and placed

in the royal treasury. There this amount was to be entered on an

account separate from that of the other revenue of his Majesty, and

was to be applied in the following manner: one and one-half reals for

the expenses of the said camp and war stores; and the remaining half

real for the pay of the prebendaries of the Manila church, which his

Majesty pays from his treasury, until such time as their tithes and

incomes suffice for their sustenance. [208]

These tributes are collected from all the natives, Christians and

infidels, in their entirety--except that in those encomiendas without

instruction the encomendero does not take the fourth part of the eight

reals (which equals two reals) for himself, since that encomienda has

no instruction or expenses for it; but he takes them and deposits

them in Manila, in a fund called "the fourths." [209] The money

obtained from this source is applied to and spent in hospitals for

the natives, and in other works beneficial to them, at the option of

the governor. As fast as the encomiendas are supplied with instruction

and religious, the collection of these fourths and their expenditure

in these special works cease.

Some provinces have taken the census of their natives; and according to

these the tributes and the assignment of the two reals are collected.

In most of the provinces no census has been taken, and the tributes

are collected when due by the encomenderos and their collectors,

through the chiefs of their encomiendas, by means of the lists and

memoranda of former years. From them the names of the deceased and of

those who have changed their residence are erased, and the names of

those who have grown up, and of those who have recently moved into the

encomienda, are added. When any shortage is perceived in the accounts,

a new count is requested and made.

The natives are free to move from one island to another, and from

one province to another, and pay their tribute for that year in which

they move and change their residence in the place to which they move;

and to move from a Christian village that has instruction to another

village possessing it. But, on the other hand, they may not move from

a place having instruction to one without it, nor in the same village

from one barangay to another, nor from one faction to another. In

this respect, the necessary precautions are made by the government,

and the necessary provisions by the Audiencia, so that this system

may be kept, and so that all annoyances resulting from the moving of

the settled natives of one place to another place may be avoided.

Neither are the natives allowed to go out of their villages for

trade, except by permission of the governor, or of his alcaldes-mayor

and justices, or even of the religious, who most often have been

embarrassed by this, because of the instruction. This is done so that

the natives may not wander about aimlessly when there is no need of

it, away from their homes and settlements.

Those natives who possess slaves pay their tributes for them if the

slaves are _saguiguilirs_. If the slaves are _namamahays_ living

outside their owners' houses, they pay their own tributes, inasmuch

as they possess their own houses and means of gain.

The Spaniards used to have slaves from these natives, whom they had

bought from them, and others whom they obtained in certain expeditions

during the conquest and pacification of the islands. This was stopped

by a brief of his Holiness [210] and by royal decrees. Consequently,

all of these slaves who were then in the possession of the Spanish,

and who were natives of these islands, in whatever manner they had

been acquired, were freed; and the Spaniards were forever prohibited

from holding them as slaves, or from capturing them for any reason, or

under pretext of war, or in any other manner. The service rendered by

these natives is in return for pay and daily wages. The other slaves

and captives that the Spaniards possess are Cafres and blacks brought

by the Portuguese by way of India, and are held in slavery justifiably,

in accordance with the provincial councils and the permissions of

the prelates and justices of those districts.

The natives of these islands have also their personal services, which

they are obliged to render--in some parts more than in others--to

the Spaniards. These are done in different ways, and are commonly

called the _polo_. [211] For, where there are alcaldes-mayor and

justices, they assign and distribute certain natives by the week

for the service of their houses. They pay these servants a moderate

wage, which generally amounts to one-fourth real per day, and rice

for their food. The same is done by the religious for the mission,

and for their monasteries and churches, and for their works, and for

public works. [212]

The Indians also furnish rice, and food of all kinds, at the prices

at which they are valued and sold among the natives. These prices

are always very moderate. The datos, vilangos, and fiscals make the

division, collect, and take these supplies from the natives; and in

the same manner they supply their encomenderos when these go to make

the collections.

The greatest service rendered by these natives is on occasions of war,

when they act as rowers and crews for the vireys and vessels that go

on the expeditions, and as pioneers for any service that arises in

the course of the war, although their pay and wages are given them.

In the same way natives are assigned and apportioned for the king's

works, such as the building of ships, the cutting of wood, the trade

of making the rigging, [213] the work in the artillery foundry, and

the service in the royal [214] magazines; and they are paid their

stipend and daily wage.

In other things pertaining to the service of the Spaniards and their

expeditions, works, and any other service, performed by the natives,

the service is voluntary, and paid by mutual agreement; [215] for,

as hitherto, the Spaniards have worked no mines, nor have they given

themselves to the gains to be derived from field labors, there is no

occasion for employing the natives in anything of that sort.

Most of the Spaniards of the Filipinas Islands reside in the city

of Manila, the capital of the kingdom, and where the chief trade

and commerce is carried on. Some encomenderos live in provinces or

districts adjacent to Manila, while other Spaniards live in the

cities of Segovia, Caçeres, Santisimo Nombre de Jesus (in Sebu),

and in the town of Arevalo, where they are settled, and where most

of them have their encomiendas.

Spaniards may not go to the Indian villages, [216] except for the

collection of the tributes when they are due; and then only the

alcaldes-mayor, corregidors, and justices. It is not permitted these

to remain continually in one settlement of their district, but they

must visit as much of it as possible. They must change their residence

and place of abode every four months to another chief village and

settlement, where all the natives may obtain the benefit of their

presence; and so that the natives may receive as slight annoyance

as possible in supporting them and in the ordinary service that they

render them. [217]

The governor makes appointments to all offices. When the term of office

expires, the royal Aurdiencia orders the residencia of each official

to be taken, and his case is decided in accordance therewith; and

until the residencia is completed, the incumbent cannot be appointed

to any other duty or office. The governor also appoints commandants

of forts, companies, and other military officials, in all the cities,

towns, and hamlets of the islands. [218]

Certain offices of regidors and notaries have been sold by royal decree

for one life. But the sale of these offices has been superseded,

as it is now considered that the price paid for them is of little

consideration, while the disadvantage of perpetuating the purchasers

in office by this method is greater.

Elections of alcaldes-in-ordinary for all the Spanish towns are held

on New Year's day by the cabildo and magistracy. The residencias

of these alcaldes-in-ordinary and their cabildos are ordered by

his Majesty to be taken at the same time as that of the governor

and captain-general of the islands is taken; and they give account

of the administration of the revenues and the estates under their

care. However, the governor may take it before this, every year,

or whenever he thinks it expedient and cause the balances of their

accounts to be collected. With the governor's advice and permission

the expenses desired by the towns are made.

