THE PHYSIOLOGY OF NUTRITION.
I HAVE repeatedly spoken of the nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous
constituents of food, assuming that the nitrogenous are the more
nutritious, are the plastic or flesh-building materials, and that the
non-nitrogenous materials cannot build up flesh or bone or nervous
matter, can only supply the material of fat, and by their combustion
maintain the animal heat.
In doing so I have been treading on loose ground—I may say on a
scientific quicksand. When I first taught practical physiology to
children in Edinburgh, many years ago, this part of the subject was
much easier to teach than now. The simple and elegant theory of Liebig
was then generally accepted, and appeared quite sound.
According to this, every muscular effort is performed at the expense
of muscular tissue; every mental effort, at the expense of cerebral
tissue; and so on with all the forces of life. This consumption or
degradation of tissue demands continual supplies of food for its
renewal, and as all the working organs of the animal are composed of
nitrogenous tissue, it is clearly necessary, according to this, that we
should be supplied with nitrogenous food to renew them, seeing that the
nitrogen of the air cannot be assimilated by animals at all.
But besides doing mechanical and mental work, the animal body is
continually giving out heat, and its temperature must be maintained.
Food is also demanded for this, and the non-nitrogenous food is the
most readily combustible, especially the hydro-carbons or fats; the
carbo-hydrates—starch, sugar, &c.—also, but in lower degree. These,
then, were described as fuel food, or heat-producers.
This view is strongly confirmed by a multitude of familiar facts. Men,
horses, and other animals cannot do continuous hard work without a
supply of nitrogenous food; the harder the work the more they require,
and the greater becomes their craving for it. On the other hand, when
such food is eaten in large quantities by idle people, they become
victims of inflammatory disease, or their health otherwise suffers,
according, probably, to whether they assimilate or reject it.
Man is a cosmopolitan animal, and the variations of his natural demand
for food in different climates affords very direct support to Liebig’s
theory. Enormous quantities of hydro-carbon, in the form of fat, are
consumed by the Esquimaux and by Europeans when they winter in the
Arctic regions. They cannot live there without it. In hot climates
_some_ fuel food is required, and the milder form of carbo-hydrates is
chosen, and found to be most suitable; rice, which is mainly composed
of starch, is an example. Sugar also. Offer an Esquimaux a tallow
candle and a rice or tapioca pudding; he will reject the latter, and
eat the former with great relish.
A multitude of other facts might be stated, all supporting Liebig’s
theory.
There is one that just occurs to me as I write, which I will state,
as it appears to have been hitherto unnoticed. Some organs which act
in such wise that we can _see_ their mode of action are visibly
disintegrated and consumed by their own activity, and may be seen to
demand the perpetual renewal described by Liebig. There are glands of
cellular structure which cast off their terminal cells containing the
fluid they secrete; do their work by giving up their own structural
substance at their peripheral working surface.
Where, then, is the quicksand? It is here. If muscular and mental work
were done at the expense of the nitrogenous muscular and cerebral
tissues, the quantity of nitrogen excreted should vary with the
amount of work done. This was formerly stated to be the case without
hesitation, as the following passage from Carpenter’s ‘Manual of
Physiology’ (3rd edition, 1856, page 256), shows: ‘Every action of the
nervous and muscular systems involves the death and decay of a certain
amount of the living tissue, as is indicated by the appearance of the
products of that decay in the excretions.’
More recent experiments by Fick and Wislicenus, Parkes, Houghton,
Ranke, Voit, Flint, and others are said to contradict this by showing
that the waste nitrogen varies with the quantity of nitrogenous food
that is eaten, but not with the muscular work done. For the details
of these experiments I must refer the reader to standard _modern_
physiological treatises, as a full description of them would carry me
too far away from my immediate subject. (Dr. Pavy’s ‘Treatise on Food’
has an introductory chapter on ‘The Dynamic Relations of Food,’ in
which this subject is clearly treated in sufficient detail for popular
reading.)
It is quite the fashion now to rely upon these later experiments; but
for my own part, I am by no means satisfied with them—and for this
reason, that the excretions from the skin and from the lungs were not
examined.
