It must be clearly borne in mind that though the Basidiomycetes show
no traces of differentiated sexual organs yet, like the _micro_ and
_lepto_ forms of the Uredineae, they still show (in the association of
nuclei and later fusion of nuclei in the basidium), a reduced
fertilization which denotes their derivation, through the Uredineae,
from more typically sexual forms. No one has yet made out in any form
the exact way in which the association of nuclei takes place in the
group. The mycelium is always found to contain conjugate nuclei before
the formation of basidia, but the point at which the conjugate
condition arises seems very variable. Miss Nichols finds that it
occurs very soon after the germination of the spore in _Coprinus_, but
no fusion of cells or migration of nuclei was to be observed.
_Protobasidiomycetes._--This, by far the smaller division of
Basidiomycetes, includes those forms which have a septate basidium.
There are three families--Auriculariaceae, Pilacreaceae and
Tremellinaceae. The first named contains a small number of forms with
the basidium divided like the promycelium of the Uredineae. They are
characterized by their gelatinous consistence and large size of their
sporophore. _Hirneola_ (_Auricularia_) _Auricula-Judae_ is the
well-known Jew's Ear, so named from the resemblance of the sporophore
to a human ear.
[Illustration: FIG. 19.--_Amanita muscaria_.
A, The young plant.
B, The mature plant.
C, Longitudinal section of mature plant.
p, The _pileus_.
g, The gills.
a, The _annulus_, or remnant of _velum partiale_,
v, Remains of _volva_ or _velum universale_.
s, The stalk.]
The Pilacreaceae are a family found by Brefeld to contain the genus
_Pilacre_. _P. Petersii_ has a transversely divided basidium as in
_Auriculariaceae_, but the basidia are surrounded with a peridium-like
sheath. The _Tremellinaceae_ are characterized by the possession of
basidia which are divided by two _vertical_ walls at right angles to
one another. From each of the four segments in the case of _Tremella_
a long outgrowth arises which reaches to the surface of the hymenium
and bears the basidiospores. In _Dacryomyces_ only two outgrowths and
two spores are produced.
_Autobasidiomycetes._--In this by far the larger division of the
Basidiomycetes the basidia are undivided and the four basidiospores
are borne on short sterigmata nearly always at the apex of the
basidium. The group may be divided into two main divisions,
_Hymenomycetes_ and _Gasteromycetes_.
_Hymenomycetes_ are a very large group containing over 11,000 species,
most of which live in soil rich in humus or on fallen wood or stems, a
few only being parasites. In the simplest forms (e.g. _Exobasidium_)
the basidia are borne directly on the ordinary mycelium, but in the
majority of cases the basidia are found developed in layers (hymenium)
on special sporophores of characteristic form in the various groups.
In these sporophores (such as the well-known toadstools and mushrooms
where the ordinary vegetative mycelium is underground) we have
structures specially developed for bearing the basidiospores and
protecting them from rain, &c., and for the distribution of the
spores--see earlier part of article on distribution of spores (figs.
19 and 20). The underground mycelium in many cases spreads wider and
wider each year, often in a circular manner, and the sporophores
springing from it appear in the form of a ring--the so-called fairy
rings. _Armillaria melleus_ and _Polyporus annosus_ are examples of
parasitic forms which attack and destroy living trees, while _Merulius
lacrymans_ is the well-known "dry rot" fungus.
[Illustration: FIG. 20.--_Agaricus mucidus_. Portion of hymenium. s,
Sporidia; st, sterigmata; g, sterile cells; c, cystidium, with
operculum o.]
_Gasteromycetes_ are characterized by having closed sporophores or
fruit-bodies which only open after the spores are ripe and then often
merely by a small pore. The fruit-bodies are of very various shapes,
showing a differentiation into an outer _peridium_ and an inner
spore-bearing mass, the _gleba_. The gleba is usually differentiated
into a number of chambers which are lined directly by the hymenium
(basidial layer), or else the chambers contain an interwoven mass of
hyphae, the branches of which bear the basidia. By the breaking down
of the inner tissues the spores often come to lie as a loose powdery
mass in the interior of the hollow fruit-body, mixed sometimes with a
capillitium. The best-known genera are _Bovista, Lycoperdon_
(puff-ball) _Scleroderma, Geaster_ (earth-star, q.v.). In the
last-named genus the peridium is double and the outer layer becomes
ruptured and spreads out in the form of star-shaped pieces; the inner
layer, however, merely opens at the apex by a small pore.