The city of Manila has sufficient public funds for certain years,

through the fines imposed by its judges; in its own particular

possessions, inside and outside the city; in the reweighing of the

merchandise and the rents of all the shops and sites of the Sangleys

in the parián; and in the monopoly on playing cards. All this was

conceded to the city by his Majesty, especially for the expenses of

its fortification. [219] These revenues are spent for that purpose; for

the salaries of its officials, and those of the agents sent to España;

and for the feasts of the city, chief of which are St. Potenciana's

day, May nineteen, when the Spaniards entered and seized the city,

and the day of St. Andrew, November 30, the date on which the pirate

Limahon was conquered and driven from the city. On that day the city

officials take out the municipal standard, and to the sound of music go

to vespers and mass at the church of San Andres, where the entire city,

with the magistracy and cabildo and the royal Audiencia, assemble

with all solemnity. The above revenues are also used in receiving

the governors at their first arrival in the country, in the kings'

marriage feasts, and the births of princes, and in the honors and

funeral celebrations for the kings and princes who die. In all the

above the greatest possible display is made.

The other cities and settlements do not possess as yet so many

sources of wealth or revenue, or the occasions on which to spend

them--although, as far as possible, they take part in them, in all

celebrations of the same kind.

The Spaniards living in the islands are divided into five classes of

people: namely, prelates, religious, and ecclesiastical ministers,

both secular and regular; encomenderos, settlers, and conquerors;

soldiers, officers, and officials of war (both on land and sea),

and those for navigation; merchants, business men, and traders; and

his Majesty's agents for government, justice, and administration of

his royal revenue.

The ecclesiastical prelates have already been stated, and are as

follows: The archbishop of Manila, who resides in the city, as

metropolitan, in charge of his cathedral church; he has a salary

of four thousand pesos, [220] which is paid from the royal treasury

annually. Likewise the salaries paid to the holders of the dignidades,

[221] canonries, and other prebends, and those performing other

services, are paid in the same manner. They are all under royal

patronage, and are provided in accordance with the king's orders. The

archbishop's office and jurisdiction consists of and extends to all,

both the spiritual and temporal, that is ecclesiastic, and to its

management. [222]

The bishop of the city of Santisimo Nombre de Jesus in Sibu, that

of Segovia in Cagayan, and that of Caceres in Camarines, have the

same rights of jurisdiction and enjoy the same privileges in their

dioceses, since they are suffragans of the archbishop of Manila;

appeal from their judgments is made to the latter, and he summons and

convokes them to his provincial councils whenever necessary. They

receive each an annual salary of five hundred thousand maravedis

for their support, which is paid from the royal treasury of Manila,

besides their offerings and pontifical dues. All together it is quite

sufficient for their support, according to the convenience of things

and the cheapness of the country. At present the bishops do not possess

churches with prebendaries nor is any money set aside for that. [223]

The regular prelates are the provincials of the four mendicant orders,

namely, St. Dominic, St. Augustine, St. Francis, the Society of

Jesus, and the discalced Augustinians. [224] Each prelate governs

his own order and visits the houses. The orders have nearly all the

missions to the natives under their charge, in whatever pertains to

the administration of the sacraments and conversion--by favor of,

and in accordance with, their privileges and the apostolic bulls, in

which until now they have maintained themselves--and in what pertains

to judicial matters, as vicars of the bishops, and through appointment

and authorization of the latter. The discalced Augustinians as yet

have no missions, as they have but recently entered the islands.

The monasteries are supported by certain special incomes that they

possess and have acquired--especially those of the Augustinians

and those of the Society--and by help and concessions granted by

his Majesty. The Dominicans and Franciscans do not possess or allow

incomes or properties; [225] and for them, as for the other orders,

the principal source of revenue is in the alms, offerings, and aid

given by the districts where they are established and where they have

charge. This help is given by both Spaniards and natives, very piously

and generously. They are aided also by the stipend given them from

the encomiendas for the instruction that they give there. Consequently

the religious of the orders live well and with the comfort necessary.

The first encomenderos, conquerors, and settlers of the islands,

and their issue, are honorably supported by the products of their

encomiendas, and by certain means of gain and trading interests that

they possess, as do the rest of the people. There are a great number of

them, each one of whom lives and possesses his house in the city and

settlement of Spaniards in whose province he has his encomienda. This

they do in order not to abandon their encomiendas, and thus they are

nearer the latter for their needs and for collections.

Now but few of the first conquerors who gained the country and went

there for its conquest with the adelantado Miguel Lopez de Legaspi

remain alive.

The soldiers and officers of war and of naval expeditions formerly

consisted of all the dwellers and inhabitants of the islands, who

rendered military service without any pay or salary. They went on all

the expeditions and pacifications that arose, and guarded the forts

and presidios, and cities and settlements. This was their principal

exercise and occupation. They were rewarded by the governor, who

provided them with encomiendas, offices, and profits of the country

according to their merits and services. [226]

At that time the soldiers of the islands were the best in the

Indias. They were very skilful and well-disciplined by both land

and sea, and were esteemed and respected by all those nations. They

gloried in their arms, and in acquitting themselves valiantly.

Afterward, when Gomez Perez Das Mariñas entered upon the government of

the Filipinas, he founded the regular camp of four hundred soldiers:

the arquebusiers, with pay of six pesos per month; the musketeers,

with eight pesos; six captains, with annual pay of four hundred

and twenty pesos apiece; their alféreces, sergeants, corporals,

standard-bearers, and drummers, with pay in proportion to their

duties; one master-of-camp, with annual pay of one thousand four

hundred pesos; one sargento-mayor with captain's pay; one adjutant of

the sargento-mayor and field-captain, with monthly pay of ten pesos;

two castellans; commandants of the two fortresses of Manila, with

four hundred pesos apiece annually; their lieutenants; squads of

soldiers and artillerymen; one general of galleys, with annual pay

of eight hundred pesos; each galley one captain, with annual pay of

three hundred pesos; their boatswains, boatswains' mates, coxswains,

alguacils of the galleys, soldiers, artillerymen, master-carpenters,

riggers, sailors, conscripts, [227] galley-crews of Spanish, Sangley,

and native convicts, condemned for crimes; and, when there is lack

of convicts, good rowers are obtained from the natives for pay,

for the period of the expedition and the occasion of the voyage. [228]