It is just these which are greatly increased by exercise, and their
normal quantity is very large, especially those from the skin, which
are threefold, viz. the insensible perspiration, which is transpired by
the skin as invisible vapour; the sweat, which is liquid, and the solid
particles of exuded cuticle.
Lavoisier and Seguin long ago made very laborious experiments upon
themselves in order to determine the amount of the insensible
perspiration. Seguin enclosed himself in a bag of glazed taffeta, which
was tied over him with no other opening than a hole corresponding to
his mouth; the edges of this hole were glued to his lips with a mixture
of turpentine and pitch. He carefully weighed himself and the bag
before and after his enclosure therein. His own loss of weight being
partly from the lungs and partly from the skin, the amount gained by
the bag represented the quantity of the latter; the difference between
this and the loss of his own weight gave the amount exhaled from the
lungs.
He thus found that the largest quantity of _insensible_ exhalation from
the lungs and skin together amounted to 3½ oz. per hour, or at the rate
of 5¼ lbs. per day. The smallest quantity was 1 lb. 14 oz., and the
mean was 3 lbs. 11 oz. Three-fourths of this was cutaneous.
These figures only show the quantity of insensible perspiration during
repose. Valentin found that his hourly loss by cutaneous exhalation
while sitting amounted to 32·8 grammes, or rather less than 1¼ oz. On
taking exercise, with an empty stomach, in the sun, the hourly loss
increased to 89·3 grammes, or nearly three times as much. After a meal
followed by violent exercise, with the temperature of the air at 72°
F., it amounted to 132·7 grammes, or nearly 4½ times as much as during
repose. A robust man, taking violent exercise in hot weather, may give
off as much as 5 lbs. in an hour.
The third excretion from the skin, the epithelial or superficial scales
of the epidermis, is small in weight, but it is solid, and of similar
composition to gelatin. It should be understood that this increases
largely with exercise. The practice of sponging and ‘rubbing down’ of
athletes removes the excess; but I am not aware of any attempt that has
been made to determine accurately the quantity thus removed.
Does the skin excrete nitrogenous matter that may be, like urea, a
product of the degradation or destruction of muscular tissue?
The following passage from Lehmann’s ‘Physiological Chemistry’ (vol.
ii. p. 389), shows that the skin throws out plenty of nitrogen obtained
from somewhere: ‘It has been shown by the experiments of Milly, Jurine,
Ingenhouss, Spallanzani, Abernethy, Barruel, and Collard di Martigny,
that _gases_, and especially _carbonic acid_ and _nitrogen_, are
likewise exhaled with the liquid secretion of the sudiparious glands.
According to the last-named experimentalist the ratio between these
two gases is very variable; thus, in the gas developed after vegetable
food there is a preponderance of carbonic acid, and, after animal food,
there is an excess of nitrogen. Abernethy found that on an average the
collective gas contained rather more than two-thirds of carbonic acid
and rather less than one-third of nitrogen.’ But it appears that less
gas is exhaled when there is much liquid perspiration.
Lehmann’s summary of the experiments of Abernethy, Brunner, and
Valentin (vol. ii. p. 391), gives the amount of hourly exudation, under
ordinary circumstances, as 50·71 grammes of water, 0·25 of a gramme of
carbon, and 0·92 of a gramme of nitrogen. This amounts to 21½ grammes
of nitrogen per day in the _insensible_ perspiration; three-quarters of
an ounce avoirdupois, or as much nitrogen as is contained in one pound
and a half of natural living muscle.
That the liquid perspiration contains compounds of nitrogen, and just
such compounds as would result from the degradation of nitrogenous
tissue, is unquestionable. As Lehmann says (vol. ii. p. 389), ‘the
sweat very easily decomposes, and gives rise to the secondary formation
of ammonia.’ Simon and Berzelius found salts of ammonia in the sweat:
that the ammonia is combined both with hydrochloric acid and with
organic acids: that it probably exists as carbonate of ammonia in
alkaline sweat.