The most complex members of the Gasteromycetes belong to the
_Phalloideae_, which is sometimes placed as a distinct division of the
Autobasidiomycetes. _Phallus impudicus_, the stink-horn, is
occasionally found growing in woods in Britain. The fruit-body before
it ruptures may reach the size of a hen's egg and is white in colour;
from this there grows out a hollow cylindrical structure which can be
distinguished at the distance of several yards by its disgusting
odour. It is highly poisonous.
_Physiology._--The physiology of the fungi comes under the head of that
of plants generally, and the works of Pfeffer, Sachs, Vines, Darwin and
Klebs may be consulted for details. But we may refer generally here to
certain phenomena peculiar to these plants, the life-actions of which
are restricted and specialized by their peculiar dependence on organic
supplies of carbon and nitrogen, so that most fungi resemble the
colourless cells of higher plants in their nutrition. Like these they
require water, small but indispensable quantities of salts of potassium,
magnesium, sulphur and phosphorus, and supplies of carbonaceous and
nitrogenous materials in different stages of complexity in the different
cases. Like these, also, they respire oxygen, and are independent of
light; and their various powers of growth, secretion, and general
metabolism, irritability, and response to external factors show similar
specific variations in both cases. It is quite a mistake to suppose
that, apart from the chlorophyll function, the physiology of the
fungus-cell is fundamentally different from that of ordinary
plant-cells. Nevertheless, certain biological phenomena in fungi are
especially pronounced, and of these the following require particular
notice.
_Parasitism._--Some fungi, though able to live as saprophytes,
occasionally enter the body of living plants, and are thus termed
facultative parasites. The occasion may be a wound (e.g. _Nectria_,
_Dasyscypha_, &c.), or the enfeeblement of the tissues of the host, or
invigoration of the fungus, the mycelium of which then becomes strong
enough to overcome the host's resistance (_Botrytis_). Many fungi,
however, cannot complete their life-history apart from the host-plant.
Such _obligate_ parasites may be epiphytic (_Erysipheae_), the
mycelium remaining on the outside and at most merely sending haustoria
into the epidermal cells, or endophytic (_Uredineae_, _Ustilagineae_,
&c.), when the mycelium is entirely inside the organs of the host. An
epiphytic fungus is not necessarily a parasite, however, as many
saprophytes (moulds, &c.) germinate and develop a loose mycelium on
living leaves, but only enter and destroy the tissues after the leaf
has fallen; in some cases, however, these saprophytic epiphytes can do
harm by intercepting light and air from the leaf (_Fumago_, &c.), and
such cases make it difficult to draw the line between saprophytism and
parasitism. Endophytic parasites may be intracellular, when the fungus
or its mycelium plunges into the cells and destroys their contents
directly (_Olpidium_, _Lagenidium_, _Sclerotinia_, &c.), but they are
far more frequently intercellular, at any rate while young, the
mycelium growing in the lacunae between the cells (_Peronospora_,
_Uredineae_) into which it may send short (_Cystopus_), or long and
branched (_Peronospora Calotheca_) haustoria, or it extends in the
middle lamella (_Ustilago_), or even in the solid substance of the
cell-wall (_Botrytis_). No sharp lines can be drawn, however, since
many mycelia are intercellular at first and subsequently become
intracellular (_Ustilagineae_), and the various stages doubtless
depend on the degrees of resistance which the host tissues are able to
offer. Similar gradations are observed in the direct effect of the
parasite on the host, which may be local (_Hemileia_) when the
mycelium never extends far from the point of infection, or general
(_Phytophthora_) when it runs throughout the plant. Destructive
parasites rapidly ruin the whole plant-body (_Pythium_), whereas
restrained parasites only tax the host slightly, and ill effects may
not be visible for a long time, or only when the fungus is epidemic
(_Rhytisma_). A parasite may be restricted during a long
incubation-period, however, and rampant and destructive later
(_Ustilago_). The latter fact, as well as the extraordinary
fastidiousness, so to speak, of parasites in their choice of hosts or
of organs for attack, point to reactions on the part of the
host-plant, as well as capacities on that of the parasite, which may
be partly explained in the light of what we now know regarding enzymes
and chemotropism. Some parasites attack many hosts and almost any
tissue or organ (_Botrytis cinerea_), others are restricted to one
family (_Cystopus Candidus_) or genus (_Phytophthora infestans_) or
even species (_Pucciniastrum Padi_), and it is customary to speak of
root-parasites, leaf-parasites, &c., in expression of the fact that a
given parasite occurs only on such organs--e.g. _Dematophora necatrix_
on roots, _Calyptospora Goeppertiana_ on stems, _Ustilago Scabiosae_
in anthers, _Claviceps purpurea_ in ovaries, &c. Associated with these
relations are the specializations which parasites show in regard to
the age of the host. Many parasites can enter a seedling, but are
unable to attack the same host when older--e.g. _Pythium_,
_Phytophthora omnivora_.
