_Observations concerning the State and Sources of Slavery in Africa._
A state of subordination, and certain inequalities of rank and
condition, are inevitable in every stage of civil society; but when
this subordination is carried to so great a length, that the persons
and services of one part of the community are entirely at the disposal
of another part, it may then be denominated a state of slavery; and
in this condition of life, a great body of the Negro inhabitants of
Africa have continued from the most early period of their history; with
this aggravation, that their children are born to no other inheritance.
The slaves in Africa, I suppose, are nearly in the proportion of
three to one to the freemen. They claim no reward for their services,
except food and clothing; and are treated with kindness, or severity,
according to the good or bad disposition of their masters. Custom,
however, has established certain rules with regard to the treatment
of slaves, which it is thought dishonourable to violate. Thus,
the domestic slaves, or such as are born in a man’s own house,
are treated with more lenity than those which are purchased with
money. The authority of the master over the domestic slave, as I have
elsewhere observed, extends only to reasonable correction; for the
master cannot sell his domestic, without having first brought him
to a public trial, before the chief men of the place[20] But these
restrictions on the power of the master, extend not to the case of
prisoners taken in war, nor to that of slaves purchased with money. All
these unfortunate beings are considered as strangers and foreigners,
who have no right to the protection of the law, and may be treated
with severity, or sold to a stranger, according to the pleasure of
their owners. There are, indeed, regular markets, where slaves of this
description are bought and sold; and the value of a slave in the eye
of an African purchaser, increases in proportion to his distance from
his native kingdom: for when slaves are only a few days’ journey
from the place of their nativity, they frequently effect their escape;
but when one or more kingdoms intervene, escape being more difficult,
they are more readily reconciled to their situation. On this account,
the unhappy slave is frequently transferred from one dealer to another,
until he has lost all hopes of returning to his native kingdom. The
slaves which are purchased by the Europeans on the Coast, are chiefly
of this description; a few of them are collected in the petty wars,
hereafter to be described, which take place near the Coast; but by
far the greater number are brought down in large caravans from the
inland countries, of which many are unknown, even by name, to the
Europeans. The slaves which are thus brought from the interior, may
be divided into two distinct classes; _first_, such as were slaves
from their birth, having been born of enslaved mothers; _secondly_,
such as were born free, but who afterwards, by whatever means, became
slaves. Those of the first description, are by far the most numerous;
for prisoners taken in war (at least such as are taken in open and
declared war, when one kingdom avows hostilities against another)
are generally of this description. The comparatively small proportion
of free people, to the enslaved, throughout Africa, has already
been noticed; and it must be observed, that men of free condition,
have many advantages over the slaves, even in war time. They are in
general better armed, and well mounted; and can either fight or escape,
with some hopes of success; but the slaves, who have only their spears
and bows, and of whom great numbers are loaded with baggage, become an
easy prey. Thus, when Mansong, King of Bambarra, made war upon Kaarta
(as I have related in a former Chapter), he took in one day nine
hundred prisoners, of which number not more than seventy were free
men. This account I received from Daman Jumma, who had thirty slaves
at Kemmoo, all of whom were made prisoners by Mansong. Again, when
a freeman is taken prisoner, his friends will sometimes ransom him,
by giving two slaves in exchange; but when a slave is taken, he has no
hopes of such redemption. To these disadvantages, it is to be added,
that the Slatees, who purchase slaves in the interior countries, and
carry them down to the Coast for sale, constantly prefer such as have
been in that condition of life from their infancy, well knowing that
these have been accustomed to hunger and fatigue, and are better able
to sustain the hardships of a long and painful journey, than free men;
and on their reaching the Coast, if no opportunity offers of selling
them to advantage, they can easily be made to maintain themselves by
their labour; neither are they so apt to attempt making their escape,
as those who have once tasted the blessings of freedom.
Slaves of the second description, generally become such by one or other
of the following causes, 1. _Captivity._ 2. _Famine._ 3. _Insolvency._
4. _Crimes._ A freeman may, by the established customs of Africa,
become a slave, by being taken in war. War, is of all others, the
most productive source, and was probably the origin, of slavery; for
when one nation had taken from another, a greater number of captives
than could be exchanged on equal terms, it is natural to suppose that
the conquerors, finding it inconvenient to maintain their prisoners,
would compel them to labour; at first, perhaps, only for their own
support; but afterwards to support their masters. Be this as it may,
it is a known fact, that prisoners of war in Africa, are the slaves
of the conquerors; and when the weak or unsuccessful warrior, begs
for mercy beneath the uplifted spear of his opponent, he gives up
at the same time his claim to liberty; and purchases his life at the
expence of his freedom.
In a country, divided into a thousand petty states, mostly independent
and jealous of each other; where every freeman is accustomed to arms,
and fond of military achievements; where the youth who has practised
the bow and spear from his infancy, longs for nothing so much as
an opportunity to display his valour, it is natural to imagine that
wars frequently originate from very frivolous provocation. When one
nation is more powerful than another, a pretext is seldom wanting
for commencing hostilities. Thus the war between Kajaaga and Kasson
was occasioned by the detention of a fugitive slave; that between
Bambarra and Kaarta by the loss of a few cattle. Other cases of the
same nature perpetually occur, in which the folly or mad ambition of
their princes, and the zeal of their religious enthusiasts, give full
employment to the scythe of desolation.