The existence of urea in sweat appears to be uncertain; some chemists
assert its presence, others deny it. Favre and Schottin, for example,
who have both studied the subject very carefully, are at direct
variance. I suspect that both are right, as its presence or absence is
variable, and appears to depend on the condition of the subject of the
experiment.
Favre describes a special nitrogenous acid which he discovered
in sweat, and names it _hydrotic_ or _sudoric acid_. Its
composition corresponds, according to his analysis, to the formula
C_{10}H_{8}NO_{13}.
I have summarised these facts, as they show clearly enough that
conclusions based on an examination of the quantity of nitrogen
excreted by the kidneys alone (and such is the sole basis of the
modern theories), are of little or no value in determining whether or
not muscular work is accompanied with degradation of muscular tissue.
The well known fact that the total quantity of excretory work done
by the skin increases with muscular work, while that from the kidneys
rather diminishes, indicates in the plainest possible manner that an
examination of the skin secretion should be primary in connection
with this question. To entirely neglect this in such a research is a
scientific parallel to the histrionic feat of performing the tragedy of
‘Hamlet’ with the Prince of Denmark omitted.
Seeing that it has been entirely neglected, I am justified in
expressing, very plainly and positively, my opinion of the
worthlessness of all the modern research upon which the alleged
refutation of Liebig’s theory of the destruction and renewal of living
tissue in the performance of vital work is based, and my rejection of
the modern alternative hypothesis concerning the manner in which food
supplies the material demanded for muscular and mental work.
I may be accused of rashness and presumption in thus attempting to
stem the overwhelming current of modern scientific progress. Such,
however, is not the case. It is modern scientific _fashion_, rather
than scientific _progress_, that I oppose. We have too much of this
millinery spirit in the scientific world just now; too much eagerness
to run after ‘the last thing out,’ and assume, with undue readiness,
that the ‘latest researches’ are, of course, the best—especially where
fashionable physicians are concerned.
Having summarised Liebig’s theory of the source of vital power, and
its supposed refutation by modern experiments, I will now endeavour to
state the alternative modern hypothesis, though not without difficulty,
nor with satisfactory result, seeing that the recent theorists are
vague and self-contradictory. All agree that vital power or liberated
force is obtained at the expense of some kind of chemical action of a
destructive or oxidising character, and is, therefore, theoretically
analogous to the source of power in a steam-engine; but when they come
to the practical question of the demand for working fuel or food, they
abandon this analogy.
Pavy says (‘Treatise on Food and Dietetics,’ page 6): ‘In the
liberation of actual force, a complete analogy may be traced between
the animal system and a steam-engine. Both are media for the conversion
of latent into actual force. In the animal system, combustible material
is supplied under the form of the various kinds of food, and oxygen is
taken in for the process of respiration. From the chemical energy due
to the combination of these, force is liberated in an active state;
and, besides manifesting itself as heat, and in other ways peculiar
to the animal system, is capable of performing mechanical work.’ In
another place (page 59 of same work), after describing Liebig’s view,
Dr. Pavy says: ‘The facts which have been already adduced’ (those
above described on the nitrogen eliminated by the kidneys), ‘suffice
to refute this doctrine. Indeed, it may be considered as abundantly
proved that food does not require to become organised tissue before it
can be rendered available for force-production.’ On page 81 he says:
‘While nitrogenous matter may be regarded as forming the essential
basis of structures possessing active or living properties, _the
non-nitrogenous principles may be looked upon as supplying the source
of power_. The one may be spoken of as holding the position of the
instrument of action, while the other supplies the motive power.
Nitrogenous alimentary matter may, it is true, by oxidation contribute
to the generation of the moving force, but, as has been explained, in
fulfilling this office there is evidence before us to show that it is
split up into two distinct portions, one containing _the nitrogen,
which is eliminated as useless, and a residuary non-nitrogenous portion
which is retained and utilised in force-production_.’
The italics are mine, for reasons presently to be explained. Pavy’s
work contains repetitions and further illustrations of this attribution
of the origin of force to the non-nitrogenous elements of food.
