_The Account of the Mandingoes continued. — Their Notions in
respect of the Planetary Bodies, and the Figure of the Earth. —
Their religious Opinions, and Belief in a Future State. — Their
Diseases and Methods of Treatment. — Their Funeral Ceremonies,
Amusements, Occupations, Diet, Arts, Manufactures, & c._
The Mandingoes, and I believe the Negroes in general, have no
artificial method of dividing time. They calculate the years by the
number of _rainy seasons_. They portion the year into _moons_, and
reckon the days by so many _suns_. The day, they divide into morning,
mid-day, and evening; and further subdivide it, when necessary, by
pointing to the sun’s place in the Heavens. I frequently inquired
of some of them, what became of the sun during the night, and whether
we should see the same sun, or a different one, in the morning: but I
found that they considered the question as very childish. The subject
appeared to them, as placed beyond the reach of human investigation:
they had never indulged a conjecture, nor formed any hypothesis about
the matter. The moon, by varying her form, has more attracted their
attention. On the first appearance of the new moon, which they look
upon to be newly created, the Pagan natives, as well as Mahomedans,
say a short prayer; and this seems to be the only visible adoration
which the Kafirs offer up to the Supreme Being. This prayer is
pronounced in a whisper; the party holding up his hands before his
face: its purport (as I have been assured by many different people)
is to return thanks to God for his kindness through the existence of
the past moon, and to solicit a continuation of his favour during that
of the new one. At the conclusion, they spit upon their hands, and
rub them over their faces. This seems to be nearly the same ceremony,
which prevailed among the Heathens in the days of Job.[17]
Great attention, however, is paid to the changes of this luminary,
in its monthly course; and it is thought very unlucky to begin a
journey, or any other work of consequence, in the last quarter. An
eclipse, whether of the sun or moon, is supposed to be effected by
witchcraft. The stars are very little regarded; and the whole study
of astronomy appears to them as a useless pursuit, and attended to
by such persons only as deal in magic.
Their notions of geography, are equally puerile. They imagine that
the world is an extended plain, the termination of which no eye has
discovered; it being, they say, overhung with clouds and darkness. They
describe the sea as a large river of salt water, on the farther shore
of which is situated a country called _Tobaubo doo_; “the land of
the white people.” At a distance from Tobaubo doo, they describe
another country, which they allege is inhabited by cannibals of
gigantic size, called _Koomi_. This country they call _Jong sang doo_
“the land where the slaves are sold.” But of all countries in the
world their own appears to them as the best, and their own people as
the happiest; and they pity the fate of other nations, who have been
placed by Providence in less fertile and less fortunate districts.
Some of the religious opinions of the Negroes, though blended with the
weakest credulity and superstition, are not unworthy attention. I have
conversed with all ranks and conditions, upon the subject of their
faith, and can pronounce, without the smallest shadow of doubt, that
the belief of one God, and of a future state of reward and punishment,
is entire and universal among them. It is remarkable, however, that,
except on the appearance of a new moon, as before related, the Pagan
natives do not think it necessary to offer up prayers and supplications
to the Almighty. They represent the Deity, indeed, as the creator and
preserver of all things; but in general they consider him as a Being
so remote, and of so exalted a nature, that it is idle to imagine the
feeble supplications of wretched mortals can reverse the decrees,
and change the purposes of unerring Wisdom. If they are asked, for
what reason then do they offer up a prayer on the appearance of the
new moon; the answer is, that custom has made it necessary: they do
it, because their fathers did it before them. Such is the blindness
of unassisted nature! The concerns of this world, they believe,
are committed by the Almighty to the superintendance and direction
of subordinate spirits, over whom they suppose that certain magical
ceremonies have great influence. A white fowl, suspended to the branch
of a particular tree; a snake’s head, or a few handfuls of fruit,
are offerings which ignorance and superstition frequently present, to
deprecate the wrath, or to conciliate the favour, of these tutelary
agents. But it is not often that the Negroes make their religious
opinions the subject of conversation: when interrogated, in particular,
concerning their ideas of a future state, they express themselves
with great reverence, but endeavour to shorten the discussion by
observing—_mo o mo inta allo_, “no man knows any thing about
it.” They are content, they say, to follow the precepts and examples
of their forefathers, through the various vicissitudes of life;
and when this world presents no objects of enjoyment or of comfort,
they seem to look with anxiety towards another, which they believe
will be better suited to their natures; but concerning which they
are far from indulging vain and delusive conjectures.