_Chemotropism._--Taken in conjunction with Pfeffer's beautiful
discovery that certain chemicals exert a distinct attractive influence
on fungus hyphae (_chemotropism_), and the results of Miyoshi's
experimental application of it, the phenomena of enzyme-secretion
throw considerable light on the processes of infection and parasitism
of fungi. Pfeffer showed that certain substances in definite
concentrations cause the tips of hyphae to turn towards them; other
substances, though not innutritious, repel them, as also do nutritious
bodies if too highly concentrated. Marshall Ward showed that the
hyphae of _Botrytis_ pierce the cell-walls of a lily by secreting a
cytase and dissolving a hole through the membrane. Miyoshi then
demonstrated that if _Botrytis_ is sown in a lamella of gelatine, and
this lamella is superposed on another similar one to which a
chemotropic substance is added, the tips of the hyphae at once turn
from the former and enter the latter. If a thin cellulose membrane is
interposed between the lamellae, the hyphae nevertheless turn
chemotropically from the one lamella to the other and pierce the
cellulose membrane in the process. The hyphae will also dissolve their
way through a lamella of collodion, paraffin, parchment paper,
elder-pith, or even cork or the wing of a fly, to do which it must
excrete very different enzymes. If the membrane is of some impermeable
substance, like gold leaf, the hyphae cannot dissolve its way through,
but the tip finds the most minute pore and traverses the barrier by
means of it, as it does a stoma on a leaf We may hence conclude that a
parasitic hyphae pierces some plants or their stomata and refuses to
enter others, because in the former case there are chemotropically
attractive substances present which are absent from the latter, or are
there replaced by repellent poisonous or protective substances such as
enzymes or antitoxins.
_Specialization of Parasitism._--The careful investigations of recent
years have shown that in several groups of fungi we cannot be content
to distinguish as units morphologically different species, but we are
compelled to go deeper and analyse further the species. It has been
shown especially in the _Uredineae_ and _Erysiphaceae_ that many forms
which can hardly be distinguished morphologically, or which cannot be
differentiated at all by structural characters, are not really
homogeneous but consist of a number of forms which are sharply
distinguishable by their infecting power. Eriksson found, for example,
that the well-known species _Puccinia graminis_ could be split up into
a number of forms which though morphologically similar were
physiologically distinct. He found that the species really consisted
of six distinct races, each having a more or less narrow range of
grasses on which it can live. The six races he named _P. graminis
Secalis_, _Tritici_, _Avenae_, _Airae_, _Agrostis_, _Poae_. The first
named will grow on rye and barley but not on wheat or oat. The form
_Tritici_ is the least sharply marked and will grow on wheat, barley,
rye and oat but not on the other grasses. The form _Avenae_ will grow
on oat and many grasses but not on the other three cereals mentioned.
The last three forms grow only on the genera _Aira_, _Agrostis_ and
_Poa_ respectively. All these forms have of course their
aecidium-stage on the barberry. The terms biologic forms, biological
species, physiological species, physiological races, specialized forms
have all been applied to these; perhaps the term biologic forms is the
most satisfactory. A similar specialization has been observed by
Marshall Ward in the _Puccinia_ parasitic on species of _Bromus_, and
by Neger, Marchal and especially Salmon in the Erysiphaceae. In the
last-named family the single morphological species _Erysiphe graminis_
is found growing on the cereals, barley, oat, wheat, rye and a number
of wild grasses (such as _Poa_, _Bromus_, _Dactylis_). On each of
these host-plants the fungus has become specialized so that the form
on barley cannot infect the other three cereals or the wild grasses
and so on. Just as the uredospores and aecidiospores both show these
specialized characters in the case of _Puccinia graminis_ so we find
that both the conidia and ascospores of _E. graminis_ show this
phenomenon. Salmon has further shown in investigating the relation of
_E. graminis_ to various species of the genus, _Bromus_, that certain
species may act as "bridging species," enabling the transfer of a
biologic form to a host-plant which it cannot normally infect. Thus
the biologic form on _B. racemosus_ cannot infect _B. commutatus_. If,
however, conidia from _B. racemosus_ are sown on _B. hordaceus_, the
conidia which develop on that plant are now able to infect _B.