Then we have a statement of the experiments of Joule on the mechanical
equivalent of heat, connected with experiments of Frankland with the
apparatus that is used for determining the calorific value of coal,
&c.—viz. a little tubular furnace charged with a mixture of the
combustible to be tested, and chlorate of potash. This being placed in
a tube, open below, and thrust under water, is fired, and gives out all
its heat to the surrounding liquid, the rise of temperature of which
measures the calorific value of the substance (see fig. 7, page 21,
‘Simple Treatise on Heat’).
From this result is calculated the mechanical work obtainable from a
given quantity of different food materials. That from a gramme is given
as follows:
Beef fat 27,778 } Units of work,
Starch (arrowroot) 11,983 } or number of
Lump sugar 10,254 } pounds lifted
Grape sugar 10,038 } one foot.
In Dr. Edward Smith’s treatise on ‘Food,’ the foot-pound equivalent
of each kind of food is specifically stated in such a manner as to
lead the student to conclude that this represents its actual working
efficiency _as food_. Other modern writers represent it in like manner.
Here, then, comes the bearing of these theories on my subject. A
practical dietary or _menu_ is demanded, say, for navvies or for
athletes in full work; another for sedentary people doing little work
of any kind.
According to the new theory, the best possible food for the first class
is fat, butter being superior to lean beef in the proportion of 14,421
to 2,829 (Smith), and beef fat having nearly eight times the value of
lean beef. Ten grains of rice give 7,454 foot-pounds of working-power,
while the same quantity of lean beef gives only 2,829; according to
which 1 lb. of rice should supply as much support to hard workers as 2½
lbs. of beefsteak. None of the modern theorists dare to be consistent
when dealing with such direct practical applications.
I might quote a multitude of other palpable inconsistencies of the
theory, which is so slippery that it cannot be firmly grasped. Thus,
Dr. Pavy (page 403), immediately after describing bacon fat as ‘the
most efficient kind of force-producing material,’ and stating that ‘the
_non-nitrogenous_ alimentary principles appear to possess a higher
dietetic value than the _nitrogenous_,’ tells us that ‘the performance
of work may be looked upon as necessitating a _proportionate supply_
of _nitrogenous_ alimentary matter,’ and his reason for this admission
being that such nitrogenous material is required for the nutrition of
the muscles themselves.
A pretty tissue of inconsistencies is thus supplied! Non-nitrogenous
food is the best force-producer—it corresponds to the fuel of the
steam-engine; the nitrogenous is necessary only to repair the machine.
Nevertheless, when force production is specially demanded, the food
required is not the force-producer, but the special builder of muscles,
the which muscles, according to theory, are _not_ used up and renewed
in doing the work.
It must be remembered that the whole of this modern theoretical fabric
is built upon the experiments which are supposed to show that there is
no more elimination of nitrogenous matter during hard work than during
rest. Yet we are told that ‘the performance of work may be looked upon
as necessitating a proportionate supply of nitrogenous alimentary
matter,’ and that such material ‘is split up into two distinct
portions, one containing the nitrogen, which is eliminated as useless.’
This thesis is proved by experiments showing (as asserted) that such
elimination is not so proportioned.
In short, the modern theory presents us with the following pretty
paradox. The consumption of nitrogenous food is proportionate to work
done. The elimination of nitrogen is _not_ proportionate to work done.
The elimination of nitrogen _is_ proportionate to the consumption of
nitrogenous food.
I have tried hard to obtain a rational physiological view of the modern
theory. When its advocates compare our food to the fuel of an engine,
and maintain that its combustion _directly_ supplies the moving power,
what do they mean?
They cannot suppose that the food is thus oxidised as food, yet such is
implied. The work cannot be done in the stomach, nor in the intestinal
canal, nor in the mesenteric glands, nor in their outlet, the thoracic
duct. After leaving this, the food becomes organised living material,
the blood being such. The question, therefore, as between the new
theory and that of Liebig, must be whether work is effected by _the
combustion of the blood itself_ or by the degradation of the working
tissues, which are fed and renewed by the blood. Although this is so
obviously the only rational physiological question, I have not found it
thus stated.