The Mandingoes seldom attain extreme old age. At forty, most of them
become gray haired, and covered with wrinkles; and but few of them
survive the age of fifty-five, or sixty. They calculate the years
of their lives, as I have already observed, by the number of rainy
seasons (there being but one such in the year); and distinguish each
year by a particular name, founded on some remarkable occurrence which
happened in that year. Thus they say the year of the _Farbanna war_;
the year of the _Kaarta war_; the year on which _Gadou was plundered,
&c. &c._; and I have no doubt that the year 1796, will in many places
be distinguished by the name of _Tobaubo tambi sang_, “the year
the white man passed;” as such an occurrence would naturally form
an epoch in their traditional history.
But, notwithstanding that longevity is uncommon among them, it appeared
to me that their diseases are but few in number. Their simple diet,
and active way of life, preserve them from many of those disorders,
which embitter the days of luxury and idleness. Fevers and fluxes are
the most common, and the most fatal. For these, they generally apply
saphies to different parts of the body, and perform a great many other
superstitious ceremonies; some of which are, indeed, well calculated to
inspire the patient with the hope of recovery, and divert his mind from
brooding over his own danger. But I have sometimes observed among them,
a more systematic mode of treatment. On the first attack of a fever,
when the patient complains of cold, he is frequently placed in a sort
of vapour bath: this is done by spreading branches of the _nauclea
orientalis_ upon hot wood embers, and laying the patient upon them,
wrapped up in a large cotton cloth. Water is then sprinkled upon the
branches, which descending to the hot embers, soon covers the patient
with a cloud of vapour, in which he is allowed to remain until the
embers are almost extinguished. This practice commonly produces a
profuse perspiration, and wonderfully relieves the sufferer.
For the dysentery, they use the bark of different trees reduced to
powder, and mixed with the patient’s food; but this practice is in
general very unsuccessful.
The other diseases which prevail among the Negroes, are the _yaws_;
the _elephantiasis_; and a _leprosy_ of the very worst kind. This
last mentioned complaint appears, at the beginning, in scurfy
spots upon different parts of the body; which finally settle upon
the hands or feet, where the skin becomes withered, and cracks in
many places. At length, the ends of the fingers swell and ulcerate;
the discharge is acrid and fetid; the nails drop off, and the bones
of the fingers become carious, and separate at the joints. In this
manner the disease continues to spread, frequently until the patient
loses all his fingers and toes. Even the hands and feet are sometimes
destroyed by this inveterate malady, to which the Negroes give the
name of _balla jou_, “incurable.”
The _Guinea worm_ is likewise very common in certain places, especially
at the commencement of the rainy season. The Negroes attribute this
disease, which has been described by many writers, to bad water; and
allege that the people who drink from wells, are more subject to it
than those who drink from streams. To the same cause, they attribute
the swelling of the glands of the neck (goitres), which are very common
in some parts of Bambarra. I observed also, in the interior countries,
a few instances of simple gonorrhœa; but never the confirmed lues. On
the whole, it appeared to me that the Negroes are better surgeons
than physicians. I found them very successful in their management
of fractures and dislocations, and their splints and bandages are
simple, and easily removed. The patient is laid upon a soft mat, and
the fractured limb is frequently bathed with cold water. All abscesses
they open with the actual cautery; and the dressings are composed of
either soft leaves, Shea butter, or cows’ dung, as the case seems,
in their judgment, to require. Towards the Coast, where a supply of
European lancets can be procured, they sometimes perform phlebotomy;
and in cases of local inflammation, a curious sort of cupping is
practised. This operation is performed by making incisions in the
part, and applying to it a bullock’s horn, with a small hole in
the end. The operator then takes a piece of bees-wax in his mouth,
and putting his lips to the hole, extracts the air from the horn;
and by a dexterous use of his tongue, stops up the hole with the
wax. This method is found to answer the purpose, and in general
produces a plentiful discharge.