commutatus_; thus _B. hordaceus_ acts as a bridging species. Salmon
also found that injury of a leaf by mechanical means, by heat, by
anaesthetics, &c., would affect the immunity of the plant and allow
infection by conidia which was not able to enter a normal leaf. The
effect of the abnormal conditions is probably to stop the production
of, or weaken or destroy the protective enzymes or antitoxins, the
presence of which normally confers immunity on the leaf.
_Symbiosis._--The remarkable case of life in common first observed in
lichens, where a fungus and an alga unite to form a compound
organism--the lichen--totally different from either, has now been
proved to be universal in these plants, and lichens are in all cases
merely algae enmeshed in the interwoven hyphae of fungi (see LICHENS).
This dualism, where the one constituent (alga) furnishes
carbohydrates, and the other (fungus) ensures a supply of mineral
matters, shade and moisture, has been termed _symbiosis_. Since then
numerous other cases of symbiosis have been demonstrated. Many trees
are found to have their smaller roots invaded by fungi and deformed by
their action, but so far from these being injurious, experiments go to
show that this mycorhiza (fungus-root) is necessary for the well-being
of the tree. This is also the case with numerous other plants of moors
and woodlands--e.g. Ericaceae, Pyrolaceae, Gentianaceae, Orchidaceae,
ferns, &c. Recent experiments have shown that the difficulties of
getting orchid seeds to germinate are due to the absence of the
necessary fungus, which must be in readiness to infect the young
seedling immediately after it emerges from the seed. The well-known
failures with rhododendrons, heaths, &c., in ordinary garden soils are
also explained by the need of the fungus-infected peat for their
roots. The role of the fungus appears to be to supply materials from
the leaf-mould around, in forms which ordinary root-hairs are
incapable of providing for the plant; in return the latter supports
the fungus at slight expense from its abundant stores of reserve
materials. Numerous other cases of symbiosis have been discovered
among the fungi of fermentation, of which those between _Aspergillus_
and yeast in sake manufacture, and between yeasts and bacteria in
kephir and in the ginger-beer plant are best worked out. For cases of
symbiosis see BACTERIOLOGY.
AUTHORITIES.--_General_: Engler and Prantl, _Die naturlichen
Pflanzenfamilien_, i. Teil (1892 onwards); Zopf, _Die Pilze_ (Breslau,
1890); De Bary, _Comparative Morphology of Fungi_, &c. (Oxford, 1887);
von Tafel, _Vergleichende Morphologie der Pilze_ (Jena, 1892);
Brefeld, _Unters. aus dem Gesamtgebiete der Mykologie_, Heft i. 13
(1872-1905); Lotsy, _Vortrage uber botanische Stammesgeschichte_
(Jena, 1907). _Distribution_, &c.: Cooke, _Introduction to the Study
of Fungi_ (London, 1895); Felix in _Zeitschr. d. deutsch. geologisch.
Gesellsch._ (1894-1896); Staub, _Sitzungsber. d. bot. Sec. d. Kgl.
ungarischen naturwiss. Gesellsch. zu Budapest_ (1897). _Anatomy_, &c.:
Bommer, "Sclerotes et cordons myceliens," _Mem. de l'Acad. Roy. de
Belg._ (1894); Mangin, "Observ. sur la membrane des mucorinees,"
_Journ. de Bot._ (1899); Zimmermann, _Die Morph. und Physiologie des
Pflanzenzellkernes_ (Jena, 1896); Wisselingh, "Microchem. Unters. uber
die Zellwande d. Fungi," _Pringsh. Jahrb._ B. 31, p. 619 (1898);
Istvanffvi, "Unters. uber die phys. Anat. der Pilze," _Prings. Jahrb._
(1896). _Spore Distribution_: Fulton, "Dispersal of the Spores of
Fungi by Insects," _Ann. Bot._ (1889); Falck, "Die Sporenverbreitung
bei den Basidiomyceten," _Beitr. zur Biol. d. Pflanzen_, ix. (1904).