Such being the case, the supposed analogy to the steam-engine breaks
down altogether; the food is certainly assimilated, is converted into
the living material of the animal itself before it does any work, and
therefore it must be the wear and tear of the machine itself which
supplies the working power, and not that of the food as mere fuel
material shovelled directly into the animal furnace.
I thus agree with Playfair, who says that the modern theory involves
a ‘false analogy of the animal body to a steam-engine,’ and that
‘incessant transformation of the acting parts of the animal machine
forms the condition for its action, while in the case of the
steam-engine it is the transformation of fuel external to the machine
which causes it to move.’ Pavy says that ‘Dr. Playfair, in these
utterances, must be regarded as writing behind the time.’ He may be
behind as regards the _fashion_, but I think he is in advance as
regards the _truth_.
My readers, therefore, need not be ashamed of clinging to the
old-fashioned belief that their own bodies are alive throughout, and
perform all the operations of working, feeling, thinking, &c., by
virtue of their own inherent self-contained vitality, and that in doing
this they consume their own substance, which has to be perpetually
replaced by new material, its quality depending upon the manner of
working and the matter and manner of replacement.
The course of our own evolution thus depends upon ourselves; we may,
according to our own daily conduct, be building up a better body and
a better mind, or one that shall be worse than the fair promise of
the original germ. Therefore the philosophy of the preparation of the
material of which the body and brain are built up and renewed must be
worthy of careful study. This philosophy is ‘THE CHEMISTRY OF COOKERY.’
INDEX.
ACIDS, mineral and vegetable, 224
Aërated bread, 206
Albumen, 19
coagulation of, 20
of flesh, 24
loss of in boiling fish and meat, 24
Allotropism, 88
Alum in bread, 203
Animal diastase, 186
Apple fritters, 101
Argol, 273
Arrowroot, 179
Arsenic eating, 256
BAIN-MARIE, 22, 119
Baked meat, prejudice against, 64
Baking _versus_ roasting of meat, 65
Barley sugar, 88
Basting, 57
Bavarian beggars and Count Rumford, 229
Birds’-nests, edible, 35
Blood-fibrin, 43
‘Boiled meat’ is not boiled, 14
Boiling of fat, 84
of water, 8
Bone-soup Commission of French Academy, 36
Borized meat, 170
milk, 171
Bosch _v._ butter, 167
_v._ butterine, 144
Boussingault’s experiments on bread, 207
Bread, 197
British gum, 182
Browning of roasted meat, 78
rationale of, 87
Budrum, 310
Butter, 163
and infection, 166
CALCAREOUS WATER, 10
Cancer and flesh eating, 301
Caramel, 87-89
a disinfectant, 92
Carnivorous, a sheep, 301
Casein, 127
changes of, 128
vegetable, 211
Cayenne pepper, 260
Cellular tissue, 174, 180
Cheese, cookery of, 136
digestibility of, 135
in soup, 149
nutritive value of, 131
phosphates in, 133
porridge, 151
pudding, 136
solubility of, 143
Chemical analysis and nutritive value of food, 6
Chinese and cooked water, 13
Chitin, 33
Chondrin, 33
Cocoa, 261
‘Coffee as in France,’ 96
Colloids and crystalloids, 115
Composition of albumen, gelatin, and fibrin, 45
kreatine and kreatinine, 46
Condensed milk, 129
Condiments, 259
Convection in roasting, 49
Cooked water, 10
Cream, 162
Crust of bread, 91, 136, 200
Curd of milk, 127
DEXTRIN, 182, 185
in bread, 200
Diastase, 184, 303
Diastased porridge, 305, 306, 311, 312