When a person of consequence dies, the relations and neighbours meet
together, and manifest their sorrow by loud and dismal howlings. A
bullock or goat is killed for such persons as come to assist at the
funeral; which generally takes place in the evening of the same day on
which the party died. The Negroes have no appropriate burial places,
and frequently dig the grave in the floor of the deceased’s hut,
or in the shade of a favourite tree. The body is dressed in white
cotton, and wrapped up in a mat. It is carried to the grave, in the
dusk of the evening, by the relations. If the grave is without the
walls of the town, a number of prickly bushes are laid upon it, to
prevent the wolves from digging up the body; but I never observed
that any stone was placed over the grave, as a monument or memorial.
Hitherto I have considered the Negroes chiefly in a moral light;
and confined myself to the most prominent features in their mental
character: their domestic amusements, occupations, and diet; their
arts and manufactures, with some other subordinate objects, are now
to be noticed.
Of their music and dances, some account has incidentally been given in
different parts of my Journal. On the first of these heads, I have now
to add a list of their musical instruments, the principal of which
are,—the _koonting_, a sort of guitar with three strings;—the
_korro_, a large harp, with eighteen strings;—the _simbing_, a small
harp, with seven strings;— the _balafou_, an instrument composed
of twenty pieces of hard wood of different lengths, with the shells
of gourds hung underneath, to increase the sound;—the _tangtang_,
a drum, open at the lower end; and lastly, the _tabala_, a large drum,
commonly used to spread an alarm through the country. Besides these,
they make use of small flutes, bowstrings, elephants’ teeth, and
bells; and at all their dances and concerts, _clapping of hands_
appears to constitute a necessary part of the chorus.
With the love of music is naturally connected a taste for poetry;
and, fortunately for the poets of Africa, they are in a great measure
exempted from that neglect and indigence, which in more polished
countries commonly attend the votaries of the Muses. They consist
of two classes; the most numerous are the _singing men_, called
_Jilli kea_, mentioned in a former part of my narrative. One or
more of these may be found in every town. They sing extempore songs,
in honour of their chief men, or any other persons who are willing
to give “solid pudding for empty praise.” But a nobler part of
their office is to recite the historical events of their country:
hence, in war, they accompany the soldiers to the field; in order,
by reciting the great actions of their ancestors, to awaken in them
a spirit of glorious emulation. The other class, are devotees of the
Mahomedan faith, who travel about the country, singing devout hymns,
and performing religious ceremonies, to conciliate the favour of
the Almighty; either in averting calamity, or insuring success to
any enterprize. Both descriptions of these itinerant bards are much
employed and respected by the people, and very liberal contributions
are made for them.
The usual diet of the Negroes is somewhat different in different
districts; in general, the people of free condition breakfast about
daybreak, upon gruel made of meal and water, with a little of the
fruit of the tamarind to give it an acid taste. About two o’clock
in the afternoon, a sort of hasty pudding, with a little Shea butter,
is the common meal; but the supper constitutes the principal repast,
and is seldom ready before midnight. This consists almost universally
of kouskous, with a small portion of animal food, or Shea butter,
mixed with it. In eating, the Kafirs, as well as Mahomedans, use the
right hand only.
The beverage of the Pagan Negroes, are beer and mead; of each of
which they frequently drink to excess. The Mahomedan converts drink
nothing but water. The natives of all descriptions take snuff and
smoke tobacco; their pipes are made of wood, with an earthen bowl of
curious workmanship. But in the interior countries, the greatest of
all luxuries is salt. It would appear strange to an European, to see
a child suck a piece of rock-salt, as if it were sugar. This, however,
I have frequently seen; although, in the inland parts, the poorer class
of inhabitants are so very rarely indulged with this precious article,
that to say _a man eats salt with his victuals_, is the same as saying,
_he is a rich man_. I have myself suffered great inconvenience from the
scarcity of this article. The long use of vegetable food, creates so
painful a longing for salt, that no words can sufficiently describe it.