In the vessels and fleets of large vessels for the Nueva España line,

the ships that are sent carry a general, admiral, masters, boatswains,

commissaries, stewards, alguacils, sergeants of marine artillery

[_condestables_], artillerymen, sailors, pilots and their assistants,

common seamen, carpenters, calkers, and coopers, all in his Majesty's

pay, on the account of Nueva España, from whose royal treasury they

are paid. All that is necessary for this navigation is supplied

there. Their provisions and appointments are made by the viceroy;

and this has hitherto pertained to him, even though the ships may have

been constructed in the Filipinas. They sail thence with their cargo

of merchandise for Nueva España, and return thence to the Filipinas

with the reënforcements of soldiers and supplies, and whatever else

is necessary for the camp, besides passengers and religious, and the

money proceeding from the investments and merchandise. [229]

After the establishment of a regular camp for guard and expeditions,

the other inhabitants, dwellers, and residents were enrolled without

pay under the banners of six captains of the Filipinas, for special

occasions requiring the defense of the city. But they were relieved

of all other duties pertaining to the troops, unless they should

offer of their own accord to go upon any expedition, or volunteer

for any special occasion, in order to acquire merits and benefits, so

that they may be given encomiendas that become vacant, and offices,

and the means of profit of the country. They are not compelled or

obliged to do this, unless they are encomenderos. Consequently all

have given themselves to trading, as there is no other occupation,

but they are not unmindful of military service.

His Majesty prohibits all who are in his pay in the military forces

of the islands from engaging in commerce; and orders the governor

not to allow this, or permit them to export goods to Nueva España. If

the governors would observe that order, it would not be amiss. [230]

The merchants and business men form the bulk of the residents of

the islands, because of the great amount of merchandise brought

there--outside of native products--from China, Japon, Maluco, Malaca,

Sian, Camboja, Borneo, and other districts. They invest in this

merchandise and export it annually in the vessels that sail to Nueva

España, and at times to Japon, where great profits are made from

raw silk. Thence on the return to Manila are brought the proceeds,

which hitherto have resulted in large and splendid profits.

Through the very great increase of this trade--which was harmful

and prejudicial to the Spanish merchants who shipped goods to Peru

and Nueva España, and to the royal duties collected on the shipments

from España--and through the business men of Mexico and Peru having

become greedy of trade and commerce with the Filipinas, by means of

their agents and factors, so that the trade with España was ceasing

in great measure, and the merchants were sending to the Filipinas for

their investments great consignments of silver, which by that means

flowed yearly from his Majesty's kingdoms, to fall into the possession

of infidels: all persons of Nueva España and Peru were prohibited from

trading and engaging in commerce in the Filipinas, and from taking the

Chinese merchandise to those regions. [231] Permission was given to

the inhabitants and residents of the Filipinas that they alone might

trade in the said merchandise, and export it. They are to take these

goods themselves, or send them with persons who belong to the islands,

so that they may sell them. From the proceeds of the said merchandise,

they may not carry to the Filipinas more than five hundred thousand

pesos each year. [232]

A considerable number of _somas_ and junks (which are large

vessels) generally come from Great China to Manila, laden with

merchandise. Every year thirty or even forty ships are wont to come,

and although they do not come together, in the form of a trading

and war fleet, still they do come in groups with the monsoon and

settled weather, which is generally at the new moon in March. They

belong to the provinces of Canton, Chincheo, and Ucheo [Fo-Kien],

and sail from those provinces. They make their voyage to the city of

Manila in fifteen or twenty days, sell their merchandise, and return

in good season, before the vendavals set in--the end of May and a

few days of June--in order not to endanger their voyage.

These vessels come laden with merchandise, and bring wealthy merchants

who own the ships, and servants and factors of other merchants who

remain in China. They leave China with the permission and license

of the Chinese viceroys and mandarins. The merchandise that they

generally bring and sell to the Spaniards consists of raw silk in

bundles, of the fineness of two strands [_dos cabeças_], and other

silk of poorer quality; fine untwisted silk, white and of all colors,

wound in small skeins; quantities of velvets, some plain, and some

embroidered in all sorts of figures, colors, and fashions--others with

body of gold, and embroidered with gold; woven stuffs and brocades, of

gold and silver upon silk of various colors and patterns; quantities

of gold and silver thread in skeins over thread and silk--but the

glitter of all the gold and silver is false, and only on paper;

damasks, satins, taffetans, _gorvaranes_, _picotes_, [233] and other

cloths of all colors, some finer and better than others; a quantity

of linen made from grass, called lençesuelo [handkerchief]; [234]

and white cotton cloth of different kinds and qualities, for all

uses. They also bring musk, benzoin, and ivory; many bed ornaments,

hangings, coverlets, and tapestries of embroidered velvet; damask

and gorvaran of different shades; tablecloths, cushions, and carpets;

horse-trappings of the same stuff, and embroidered with glass beads and

seed-pearls; also some pearls and rubies, sapphires and crystal-stones;

metal basins, copper kettles, and other copper and cast-iron pots;

quantities of all sorts of nails, sheet-iron, tin and lead; saltpetre

and gunpowder. They supply the Spaniards with wheat flour; preserves

made of orange, peach, _scorzonera_, [235] pear, nutmeg, and ginger,

and other fruits of China; salt pork and other salt meats; live fowls

of good breed, and very fine capons; quantities of green fruit, oranges

of all kinds; excellent chestnuts, walnuts, pears, and _chicueyes_

[236] (both green and dried, a delicious fruit); quantities of fine

thread of all kinds, needles, and knick-knacks; little boxes and

writing-cases; beds, tables, chairs, and gilded benches, painted in

many figures and patterns. They bring domestic buffaloes; geese that

resemble swans; horses, some mules and asses; even caged birds, some

of which talk, while others sing, and they make them play innumerable

tricks. The Chinese furnish numberless other gewgaws and ornaments

of little value and worth, which are esteemed among the Spaniards;

besides a quantity of fine crockery of all kinds; _canganes_, [237]

_sines_, and black and blue robes; _tacley_, which are beads of all

kinds; strings of cornelians, and other beads and precious stones of

all colors; pepper and other spices; and rarities--which, did I refer

to them all, I would never finish, nor have sufficient paper for it.