Difference between vegetable and animal food, 177, 297
Diffusion of liquids, 112
Digestion of starch, 186
Dinner of a French or Swiss peasant, 126
Diosmosis, 114
Disinfection of water by boiling, 12
by toast, 92
Dissociation of flavours, 49
Dolby’s extractor, 120
Domestic chops and steaks, 52
Dough, 197
Dripping, 159
Drunkenness and cookery, 61
ECONOMICAL FRYING, 98
Effects of diastased porridge, 311
Eggs, cookery of, 22
nutritive value of, 19
of feathered and featherless young birds, 20
Endosmosis and exosmosis, 114
English stewing, 124
Ensilage of human food, 214
by means of diastase, 308
Excretion of nitrogen from the skin, 316
Expansion of well-grilled meat, 53
Experiment with Rumford’s roaster, 74
Explosion of water, 86
Extract of meat, 117
FAT, 156
action of heat on, 84, 158
bath for joints, 57
for frying, 101
Fermentation of bread, 198
Ferments, 184
Fibrin, 43
Fish, boiling of, 24, 27
cooked in paper, 60
roasting, 58
with cheese, 153
Flames, different kinds of, and grilling, 51
Flavouring power of the juices of meat, 26
Flesh feeding, a temporary barbarism, 7
Flummery, 310
Fondu, 136
Forces of nature co-operating with man, 2
Frozen meat, 94, 168
Fruit jelly, 225
Frying, 84
kettle, 98
theory of, 97
Fuel wasted in boiling, 15
GASTRIC JUICE, modification of, 44
Gelatin, fibrin, and the juices of meat, 32
hydration of, 41
solubility of, 32
Gluten, 194
fibrin and gluten casein, 195
Glycerine, 157
Green-pea clear soup, 219
Grilling of chops and steaks, 52
Gum arabic, 183
HASTY PUDDING AND CHEESE, 152
Hot rolls from stale bread, 208
Hydration of gelatin, 41
of starch, 181
INCRUSTATION OF BOILERS, kettles, &c., 11
Isinglass, 36, 41
Italian cookery, 90
of cheese, 149
JOHNSTON ON TEA AND COFFEE, 251
Juices of meat, 25, 40, 45
KITCHEN A CHEMICAL LABORATORY, the, 4
Kitchener-ovens and roasters, 7
Kreatine and kreatinine, 45
LARD, 159
dissociation of, 85
Leaven, 206
Leg of mutton, how to boil, 26
Legumin, 212
Lehmann on coffee, 251
‘Liaison au roux,’ 90
Liebig on gelatin, 36
on tea and coffee, 251
Liebig’s extract of meat, 25, 37
Lignin, 174
Lime in bread, 205
Lobster suppers, 33
Locusts as food, 34
MACERATION, 112
Magnesia in bread, 265
Malt, action on various foods, 305
directions for using, 306, 312
Malted food, 303
Man, the cooking animal, 295
Man’s work on earth, 1
Marie Antoinette’s pie-crust, 176
Milk, a carrier of infection, 164
composition of, 162
cooking of, 163
dietetic value of, 161
for herbivora, carnivora, and man, 296
supply to London, 163
Muscle fibrin, 43
NEW AND STALE BREAD, 207
Nitrogenous principles of plants and animals compared, 195
Norwegian cooking apparatus, 24, 30
Nutrition, fashionable theory of, 315
inconsistencies of fashionable theory of, 319
Liebig’s theory of, 313
Playfair on the physiology of, 324
the physiology of, 313
Nutritive value of food as affected by cookery, 6
of gelatin, 36
ŒNANTHIC ETHER, 270
Oils for frying, 107
volatile and fixed, 84
Old hens, how to roast, 125, 126
Oleomargarine, 146
Oven, construction of, 80
Oysters and invalids, 180
PARMESAN CHEESE, 151, 220
Pasteuring of wine, 269
Peasants’ food in Italy and France, 61, 126
Pease-pudding, 214-218
Pectin, 225
Penny dinners, 244
Phosphates in milk and cheese, 133
Phosphorus in bones and brain, 134
Popped corn, 210
Porridge _v._ flesh, 299
Potage and stewed meat, 116
value of, 219
Potash bitartrate, solubility of, 272
food, 221
in cheese cookery, 141
in potatoes, 190
scurvy, gout, &c., 142
Potatoes in bread, 202
a curse of Ireland, 193