_Spores and Sporophores_: Zopf, _Die Pilze_; also the works of von
Tafel and Brefeld. _Classification_: van Tieghem, _Journ. de bot._ p.
77 (1893), and the works of Brefeld, Engler and Prantl, von Tafel,
Saccardo and Lotsy already cited, _Oomycetes_: Wager, "On the
Fertilization of _Peronospora parasitica_," _Ann. Bot._ vol. xiv.
(1900); Stevens, "The Compound Oosphere of _Albugo Bliti_," _Bot.
Gaz._ vol. 28 (1899); "Gametogenesis and Fertilization in _Albugo_,"
ibid. vol. 32 (1901); Miyake, "The Fertilization of _Pythium de
Baryanum_," _Ann. of Bot._ vol. xv. (1901); Trow, "On Fertilization in
the Saprolegnieae," _Ann. of Bot._ vol. xviii. (1904); Thaxter, "New
and Peculiar Aquatic Fungi," _Bot. Gaz._ vol. 20 (1895); Lagerheim,
"Unters. uber die Monoblepharideae," _Bih. Svenska Vet. Acad.
Handlingar_, 25. Afd. iii. (1900); Woronin, "Beitrag zur Kenntnis der
Monoblepharideen," _Mem. de l'Acad. Imp. d. Sc. de St-Petersbourg_, 8
ser. vol. 16 (1902). _Zygomycetes_: Harper, "Cell-division in
Sporangia and Asci," _Ann. Bot._ vol. xiii. (1899); Klebs, _Die
Bedingungen der Fortpflanzung_, &c. (Jena, 1896), and "Zur Physiologie
der Fortpflanzung" _Prings. Jahr._ (1898 and 1899), "Uber _Sporodinia
grandis_," _Bot. Zeit._ (1902); Falck, "Die Bedingungen der
Zygotenbildung bei Sporodinia grandis," Cohn's Beitr. z. Biol. d.
Pflanzen, Bd. 8 (1902); Gruber "Verhalten der Zellkerne in den
Zygosporen von _Sporodinia grandis_," _Ber. d. deutschen bot. Ges._
Bd. 19 (1901); Blakeslee, "Sexual Reproduction in the Mucorineae,"
_Proc. Am. Acad._ (1904); "Zygospore germination in the Mucorineae,"
_Annales mycologici_ (1906). _Ustilagineae_: Plowright, _British
Uredineae and Ustilagineae_ (London, 1889); Massee, _British Fungi_
(Phycomycetes and Ustilagineae) (London, 1891); Brefeld, _Unters. aus
dem Gesamtgeb. der Mykol._ Hefte xi. and xii.; and Falck, "Die
Bluteninfektion bei den Brandpilzen," ibid. Heft xiii. 1905; Dangeard,
"La Reproduction sexuelle des Ustilaginees," C.R., Oct. 9, 1893;
Maire, "Recherches cytologiques et taxonomiques sur les
Basidiomyceten," _Annexe au Bull. de la Soc. Mycol. de France_ (1902).
_Saccharomycetaceae_: Jorgensen, _The Micro-organisms of Fermentation_
(1899); Barker, _Ann. of Bot._ vol. xiv. (1901); "On Spore-formation
among the Saccharomycetes," _Journ. of the Fed. Institute of Brewing_,
vol. 8 (1902); Guillermond, _Recherches cytologiques sur les levures_
(Paris, 1902); Hansen, _Centralbl. f. Bakt. u. Parasitenp._ Abt. ii.
Bd. 12 (1904). _Exoascaceae_: Giesenhagen, "_Taphrina, Exoascus,
Magnusiella_" (complete literature given), _Bot. Zeit._ Bd. 7 (1901).
_Erysiphaceae_: Harper, "Die Entwicklung des Perithecium bei
_Sphaerotheca castagnei_," _Ber. d. deut bot Ges._ (1896); "Sexual
Reproduction and the Organization of the Nucleus in certain Mildews,"
_Publ. Carnegie Institution_ (Washington, 1906); Blackman & Fraser,
"Fertilization in _Sphaerotheca_," _Ann. of Bot._ (1905).