As soon as the ship reaches the mouth of the bay of Manila, the

watchman stationed at the island of Miraveles goes out to it in a

light vessel. Having examined the ship, he puts a guard of two or three

soldiers on it, so that it may anchor upon the bar, near the city, and

to see that no one shall disembark from the vessel, or anyone enter it

from outside, until the vessel has been inspected. By the signal made

with fire by the watchman from the said island, and the advice that he

sends in all haste to the city--of what ship it is, whence it has come,

what merchandise and people it brings--before the vessel has finished

anchoring, the governor and the city generally know all about it. [238]

When the vessel has arrived and anchored, the royal officials go to

inspect it and the register of the merchandise aboard it. At the

same time the valuation of the cargo is made according to law, of

what it is worth in Manila; for the vessel immediately pays three per

cent on everything to his Majesty. [239] After the register has been

inspected and the valuation made, then the merchandise is immediately

unloaded by another official into champans, and taken to the Parián,

or to other houses and magazines, outside of the city. There the

goods are freely sold.

No Spaniard, Sangley, or other person is allowed to go to the ship

to buy or trade merchandise, food, or anything else. Neither is it

allowed, when the merchandise is ashore, to take it from them or

buy it with force and violence; but the trade must be free, and the

Sangleys can do what they like with their property.

The ordinary price of the silks (both raw and woven) and the

cloths--which form the bulk of the cargo--is settled leisurely, and

by persons who understand it, both on the part of the Spaniards and

that of the Sangleys. The purchase price is paid in silver and reals,

for the Sangleys do not want gold, or any other articles, and will not

take other things to China. All the trading must be completed by the

end of the month of May, or thereabout, in order that the Sangleys

may return and the Spaniards have the goods ready to lade upon the

vessels that go to Nueva España by the end of June. However, the

larger dealers and those who have most money usually do their trading

after that time, at lower rates, and keep the merchandise until the

following year. Certain Sangleys remain in Manila with a portion of

their merchandise for the same purpose, when they have not had a good

sale for it, in order to go on selling it more leisurely. The Sangleys

are very skilful and intelligent traders, and of great coolness and

moderation, in order to carry on their business better. They are ready

to trust and accommodate freely whoever they know treats them fairly,

and does not fail in his payments to them when these are due. On

the other hand, as they are a people without religion or conscience,

and so greedy, they commit innumerable frauds and deceits in their

merchandise. The purchaser must watch them very closely, and know

them, in order not to be cheated by them. The purchasers, however,

acquit themselves by their poor payments and the debts that they incur;

and both sides generally keep the judges and Audiencia quite busy.

Some Japanese and Portuguese merchantmen also come every year from

the port of Nangasaque in Japon, at the end of October with the north

winds, and at the end of March. They enter and anchor at Manila

in the same way. The bulk of their cargo is excellent wheat-flour

for the provisioning of Manila, and highly prized salt meats. They

also bring some fine woven silk goods of mixed colors; beautiful

and finely-decorated screens done in oil and gilt; all kinds of

cutlery; many suits of armor, spears, catans, and other weapons,

all finely wrought; writing-cases, boxes and small cases of wood,

japanned and curiously marked; other pretty gewgaws; excellent fresh

pears; barrels and casks of good salt tunny; cages of sweet-voiced

larks, called _fimbaros_; and other trifles. In this trading, some

purchases are also made, without royal duties being collected from

those vessels. The bulk of the merchandise is used in the country, but

some goods are exported to Nueva España. The price is generally paid

in reals, although they are not so greedy for them as the Chinese,

for there is silver in Japon. They generally bring a quantity of it

as merchandise in plates, and it is sold at moderate rates.

These vessels return to Japon at the season of the vendavals, during

the months of June and July. They carry from Manila their purchases,

which are composed of raw Chinese silk, gold, deerskin, and brazil-wood

for their dyes. They take honey, manufactured wax, palm and Castilian

wine, civet-cats, large tibors in which to store their tea, glass,

cloth, and other curiosities from España.

Some Portuguese vessels sail to Manila annually during the monsoon of

the vendavals, from Maluco, Malaca, and India. They take merchandise

consisting of spices--cloves, cinnamon, and pepper; slaves,

both blacks and Cafres; cotton cloth of all sorts, fine muslins

[_caniquies_], linens, gauzes, _rambuties_, and other delicate

and precious cloths; amber, and ivory; cloths edged with _pita_,

[240] for use as bed-covers; hangings, and rich counterpanes from

Vengala [Bengal], Cochin, and other countries; many gilt articles

and curiosities; jewels of diamonds, rubies, sapphires, topazes,

balas-rubies, and other precious stones, both set and loose; many

trinkets and ornaments from India; wine, raisins, and almonds;

delicious preserves, and other fruits brought from Portugal and

prepared in Goa; carpets and tapestries from Persia and Turquia,

made of fine silks and wools; beds, writing-cases, parlor-chairs,

and other finely-gilded furniture, made in Macao; needle-work in

colors and in white, of chain-lace and royal point lace, and other

fancy-work of great beauty and perfection. Purchases of all the above

are made in Manila, and paid in reals and gold. The vessels return

in January with the brisas, which is their favorable monsoon. They

carry to Maluco provisions of rice and wine, crockery-ware, and

other wares needed there; while to Malaca they take only the gold or

money, besides a few special trinkets and curiosities from España,

and emeralds. The royal duties are not collected from these vessels.

A few smaller vessels also sail from Borneo, during the vendavals. They

belong to the natives of that island, and return during the first part

of the brisas. They enter the river of Manila and sell their cargoes

in their vessels. These consist of fine and well-made palm-mats, a few

slaves for the natives, sago--a certain food of theirs prepared from

the pith of palms--and tibors; large and small jars, glazed black and

very fine, which are of great service and use; and excellent camphor,

which is produced on that island. Although beautiful diamonds are found

on the opposite coast, they are not taken to Manila by those vessels,

for the Portuguese of Malaca trade for them on that coast. These

articles from Borneo are bought more largely by the natives than by

the Spaniards. The articles taken back by the Borneans are provisions

of wine and rice, cotton cloth, and other wares of the islands,

which are wanting in Borneo.