The Negroes in general, and the Mandingoes in particular, are
considered by the whites on the Coast as an indolent and inactive
people; I think, without reason. The nature of the climate is, indeed,
unfavourable to great exertion; but surely a people cannot justly be
denominated habitually indolent, whose wants are supplied, not by the
spontaneous productions of nature, but by their own exertions. Few
people work harder, when occasion requires, than the Mandingoes; but
not having many opportunities of turning to advantage, the superfluous
produce of their labour, they are content with cultivating as much
ground only, as is necessary for their own support. The labours of
the field give them pretty full employment during the rains; and in
the dry season, the people who live in the vicinity of large rivers,
employ themselves chiefly in fishing. The fish are taken in wicker
baskets, or with small cotton nets; and are preserved by being
first dried in the sun, and afterwards rubbed with Shea butter,
to prevent them from contracting fresh moisture. Others of the
natives employ themselves in hunting. Their weapons are bows and
arrows; but the arrows in common use are not poisoned.[18] They
are very dexterous marksmen, and will hit a lizard on a tree, or
any other small object, at an amazing distance. They likewise kill
Guinea-fowls, partridges, and pigeons, but never on the wing. While
the men are occupied in these pursuits, the women are very diligent
in manufacturing cotton-cloth. They prepare the cotton for spinning,
by laying it in small quantities at a time, upon a smooth stone, or
piece of wood, and rolling the seeds out with a thick iron spindle;
and they spin it with the distaff. The thread is not fine, but well
twisted, and makes a very durable cloth. A woman with common diligence,
will spin from six to nine garments of this cloth in one year; which,
according to its fineness, will sell for a minkalli and a half, or two
minkallies each.[19] The weaving is performed by the men. The loom is
made exactly upon the same principle as that of Europe; but so small
and narrow, that the web is seldom more than four inches broad. The
shuttle is of the common construction; but as the thread is coarse,
the chamber is somewhat larger than the European.
The women die this cloth of a rich and lasting blue colour, by the
following simple process: the leaves of the indigo when fresh gathered,
are pounded in a wooden mortar, and mixed in a large earthen jar,
with a strong ley of wood ashes; chamber-ley is sometimes added. The
cloth is steeped in this mixture, and allowed to remain until it has
acquired the proper shade. In Kaarta and Ludamar, where the indigo
is not plentiful, they collect the leaves, and dry them in the sun;
and when they wish to use them, they reduce a sufficient quantity
to powder, and mix it with the ley as before mentioned. Either way,
the colour is very beautiful, with a fine purple gloss; and equal,
in my opinion, to the best Indian or European blue. This cloth is
cut into various pieces, and sewed into garments, with needles of
the natives’ own making.
As the arts of weaving, dying, sewing, &c. may easily be acquired,
those who exercise them are not considered in Africa as following any
particular profession; for almost every slave can weave, and every boy
can sew. The only artists which are distinctly acknowledged as such
by the Negroes, and who value themselves on exercising appropriate and
peculiar trades, are the manufacturers of _leather_ and of _iron_. The
first of these, are called _Karrankea_ (or as the word is sometimes
pronounced _Gaungay_). They are to be found in almost every town,
and they frequently travel through the country in the exercise of
their calling. They tan and dress leather with very great expedition,
by steeping the hide first in a mixture of wood-ashes and water,
until it parts with the hair; and afterwards by using the pounded
leaves of a tree called _goo_, as an astringent. They are at great
pains to render the hide as soft and pliant as possible, by rubbing
it frequently between their hands, and beating it upon a stone. The
hides of bullocks are converted chiefly into sandals, and therefore
require less care in dressing than the skins of sheep and goats, which
are used for covering quivers and saphies, and in making sheaths for
swords and knives, belts, pockets, and a variety of ornaments. These
skins are commonly dyed of a red or yellow colour; the red, by means
of millet stalks reduced to powder; and the yellow, by the root of
a plant, the name of which I have forgotten.