_Perisporiaceae_: Brefeld, _Untersuchungen aus dem Gesamtgeb. der
Mykol._ Heft 10 (1891); Fraser and Chamber, _Annales mycologici_
(1907). _Discomycetes_: Harper, "Uber das Verhalten der Kerne bei
Ascomyceten," _Jahr. f. wiss. Bot._ Bd. 29 (1890); "Sexual
Reproduction in _Pyronema confluens_," _Ann. of Bot._ 14 (1900);
Claussen, "Zur Entw. der Ascomyceten," Boudiera, Bot. Zeit. Bd. 63
(1905); Dangeard, "Sur le _Pyronema confluens_," _Le Botaniste_, 9
serie (1903) (and numerous papers in same journal earlier and later);
Ramlow, "Zur Entwick. von _Thelebolus stercoren_," _Bot. Zeit._
(1906); Woronin, "Uber die Sclerotienkrankheit der Vaccineen Beeren,"
_Mem. de l'Acad. Imp. des Sciences de St-Petersbourg_, 7 serie, 36
(1888); Dittrich, "Zur Entwickelungsgeschichte der Helvellineen,"
Cohn's _Beitr. z. Biol. d. Pflanzen_ (1892). _Pyrenomycetes_: Fisch,
"Beitr. z. Entwickelungsgeschichte einiger Ascomyceten," _Bot. Zeit._
(1882); Frank, "Uber einige neue u. weniger bekannte Pflanzkrankh.,"
_Landw. Jahrb._ Bd. 12 (1883); Ward, "_Onygena equina_, a
horn-destroying fungus," _Phil. Trans._, vol. 191 (1899); Dawson, "On
the Biology of Poroniapunctata," Ann. of Bot. 14 (1900). _Tuberineae_:
Buchholtz, "Zur Morphologie u. Systematik der Fungi hypogaei," _Ann.
Mycol._ Bd. 1 (1903); Fischer in Engler and Prantl, _Die naturlichen
Pflanzenfamilien_ (1896). _Laboulbeniineae_: Thaxter, "Monograph of
the Laboulbeniaceae," _Mem. Amer. Acad. of Arts and Sciences_, vol. 12
(1895). _Uredineae_: Eriksson and Henning, _Die Getreideroste_
(Stockholm, 1896); Eriksson, _Botan. Gaz._ vol. 25 (1896); "On the
Vegetative Life of some Uredineae," Ann. of Bot. (1905); Klebahn, _Die
wirtwechselnden Rostpilze_ (Berlin, 1904); Sapin-Trouffy, "Recherches
histologiques sur la famille des Uredinees," _Le Botaniste_
(1896-1897); Blackman, "On the Fertilization, Alternation of
Generations and General Cytology of the Uredineae," _Ann. of Bot._
vol. 18 (1904); Blackman and Fraser, "Further Studies on the Sexuality
of Uredineae," _Ann. of Bot._ vol. 20 (1906); Christman, "Sexual
Reproduction of Rusts," _Ann. of Bot._ vol. 20 (1906); Ward, "The
Brooms and their Rust Fungus," _Ann. of Bot._ vol. 15 (1901).
_Basidiomycetes_: Dangeard, "La Reprod. sexuelle des Basidiomycetes,"
_Le Botaniste_ (1894 and 1900); Maire, "Recherches cytologiques et
taxonomiques sur les Basidiomycetes," _Annexe du Bull. de la Soc.
Mycol. de France_ (1902); Moller, "Protobasidiomyceten," _Schimper's
Mitt. aus den Tropen_, Heft 8 (Jena, 1895); Nichols, "The Nature and
Origin of the Binucleated Cells in certain Basidiomycetes," _Trans.
Wisconsin Acad. of Sciences_, vol. 15 (1905); Wager, "The Sexuality of
the Fungi," _Ann. of Bot._ 13 (1899); Woronin, "_Exobasidium
Vaccinii_," _Verh. Naturf. Ges. zu Freiburg_, Bd. 4 (1867).
_Fermentation_: Buchner, "Gahrung ohne Hefezellen," _Bot. Zeit._ Bd.