Very seldom a few vessels sail to Manila from Sian and Camboja. They

carry some benzoin, pepper, ivory, and cotton cloth; rubies and

sapphires, badly cut and set; a few slaves; rhinoceros horns, and the

hides, hoofs, and teeth of this animal; and other goods. In return they

take the wares found in Manila. Their coming and return is between the

brisas and the vendavals, during the months of April, May, and June.

In these classes of merchandise, and in the products of the

islands--namely, gold, cotton cloth, mendriñaque, and cakes of white

and yellow wax--do the Spaniards effect their purchases, investments,

and exports for Nueva España. They make these as is most suitable

for each person, and lade them on the vessels that are to make the

voyage. They value and register these goods, for they pay into the

royal treasury of Manila, before the voyage, the two per cent royal

duties on exports, besides the freight charges of the vessel, which

amount to forty Castilian ducados [241] per tonelada. This latter is

paid at the port of Acapulco in Nueva España, into the royal treasury

of the said port, in addition to the ten per cent duties for entrance

and first sale in Nueva España. [242]

Inasmuch as the ships which are despatched with the said merchandise

are at his Majesty's account, and other ships cannot be sent, there

is generally too small a place in the cargo for all the purchases. For

that reason the governor divides the cargo-room among all the shippers,

according to their wealth and merits, after they have been examined

by intelligent men, appointed for that purpose. Consequently every

man knows from his share how much he can export, and only that amount

is received in the vessel; and careful and exact account is taken of

it. Trustworthy persons are appointed who are present at the lading;

and space is left for the provisions and passengers that are to go

in the vessels. When the ships are laden and ready to sail, they

are delivered to the general and the officials who have them in

charge. Then they start on their voyage at the end of the month of

June, with the first vendavals.

This trade and commerce is so great and profitable, and easy to

control--for it only lasts three months in the year, from the

time of the arrival of the ships with their merchandise, until

those vessels that go to Nueva España take that merchandise--that

the Spaniards do not apply themselves to, or engage in, any other

industry. Consequently, there is no husbandry or field-labor worthy of

consideration. Neither do the Spaniards work the gold mines or placers,

which are numerous. They do not engage in many other industries that

they could turn to with great profit, if the Chinese trade should

fail them. That trade has been very hurtful and prejudicial in

this respect, as well as for the occupations and farm industries in

which the natives used to engage. Now the latter are abandoning and

forgetting those labors. Besides, there is the great harm and loss

resulting from the immense amount of silver that passes annually by

this way [of the trade], into the possession of infidels, which can

never, by any way, return into the possession of the Spaniards.

His Majesty's agents for the government and justice, and the royal

officials for the management of his Majesty's revenue, are as follows:

First, the governor and captain-general of all the islands, who

is at the same time president of the royal Audiencia of Manila. He

has a salary of eight thousand pesos de minas per year for all his

offices. [243] He possesses his own body-guard of twelve halberdiers,

whose captain receives three hundred pesos per year. The governor alone

provides and regulates all that pertains to war and government, with

the advice of the auditors of the Audiencia in difficult matters. He

tries in the first instance the criminal cases of the regular soldiers,

and any appeals from his decisions go to the Audiencia. [244] The

governor appoints many alcaldes-mayor, corregidors, deputies, and

other magistrates, throughout the islands and their provinces, for

carrying on the government and justice, and for military matters. These

appointments are made before a government chief scrivener appointed

by his Majesty, who helps the governor.

The governor likewise takes part with the royal Audiencia, as

its president, in whatever pertains to its duties. The Audiencia

consists of four auditors and one fiscal--each of whom receives an

annual salary of two thousand pesos de minas [245]--one reporter,

one court scrivener, one alguacil-mayor, with his assistants, one

governor of the prison of the court, one chancellor, one registrar,

two bailiffs, one chaplain and sacristan, one executioner, attorneys,

and receivers. The Audiencia tries all causes, civil and criminal,

taken to it from all the provinces of its district. [246] These

include the Filipinas Islands and the mainland of China, already

discovered or to be discovered. The Audiencia has the same authority

as the chancillerías of Valladolid and Granada in España. At the same

time, the Audiencia provides whatever is advisable for the proper

and systematic management of the royal exchequer.

His Majesty's revenues in the Filipinas Islands are in charge

of and their tribunal consists of three royal officials. They are

appointed by his Majesty, and consist of a factor, an accountant, and

a treasurer. They each receive an annual salary of five hundred and

ten thousand maravedis. They have their clerk of mines, and registrars

of the royal revenues, and their executive and other officials, all

of whom reside in Manila. From that city they manage and attend to

everything pertaining to the royal revenues throughout the islands.

His Majesty has a number of encomiendas apportioned to his royal crown

throughout the provinces of the Filipinas Islands. The tributes of

those encomiendas are collected for his royal treasury by his royal

officials and the collectors engaged for that purpose by the royal

officials. From year to year these amount to thirty thousand pesos,

after deducting costs and expenses. They collect, from one year to

another, eight thousand pesos in tributes from the Sangleys--both

Christians and infidels. [247]

They also collect the fifth of all gold dug in the islands. By

special concession for a limited period, the tenth is collected

instead of the fifth. There is a declaration concerning it, to the

effect that the natives shall pay no fifths or other duties on the

jewels and gold inherited by them from their ancestors before his

Majesty owned the country. Sufficient measures have been taken for

the clear understanding of this concession and its investigation,

for that on which the tenth has once been paid, and the steps to

be taken in the matter. From one year to another they collect ten

thousand pesos from these fifths, for much is concealed. [248]

The assignment of two reals from each tributario inures to the royal

treasury and is paid into it, for the pay of the soldiers and the

stipend of the prebendaries. These are collected from the encomenderos,

in proportion to, and on the account of, their tributes, and amount

annually to thirty-four thousand pesos.

The fines and expenses of justice are committed to the care of the

treasurer of the royal revenues, and are kept in the treasury. They

amount annually to three thousand pesos.

The three per cent duties on the Chinese merchandise of the Sangley

vessels average forty thousand pesos annually. [249]

The two per cent duties paid by the Spaniards for exporting merchandise

to Nueva España amount annually to twenty thousand pesos. On the

merchandise and money sent from Nueva España to the Filipinas,

result eight thousand pesos more. Consequently, in these things and

in other dues of less importance that belong to the royal treasury,

his Majesty receives about one hundred and fifty thousand pesos,

or thereabout, annually in the Filipinas. [250]

Inasmuch as this amount does not suffice for the expenses that are

incurred, the royal treasury of Nueva España sends annually to that of

the Filipinas, in addition to the above revenues, some assistance in

money--a greater or less sum, as necessity requires. For his Majesty

has thus provided for it from the proceeds of the ten per cent duties

on the Chinese merchandise that are collected at the port of Acapulco

in Nueva España. This assistance is given into the keeping of the

royal officials in Manila, and they take charge of it, with the rest

of the revenues that they manage and collect.