and cheese porridge, 152
and scurvy, 190
cookery of, 189
nutritive value of, 192
Purification of fat, 101
RADIATION AND CONVECTION IN ROASTING, 49
in grilling, 47
Rahat Lakoum, 225
Rationale of roasting, 48
Reaction from tea, 257
Rennet, 129
Rice and cheese, 153
‘Risotto à la Milanese,’ 150
Roasting an ox, 56
and grilling, 47
before open fire, evils of, 60
large joints, 55
small joints, 53
Rumford, Count of, 5
on boiling meat, 16
on military rations, 241
on the pleasure of eating, 238
Rumford’s cookery, 227
Rumford’s experiment on low temperature roasting, 29
roaster, 63, 70
roasting oven, 76
soup, 231
soup compared with flesh food, 298
SAGO, 189
Saliva and diastase, 304
Salivary diastase, 186
Salmon cooking in Norway, 28
Samp, 240
Sauer-kraut, 216
Sawdust as food, 175
Science in the kitchen, 4
Seeds as food, 194
Sheep, a carnivorous and cannibal, 301
Sherbet, 225
Shrimps, fried, 34
Simmering and boiling, 14
Small joints and their cookery, 53
Smith, Dr., on tea, 254
Snail soup, 35
Soluble and insoluble casein, 130
Solution of vegetable casein, 217
South Kensington food exhibits, 211
Sowans, 310
Specific sapidity of food, 239
Spinning of sugar, 89
Starch, 178, 181
Stearic acid, 157
Stewing, 111
and albumen, 119
Stirabout and cheese, 153
Sulphate of copper in bread, 205
Super-heaters, cost of, 75
Syntonin, 43
TAPIOCA, 188
Tea and coffee, Rumford’s substitute for, 245
physiological action of, 246
Technical and technological education, 3
Temperature for stewing, 118
of vegetable cookery, 177
Tenderness, true and false, 121
Testing the temperature of fat bath, 100
Thermometers for the kitchen, 79
for fat bath, 105
Thomson, Sir Henry, on roasting of fish, 58
Tinned meat, 121
Toast and water, 92
Tripe and cheese, 154
UNFERMENTED BREAD, 200
VAPOURS OF ROASTING MEAT, 78
Vegetable casein, 211
diet, economy of, 301
fibrin, casein and gluten, 195
food and mixed diet compared, 297
juices, 211
-marrow _au gratin_, 155
tissue, 173
Vegetables, the cookery of, 173
Vegetarian question, the, 294
WARREN’S COOKING-POT, 81
Waste of fuel in boiling, 15
Water-bath cookery, 119
Water in fish, 86
Whole-meal bread, 6, 204
Wine, artificial bouquet of, 291
artificial colour of, 288
bouquet of, 288
cookery of, 265
cost of, 265-292
drying of, 280
natural colour of, 288
Pasteuring of, 269
plastering of, 277
sickness of, 271
sulphuric acid in, 276
YOLK OF EGG, ITS COAGULATION, 23
_Spottiswoode & Co. Printers, New-street Square, London._
* * * * *
Transcriber’s Notes:
Obvious punctuation errors repaired. Larger vulgar fractions had been
printed with a hyphen instead of a slash. This was changed to a slash
for conformity. (1-30th is now 1/30th)
Page 54, “is” changed to “it” (exposed, it is evident)
Page 81, “judgment” changed to “judgement” (the judgement of which)
Page 108, while it seems that this sentence is missing an object:
When common sense and true sentiment supplant mere
unreasoning prejudice, vegetable oils and vegetable
fats will largely supplant those of animal origin in
every element of our dietary.
It has been quoted in just that manner across numerous publications.
Page 109, “facts” changed to “fats” (the chemistry of fats)
Page 328, the text refers to the now more usually spelled “sauerkraut”
as “sour-kraut” in the text and “Sauer-kraut” in the index. These
usages were retained as printed.
Page 328, “fath” changed to “fat” (for fat bath)
End of Project Gutenberg's The Chemistry of Cookery, by W. Mattieu Williams