The wars of Africa are of two kinds, which are distinguished
by different appellations: that species which bears the greatest
resemblance to our European contests, is denominated _killi_, a word
signifying “to call out,” because such wars are openly avowed,
and previously declared. Wars of this description in Africa, commonly
terminate, however, in the course of a single campaign. A battle
is fought; the vanquished seldom think of rallying again; the whole
inhabitants become panic struck; and the conquerors have only to bind
the slaves, and carry off their plunder and their victims. Such of the
prisoners as, through age or infirmity, are unable to endure fatigue,
or are found unfit for sale, are considered as useless; and I have
no doubt are frequently put to death. The same fate commonly awaits
a chief, or any other person who has taken a very distinguished part
in the war. And here it may be observed that, notwithstanding this
exterminating system, it is surprising to behold how soon an African
town is rebuilt and repeopled. The circumstance arises probably from
this; that their pitched battles are few; the weakest know their own
situation, and seek safety in flight. When their country has been
desolated, and their ruined towns and villages deserted by the enemy,
such of the inhabitants as have escaped the _sword_, and the _chain_,
generally return, though with cautious steps, to the place of their
nativity; for it seems to be the universal wish of mankind, to spend
the evening of their days where they passed their infancy. The poor
Negro feels this desire in its full force. To him, no water is sweet
but what is drawn from his own well; and no tree has so cool and
pleasant a shade as the _tabba_ tree[21] of his native village. When
war compels him to abandon the delightful spot in which he first drew
his breath, and seek for safety in some other kingdom, his time is
spent in talking about the country of his ancestors; and no sooner
is peace restored than he turns his back upon the land of strangers,
rebuilds with haste his fallen walls, and exults to see the smoke
ascend from his native village.
The other species of African warfare, is distinguished by the
appellation of _tegria_, “plundering or stealing.” It arises
from a sort of hereditary feud, which the inhabitants of one nation
or district bear towards another. No immediate cause of hostility
is assigned, or notice of attack given; but the inhabitants of
each, watch every opportunity to plunder and distress the objects
of their animosity by predatory excursions. These, are very common,
particularly about the beginning of the dry season, when the labour of
the harvest is over and provisions are plentiful. Schemes of vengeance
are then meditated. The chief man surveys the number and activity of
his vassals, as they brandish their spears at festivals; and elated
with his own importance, turns his whole thoughts towards revenging
some depredation or insult, which either he or his ancestors may have
received from a neighbouring state.
Wars of this description are generally conducted with great secrecy. A
few resolute individuals, headed by some person of enterprise and
courage, march quietly through the woods, surprize in the night some
unprotected village, and carry off the inhabitants and their effects,
before their neighbours can come to their assistance. One morning,
during my stay at Kamalia, we were all much alarmed by a party of this
kind. The king of Fooladoo’s son, with five hundred horsemen, passed
secretly through the woods, a little to the southward of Kamalia, and
on the morning following, plundered three towns belonging to Madigai,
a powerful chief in Jallonkadoo.
The success of this expedition encouraged the governor of Bangassi,
a town in Fooladoo, to make a second inroad upon another part of the
same country. Having assembled about two hundred of his people, he
passed the river Kokoro in the night, and carried off a great number of
prisoners. Several of the inhabitants who had escaped these attacks,
were afterwards seized by the Mandingoes, as they wandered about in
the woods, or concealed themselves in the glens and strong places of
the mountains.
These plundering excursions, always produce speedy retaliation;
and when large parties cannot be collected for this purpose, a
few friends will combine together, and advance into the enemy’s
country, with a view to plunder, or carry off the inhabitants. A single
individual has been known to take his bow and quiver, and proceed in
like manner. Such an attempt is doubtless in him an act of rashness;
but when it is considered that, in one of these predatory wars, he
has probably been deprived of his child or his nearest relation, his
situation will rather call for pity than censure. The poor sufferer,
urged on by the feelings of domestic or paternal attachment, and
the ardour of revenge, conceals himself among the bushes, until some
young or unarmed person passes by. He then, tyger-like, springs upon
his prey; drags his victim into the thicket, and in the night carries
him off as a slave.
When a Negro has, by means like these, once fallen into the hands
of his enemies, he is either retained as the slave of his conqueror,
or bartered into a distant kingdom; for an African, when he has once
subdued his enemy, will seldom give him an opportunity of lifting
up his hand against him at a future period. A conqueror commonly
disposes of his captives according to the rank which they held in
their native kingdom. Such of the domestic slaves as appear to be of
a mild disposition, and particularly the young women, are retained as
his own slaves. Others that display marks of discontent, are disposed
of in a distant country; and such of the freemen or slaves, as have
taken an active part in the war, are either sold to the Slatees,
or put to death. War, therefore, is certainly the most general, and
most productive source of slavery; and the desolations of war often
(but not always) produce the second cause of slavery, _famine_;
in which case a freeman becomes a slave, to avoid a greater calamity.