From all this gross sum of his Majesty's revenue, the salaries of

the governor and royal Audiencia are paid, as well as the stipends

of prelates and ecclesiastical prebendaries, the salaries of the

magistrates, and of the royal officials and their assistants; the

pay of all the military officers and regular soldiers; his Majesty's

share of the stipends for instruction, and the building of churches

and their ornaments; the concessions and gratifications that he has

allowed to certain monasteries, and private persons; the building

of large vessels for the navigation to Nueva España, and of galleys

and other vessels for the defense of the islands; expenses for

gunpowder and ammunition; the casting of artillery, and its care;

the expense arising for expeditions and individual undertakings

in the islands, and in their defense; that of navigations to, and

negotiations with, the kingdoms in their vicinity, which are quite

common and necessary. Consequently, since his Majesty's revenues in

these islands are so limited, and his expenses so great, the royal

treasury falls short, and suffers poverty and need. [251]

The proceeds from the ten per cent duties and the freight charges of

the ships, which are collected at Acapulco in Nueva España, on the

merchandise sent there from the Filipinas, although considerable, are

also not always sufficient for the expenses incurred in Nueva España

with the ships, soldiers, ammunition, and other supplies sent annually

to the Filipinas. These expenses are generally greatly in excess

of those duties, and the amount is made up from the royal treasury

of Mexico. Consequently, the king our sovereign derives as yet no

profit from any revenues of the Filipinas, but rather an expenditure,

by no means small, from his revenues in Nueva España. He sustains the

Filipinas only for the christianization and conversion of the natives,

and for the hopes of greater fruits in other kingdoms and provinces of

Asia, which are expected through this gateway, at God's good pleasure.

Every year the Audiencia audits the accounts of the royal officials of

his Majesty's revenues, strikes the balances, and sends the accounts

to the tribunal of accounts in Mexico. [252]

In the city of Manila, and in all those Spanish settlements of the

islands, reside Sangleys, who have come from Great China, besides

the merchants. They have appointed settlements and are engaged in

various trades, and go to the islands for their livelihood. Some

possess their pariáns and shops. Some engage in fishing and farming

among the natives, throughout the country; and go from one island to

another to trade, in large or small champans. [253]

The annual vessels from Great China bring these Sangleys in great

numbers, especially to the city of Manila, for the sake of the profits

that are gained from their fares. As there is a superabundance of

population in China, and the wages and profits there are little,

they regard as of importance whatever they get in the Filipinas.

Very great annoyances result from this; for, not only can there be

little security to the country with so many infidels, but the Sangleys

are a wicked and vicious race. Through intercourse and communication

with them, the natives improve little in Christianity and morals. And

since they come in such numbers and are so great eaters, they raise

the price of provisions, and consume them.

It is true that the city could not be maintained or preserved without

these Sangleys; for they are the mechanics in all trades, and are

excellent workmen and work for suitable prices. But a less number of

them would suffice for this, and would avoid the inconvenience of so

many people as are usually in Manila when the ships arrive--to say

nothing of the many Chinese who go about among the islands, under

pretext of trading with the natives, and there commit innumerable

crimes and offenses. At the least, they explore all the country, the

rivers, creeks, and ports, and know them better than the Spaniards

do; and they will be of great harm and injury in case of any revolt

or hostile invasion of the islands.

In order to remedy all the above, it was ordered that the vessels

should not bring so many people of this kind, under penalties that

are executed; that, when the vessels return to China, they take

these Sangleys back with them; that only a convenient number of

merchants remain in Manila, in the Parián, and the mechanics of

all necessary trades; and that these must have written license,

under severe penalties. In the execution of this, an auditor of the

Audiencia is engaged by special commission every year, together with

some assistants. On petition of the city cabildo, he usually allows

as many Sangleys to remain as are necessary for the service of all

trades and occupations. The rest are embarked and compelled to return

in the vessels going to China, and a great deal of force and violence

[254] is necessary to accomplish it.

Those merchants and artisans who remained in Manila before the revolt

of the year six hundred and three had settled the Parián and its

shops. The Parián is a large enclosed alcaicería of many streets,

at some distance from the city walls. It is near the river, and its

location is called San Graviel. There they have their own governor,

who has his tribunal and prison, and his assistants; these administer

justice to them, and watch them day and night, so that they may live

in security, and not commit disorders.

Those who cannot find room in this Parián live opposite, on the other

side of the river, where Tondo is, in two settlements called Baybay

and Minondoc. They are in charge of the alcalde-mayor of Tondo, and

under the ministry of the religious of St. Dominic, who labor for their

conversion, and for that purpose have learned the Chinese language.

The Dominicans have two monasteries with the requisite assistants,

and a good hospital for the treatment of Sangleys. In a district

kept separate from the infidels, they have a settlement of baptized

Sangleys, with their wives, households, and families, numbering five

hundred inhabitants; and the religious are continually baptizing

others and settling them in that village. But few of them turn out

well, for they are a vile and restless race, with many vices and bad

customs. Their having become Christians is not through the desire

or wish for salvation, but for the temporal conveniences that they

have there, and because some are unable to return to China because

of debts incurred and crimes committed there.

Each and all, both Christians and infidels, go unarmed and in their

national garb. This consists of long garments with wide sleeves, made

of blue cangan (but white for mourning, while the chief men wear them

of black and colored silks); wide drawers of the same material; half

hose of felt; very broad shoes, according to their fashion, made of

blue silk embroidered with braid--with several soles, well-sewed--and

of other stuffs. Their hair is long and very black, and they take

good care of it. They do it up on the head in a high knot, [255]

under a very close-fitting hood or coif of horsehair, which reaches

to the middle of the forehead. They wear above all a high round cap

made of the same horsehair, in different fashions, by which their

different occupations, and each man's rank, are distinguished. The

Christians differ only in that they cut their hair short, and wear

hats, as do the Spaniards.