The manufacturers in iron are not so numerous as the _Karrankeas_; but
they appear to have studied their business with equal diligence. The
Negroes on the Coast being cheaply supplied with iron from the European
traders, never attempt the manufacturing of this article themselves;
but in the inland parts, the natives smelt this useful metal in
such quantities, as not only to supply themselves from it with all
necessary weapons and instruments, but even to make it an article
of commerce with some of the neighbouring states. During my stay at
Kamalia, there was a smelting furnace at a short distance from the hut
where I lodged, and the owner and his workmen made no secret about
the manner of conducting the operation; and readily allowed me to
examine the furnace, and assist them in breaking the iron-stone. The
furnace was a circular tower of clay, about ten feet high, and three
feet in diameter; surrounded in two places with withes, to prevent
the clay from cracking and falling to pieces by the violence of the
heat. Round the lower part, on a level with the ground (but not so
low as the bottom of the furnace, which was somewhat concave), were
made seven openings, into every one of which were placed three tubes
of clay, and the openings again plastered up in such a manner that no
air could enter the furnace, but through the tubes; by the opening and
shutting of which they regulated the fire. These tubes were formed by
plastering a mixture of clay and grass round a smooth roller of wood,
which as soon as the clay began to harden was withdrawn, and the tube
left to dry in the sun. The iron-stone which I saw was very heavy,
of a dull red colour, with greyish specks; it was broken into pieces
about the size of a hen’s egg. A bundle of dry wood was first put
into the furnace, and covered with a considerable quantity of charcoal,
which was brought, ready burnt, from the woods. Over this was laid
a stratum of iron-stone, and then another of charcoal, and so on,
until the furnace was quite full. The fire was applied through one
of the tubes, and blown for some time with bellows made of goats’
skins. The operation went on very slowly at first, and it was some
hours before the flame appeared above the furnace; but after this,
it burnt with great violence all the first night; and the people who
attended put in at times more charcoal. On the day following the fire
was not so fierce, and on the second night, some of the tubes were
withdrawn, and the air allowed to have freer access to the furnace;
but the heat was still very great, and a bluish flame rose some feet
above the top of the furnace. On the third day from the commencement of
the operation, all the tubes were taken out, the ends of many of them
being vitrified with the heat; but the metal was not removed until
some days afterwards, when the whole was perfectly cool. Part of the
furnace was then taken down, and the iron appeared in the form of a
large irregular mass, with pieces of charcoal adhering to it. It was
sonorous; and when any portion was broken off, the fracture exhibited
a granulated appearance, like broken steel. The owner informed me
that many parts of this cake were useless, but still there was good
iron enough to repay him for his trouble. This iron, or rather steel,
is formed into various instruments, by being repeatedly heated in
a forge, the heat of which is urged by a pair of double bellows,
of a very simple construction, being made of two goats’ skins;
the tubes from which unite, before they enter the forge, and supply a
constant and very regular blast. The hammer, forceps, and anvil, are
all very simple, and the workmanship (particularly in the formation
of knives and spears) is not destitute of merit. The iron, indeed,
is hard and brittle; and requires much labour before it can be made
to answer the purpose.
Most of the African blacksmiths are acquainted also with the method of
smelting gold, in which process they use an alkaline salt, obtained
from a ley of burnt corn-stalks evaporated to dryness. They likewise
draw the gold into wire, and form it into a variety of ornaments,
some of which are executed with a great deal of taste and ingenuity.
Such is the chief information I obtained, concerning the present state
of arts and manufactures in those regions of Africa which I explored
in my journey. I might add, though it is scarce worthy observation,
that in Bambarra and Kaarta, the natives make very beautiful baskets,
hats, and other articles, both for use and ornament, from _rushes_,
which they stain of different colours; and they contrive also to
cover their calabashes with interwoven cane, dyed in the same manner.
In all the laborious occupations above described, the master and his
slaves work together, without any distinction of superiority. Hired
servants, by which I mean persons of free condition, voluntarily
working for pay, are unknown in Africa; and this observation naturally
leads me to consider the condition of the slaves, and the various means
by which they are reduced to so miserable a state of servitude. This
unfortunate class are found, I believe, in all parts of this extensive
country, and constitute a considerable branch of commerce, with the
states on the Mediterranean, as well as with the nations of Europe.
[Footnote 17: Chap, xxxi. ver. 26, 27, 28.]
[Footnote 18: Poisoned arrows are used chiefly in war. The poison,
which is said to be very deadly, is prepared from a shrub called
_koona_, (a species of _echites_) which is very common in the
woods. The leaves of this shrub, when boiled with a small quantity
of water, yield a thick black juice, into which the Negroes dip a
cotton thread; this thread they fasten round the iron of the arrow,
in such a manner that it is almost impossible to extract the arrow,
when it has sunk beyond the barbs, without leaving the iron point,
and the poisoned thread, in the wound.]
[Footnote 19: A minkalli is a quantity of gold, nearly equal in value
to ten shillings sterling.]