Perhaps, by a philosophic and reflecting mind, death itself would
scarcely be considered as a greater calamity than slavery; but the poor
Negro, when fainting with hunger, thinks like ESAU of old; “_behold
I am at the point to die, and what profit shall this birthright do to
me?_” There are many instances of free men voluntarily surrendering
up their liberty to save their lives. During a great scarcity which
lasted for three years, in the countries of the Gambia, great numbers
of people became slaves in this manner. Dr. Laidley assured me that,
at that time, many free men came and begged, with great earnestness,
_to be put upon his slave-chain_, to save them from perishing of
hunger. Large families are very often exposed to absolute want; and
as the parents have almost unlimited authority over their children,
it frequently happens, in all parts of Africa, that some of the latter
are sold to purchase provisions for the rest of the family. When
I was at Jarra, Daman Jumma pointed out to me three young slaves
which he had purchased in this manner. I have already related another
instance which I saw at Wonda; and I was informed that in Fooladoo,
at that time, it was a very common practice.
The third cause of slavery, is _insolvency_. Of all the offences
(if insolvency may be so called), to which the laws of Africa have
affixed the punishment of slavery, this is the most common. A Negro
trader commonly contracts debts on some mercantile speculation,
either from his neighbours, to purchase such articles as will sell
to advantage in a distant market, or from the European traders on
the Coast; payment to be made in a given time. In both cases, the
situation of the adventurer is exactly the same. If he succeeds,
he may secure an independency. If he is unsuccessful, his person and
services are at the disposal of another; for in Africa, not only the
effects of the insolvent, but even the insolvent himself, is sold to
satisfy the lawful demands of his creditors.[22]
The fourth cause above enumerated, is _the commission of crimes,
on which the laws of the country affix slavery as a punishment_. In
Africa, the only offences of this class, are murder, adultery, and
witchcraft; and I am happy to say, that they did not appear to me to be
common. In cases of murder, I was informed, that the nearest relation
of the deceased had it in his power, after conviction, either to kill
the offender with his own hand, or sell him into slavery. When adultery
occurs, it is generally left to the option of the person injured,
either to sell the culprit, or accept such a ransom for him, as he
may think equivalent to the injury he has sustained. By witchcraft,
is meant pretended magic, by which the lives or healths of persons are
affected: in other words, it is the administering of poison. No trial
for this offence, however, came under my observation while I was in
Africa; and I therefore suppose that the crime, and its punishment,
occur but very seldom.
When a free man has become a slave by any one of the causes before
mentioned, he generally continues so for life, and his children
(if they are born of an enslaved mother) are brought up in the same
state of servitude. There are however a few instances of slaves
obtaining their freedom, and sometimes even with the consent of
their masters; as by performing some singular piece of service,
or by going to battle, and bringing home two slaves as a ransome;
but the common way of regaining freedom is by escape, and when slaves
have once set their minds on running away, they often succeed. Some
of them will wait for years before an opportunity presents itself,
and during that period shew no signs of discontent. In general,
it may be remarked, that slaves who come from a hilly country,
and have been much accustomed to hunting and travel, are more apt
to attempt their escape, than such as are born in a flat country,
and have been employed in cultivating the land.
Such are the general outlines of that system of slavery which prevails
in Africa; and it is evident, from its nature and extent, that it is
a system of no modern date. It probably had its origin in the remote
ages of antiquity, before the Mahomedans explored a path across the
Desert. How far it is maintained and supported by the slave traffic,
which, for two hundred years, the nations of Europe have carried on
with the natives of the Coast, it is neither within my province,
nor in my power, to explain. If my sentiments should be required
concerning the effect which a discontinuance of that commerce would
produce on the manners of the natives, I should have no hesitation in
observing, that, in the present unenlightened state of their minds,
my opinion is, the effect would neither be so extensive or beneficial,
as many wise and worthy persons fondly expect.
[Footnote 20: In time of famine, the master is permitted to sell one or
more of his domestics, to purchase provisions for his family; and in
case of the master’s insolvency, the domestic slaves are sometimes
seized upon by the creditors; and if the master cannot redeem them,
they are liable to be sold for payment of his debts. These are the
only cases that I recollect, in which the domestic slaves are liable
to be sold, without any misconduct or demerit of their own.]
[Footnote 21: This is a large spreading tree (a species of _sterculia_)
under which the Bentang is commonly placed.]
[Footnote 22: When a Negro takes up goods on credit from any of
the Europeans on the Coast, and does not make payment at the time
appointed, the European is authorized, by the laws of the country,
to seize upon the debtor himself, if he can find him; or it he cannot
be found, on any person of his family; or, in the last resort, on _any
native of the same kingdom_. The person thus seized on, is detained
while his friends are sent in quest of the debtor. When he is found,
a meeting is called of the chief people of the place, and the debtor
is compelled to ransom his friend by fulfilling his engagements. If he
is unable to do this, his person is immediately secured and sent down
to the Coast, and the other released. If the debtor cannot be found,
the person seized on is obliged to pay double the amount of the debt,
or is himself sold into slavery. I was given to understand, however,
that this part of the law is seldom enforced.]