They are a light-complexioned people and tall of body. They have

scant beards, are very stout-limbed, and of great strength. They

are excellent workmen, and skilful in all arts and trades. They are

phlegmatic, of little courage, treacherous and cruel when opportunity

offers, and very covetous. They are heavy eaters of all kinds of meat,

fish, and fruits; but they drink sparingly, and then of hot beverages.

They have a governor of their own race, a Christian, who has his

officials and assistants. He hears their cases in affairs of justice,

in their domestic and business affairs. Appeals from him go to the

alcalde-mayor of Tondo or of the Parián, and from all these to the

Audiencia, which also gives especial attention to this nation and

whatever pertains to it.

No Sangley can live or own a house outside these settlements of

the Parián, and of Baybay and Minondoc. Native settlements are not

allowed in Sangley settlements, or even near them. No Sangley can go

among the islands, or as much as two leguas from the city, without

special permission. Much less can he remain in the city at night,

after the gates are shut, under penalty of death.

There are generally some Japanese, both Christian and infidel, in

Manila. These are left by the vessels from Japon, although they are

not so numerous as the Chinese. They have their special settlement and

location outside the city, between the Sangley Parián and the suburb of

Laguio, near the monastery of La Candelaria. There they are directed

by discalced religious of St. Francis, by means of interpreters

whom the fathers keep for that purpose. They are a spirited race,

of good disposition, and brave. They wear their own costume, namely,

kimonos of colored silks and cotton, reaching half way down the leg,

and open in front; wide, short drawers; close-fitting half-boots of

leather, [256] and shoes like sandals, with the soles of well-woven

straw. They go bare-headed, and shave the top of the head as far

back as the crown. Their back hair is long, and fastened upon the

skull in a graceful knot. They carry their catans, large and small,

in the belt. They have scant beards, and are a race of noble bearing

and behavior. They employ many ceremonies and courtesies, and attach

much importance to honor and social standing. They are resolute in

any necessity or danger.

Those who become Christians prove very good, and are very devout

and observant in their religion; for only the desire for salvation

incites them to adopt our religion, so that there are many Christians

in Japon. Accordingly they return freely, and without opposition,

to their own country. At most there are about five hundred Japanese

of this nation in Manila, for they do not go to other parts of the

islands, and such is their disposition that they return to Japon, and

do not tarry in the islands; consequently very few of them usually

remain in the islands. They are treated very cordially, as they are

a race that demand good treatment, and it is advisable to do so for

the friendly relations between the islands and Japon. [257]

Few people come from the other nations--Sian, Camboja, Borneo, Patan,

and other islands--outside our government; and they immediately return

in their vessels. Consequently, there is nothing special to be said

of them, except that care is exercised in receiving and despatching

them well, and seeing that they return quickly to their own countries.

Since I have told, in the short time at my disposal, the

characteristics of the Filipinas Islands, and their customs and

practices, it will not be inappropriate to discuss the navigation to

them since it is made thither from Nueva España; the return voyage,

which is not short, or without great dangers and hardships; and that

made in the eastern direction.

When the islands were conquered in the year of one thousand five

hundred and seventy-four [_sic; sc_. 1564], the Spanish fleet sailed

under command of the adelantado Miguel Lopez de Legaspi, from Puerto

de la Navidad [258] situated in the South Sea, on the coast of Nueva

España, in the province and district of Xalisco and Galicia, where

resides the royal Audiencia of Guadalajara. A few later voyages

were made also from the same port, until the point for the sending

of these vessels was removed, for better and greater convenience,

to the port of Acapulco, located farther south on the same coast,

in sixteen and one-half degrees of latitude; it is eighty leguas from

Mexico, and in its district. It is an excellent port, sheltered from

all weather; and has a good entrance and good anchorages. Its vicinity

is advantageous, being better provisioned and more populous than that

of La Navidad. There a large Spanish colony has been established,

with its alcalde-mayor, and royal officials who have charge of his

Majesty's treasury; and these attend to the despatch of the vessels.

The vessels that sail to the Filipinas, as they are despatched annually

on his Majesty's account, must necessarily leave in the certain season

of the brisas, which begin in the month of November and last until the

end of March. This navigation should not be made at any other season,

for from June the vendavals blow, and they are contrary to the voyage.

As a rule, these ships sail and are despatched at the end of February,

or at the latest by the twentieth of March. They sail west toward the

islands of Las Velas, [259] otherwise called the Ladrones. The island

of Guan, one of them, lies in thirteen degrees of latitude. Inasmuch

as the vessels on leaving Acapulco are wont sometimes to encounter

calms, they sail south from sixteen and one-half degrees, in which

the port is situated, until they strike the brisas, which is generally

at ten or eleven degrees. By this route they sail continually before

the wind, and without changing the sails, with fresh and fair brisas,

and in other moderate weather, for one thousand eight hundred leguas,

without sighting any mainland or island. Then leaving to the south

the Barbudos and other islands, and advancing gradually to a latitude

of thirteen degrees, they sail until they sight the island of Guan;

and above it, in fourteen degrees, that of La Çarpana [Seypan]. This

voyage to those Ladrones Islands lasts generally seventy days.

The natives of those islands, who go naked, and are a very robust

and barbarous race, go out to sea to meet the ships as soon as they

discover them, at a distance of four to six leguas, with many vessels;

these are one-masted, and are very slender and light. These vessels

have a counterpoise of bamboo to leeward, and their sails are made

of palm-leaves and are lateen-sails. Two or three men go in each one

with oars and paddles. They carry loads of flying-fish, dorados,

[260] cocoa-nuts, bananas, sweet potatoes, bamboos full of water,

and certain mats; and when they reach the ships, they trade these for

iron from the hoops of casks, and bundles of nails, which they use

in their industries, and in the building of their ships. Since some

Spaniards and religious have lived among them, because of Spanish

ships being wrecked or obliged to take refuge there, they come more

freely to our ships and enter them.

Our ships sail between the two islands of Guan and Çarpana toward the

Filipinas and the cape of Espiritu Santo, a distance of three hundred

leguas farther on, in the latitude of about thirteen degrees. This

distance is made in ten or twelve days with the brisas; but it may

happen, if the ships sail somewhat late, that they encounter vendavals,

which endanger their navigation, and they enter the islands after

great trouble and stormy weather.

From the cape of Espiritu Santo, the ships enter the strait of Capul

at the islands of Mazbate and Burias; thence they sail to Marinduque

and the coast of Calilaya, the strait of Mindoro, the shoals of

Tuley, and the mouth of Manila Bay. Thence, they go to the port of

Cabit. This is a voyage of one hundred leguas from the entrance to

the islands and is made in one week. This is the end of the voyage,

which is good and generally without storms, if made in the proper time.

These vessels now make the return voyage from the Filipinas to Nueva

España with great difficulty and danger, for the course is a long one

and there are many storms and various temperatures. The ships depart,

on this account, very well supplied with provisions, and suitably

equipped. Each one sails alone, hoisting as much sail as possible,

and one does not wait for the other, nor do they sight one another

during the voyage.

They leave the bay and port of Cabit at the first setting-in of

the vendavals, between the same islands and by the same straits,

by the twentieth of June and later. As they set out amid showers,

and are among islands, they sail with difficulty until they leave

the channel at Capul. Once in the open sea, they catch the vendaval,

and voyage east, making more progress when they reach the latitude

of fourteen or fifteen degrees.

Then the brisa starts. This wind is the ordinary one in the South Sea,

especially in low latitudes. Since it is a head wind, the course is

changed, and the bow is pointed betwen the north and east, as much

as the wind will allow. With this they reach a higher latitude, and

the ship is kept in this course until the vendaval returns. Then,

by means of it, the ship again takes an eastern course in that

latitude where it happens to be, and keeps that direction as long

as that wind lasts. When the vendaval dies, the ship takes the best

course that the winds allow, by the winds then blowing between north

and east. If the wind is so contrary that it is north or northwest,

so that the ship cannot take that course, the other course is taken

so that they may continue to maintain their voyage without losing

time. At four hundred leguas from the islands they sight certain

volcanoes and ridges of the islands of Ladrones, which run north as

far as twenty-four degrees. [261] Among these they generally encounter

severe storms and whirl-winds. At thirty-four degrees is the cape of

Sestos, [262] at the northern head of Japon, six hundred leguas from

the Filipinas. They sail among other islands, which are rarely seen,

in thirty-eight degrees, encountering the same dangers and storms,

and in a cold climate, in the neighborhood of the islands Rica de

Oro ["rich in gold"] and Rica de Plata ["rich in silver"], which are

but seldom seen. [263] After passing them the sea and open expanse

of water is immense, and the ship can run free in any weather. This

gulf is traversed for many leguas with such winds as are encountered,

until a latitude of forty-two degrees is reached, toward the coast of

Nueva España. They seek the winds that generally prevail at so high a

latitude, which are usually northwest. After a long voyage the coast

of Nueva España is sighted, and from Cape Mendoçino (which lies in

forty-two and one-half degrees) the coast extends nine hundred leguas

to the port of Acapulco, which lies in sixteen and one-half degrees.

When the ships near the coast, which they generally sight betwen forty

and thirty-six degrees, the cold is very severe, and the people suffer

and die. Three hundred leguas before reaching land, signs of it are

seen, by certain _aguas malas_, [264] as large as the hand, round

and violet colored, with a crest in the middle like a lateen sail,

which are called _caravelas_ ["caravels"]. This sign lasts until the

ship is one hundred leguas from land; and then are discovered certain

fish, with half the body in the form of a dog; [265] these frolic with

one another near the ship. After these _perrillos_ ["little dogs"]

are seen the _porras_ ["knobsticks"], which are certain very long,

hollow shoots of a yellow herb with a ball at the top, and which

float on the water. At thirty leguas from the coast are seen many

great bunches of grass which are carried down to the sea by the

great rivers of the country. These grasses are called _balsas_

["rafts or floats"]. Also many perrillos are seen, and, in turn,

all the various signs. Then the coast is discovered, and it is very

high and clear land. Without losing sight of land, the ship coasts

along it with the northwest, north-northwest, and north winds, which

generally prevail on that coast, blowing by day toward the land,

and by night toward the sea again. With the decrease of the latitude

and the entrance into a warm climate the island of Cenizas [ashes]

is seen, and afterward that of Cedros [cedars]. Thence one sails until

the cape of San Lucas is sighted, which is the entrance of [the gulf

of] California. From that one traverses the eighty leguas intervening

to the islands of Las Marias and the cape of Corrientes ["currents"],

which is on the other side of California in Val de Vanderas ["valley of

banners"], and the provinces of Chametla. Thence one passes the coast

of Colima, Sacatul, Los Motines ["the mutinies"], and Ciguatanejo,

and enters the port of Acapulco--without having made a way-station or

touched land from the channel of Capul in the Filipinas throughout

the voyage. The voyage usually lasts five months or thereabout,

but often six and even more. [266]

By way of India, one may sail from the Filipinas to España, by making

the voyage to Malaca, and thence to Cochin and Goa, a distance

of one thousand two hundred leguas. This voyage must be made with

the brisas. From Goa one sails by way of India to the cape of Buena

Esperança [Good Hope], and to the Terceras [_i.e._, Azores] Islands,

and thence to Portugal and the port of Lisboa. This is a very long

and dangerous voyage, as is experienced by the Portuguese who make

it every year. From India they usually send letters and despatches to

España by way of the Bermejo ["Red"] Sea, by means of Indians. These

send them through Arabia to Alexandria, and thence by sea to Venecia

[Venice] and thence to España.

A galleon bound for Portugal sails and is despatched from the fort of

Malaca, in certain years, by the open sea, without touching at India

or on its coasts. It reaches Lisboa much more quickly than do the Goa

vessels. It generally sails on the fifth of January, and does not leave

later than that; nor does it usually anticipate that date. However,

not any of these voyages are practiced by the Castilians--who are

prohibited from making them--except the one made by way of Nueva

España, both going and coming, as above described. And although the

effort has been made, no better or shorter course has been found by

way of the South Sea. [267]

_Laus Deo_

The Philippine Islands, 1493-1898 — Volume 16 of 55 1609 Explorations by Early Navigators, Descriptions of the Islands and Their Peoples, Their History and Records of the Catholic Missions, as Related in Contemporaneous Books and Manuscripts, Showing the Political, Economic, Commercial and Religious Conditions of Those Islands from Their Earliest Relations with European Nations to the Close of the Nineteenth Century · 第 10 / 17 题

There were no kings or lords throughout these islands who ruled over