18 (1898); Albert, _Cent. f. Bakt._ Bd. 17 (1901); Green, _The
Soluble Ferments and Fermentation_ (Cambridge, 1899). _Parasitism_:
"On some Relations between Host and Parasite," _Proc. Roy. Soc_. vol.
47 (1890); "A Lily Disease," _Ann. of Botany_, vol. 2 (1888); Eriksson
& Hennings, _Die Getreideroste (vide supra_); Ward, "On the Question
of Predisposition and Immunity in Plants," _Proc. Cambridge Phil.
Soc_. vol. 11 (1902); also _Annals of Bot_. vol. 16 (1902) and vol. 19
(1905); Neger, "Beitr. z. Biol. d. Erysipheen" _Flora_, Bde. 88 and 90
(1901-1902); Salmon, "Cultural Experiments with 'Biologic Forms' of
the Erysiphaceae," _Phil. Trans_. (1904); "On Erysiphe graminis and
its adaptative parasitism within the genus, _Bromus_," _Ann. Mycol_.
vol. 11 (1904), also _Ann. of Bot_. vol. 19 (1905). _Symbiosis_: Ward,
"The Ginger-Beer Plant," _Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc_. (1892); "Symbiosis,"
_Ann. of Bot_. 13 (1899); Shalk, "Der Sinn der Mykorrhizenbildung,"
_Jahrb. f. wiss. Bot_. Bd. 34 (1900); Bernard, "On some Different
Cases of Germination," _Gardener's Chronicle_ (1900); Pierce, _Publ.
Univ. California_ (1900). (H. M. W.; V. H. B.)
FUNJ (FUNNIYEH, FUNG, FUNGHA), a very mixed negroid race, occupying
parts of Sennar and the hilly country to the south between the White and
Blue Niles. They traditionally come from west of the White Nile and are
affiliated by some to the Kordofan Nubas, by others, more justifiably,
to the negro Shilluks. These Funj, who became the dominant race in
Sennar in the 15th century, almost everywhere assimilated the speech,
religion and habits of the Arabs settled in that region. Until the 19th
century they were one of the most powerful of African peoples in the
eastern Sudan. About the end of the 15th century they overthrew the
kingdom of Aloa, between the two Niles, and conquered the neighbouring
peoples of the Sudan, Nubia and even Kordofan. The Funj had mixed much
with the Arabs before their conquests, and had been converted to Islam.
But they were still in many ways savages, for James Bruce (who traversed
the district in 1772) says that their most famous king, Malek-el-Gahman,
preferred human liver to any other food, and the Belgian traveller E.
Pruyssenaere (1826-1864) found them still performing pagan rites on
their sacred Mount Gula. Ernst Marno declared that as late as 1870 the
most southern branch of the race, the Boruns, a non-Arabic speaking
tribe, were cannibals. The Funj kings were content with levying tribute
on their neighbours, and in this loose way Shendi, Berber and Dongola
were once tributary. The Arab viziers gradually absorbed all power, the
Funj sovereignty becoming nominal; and in 1821 the Egyptians easily
destroyed the Funj domination. To-day the Funj are few, and represent no
real type. They are a bright, hospitable folk. Many of them are skilful
surgeons and go far afield in their work. The fellahin, indeed, call
surgeons "Senaari" (men of Sennar). See further SENNAR AND SUDAN
(Anglo-Egyptian).
FUNKIA, in botany, a genus of rather handsome, hardy, herbaceous plants
belonging to the natural order Liliaceae, and natives of China and
Japan. They are tuberous, with broadly ovate or heart-shaped leaves and
racemes of white or pale lilac, drooping, funnel-shaped flowers. They
are useful for the borders of a shrubbery, the lawn or rock-work, or may
be grown in pots for the greenhouse. The plants are propagated by
dividing the crowns in autumn or when growth begins in spring.
FUNNEL (through an O. Fr. _founil_, found in Breton, from Lat.
_infundibulum_, that through which anything is poured, from _fundere_,
to pour), a vessel shaped like a cone having a small tube at the apex
through which powder, liquid, &c., may be easily passed into another
vessel with a small opening. The term is used in metal-casting of the
hole through which the metal is poured into a mould, and in anatomy and
zoology of an _infundibulum_ or funnel-shaped organ. The word is thus
used generally of any shaft or passage to convey light, air or smoke, as
of the chimney of an engine or a steam-boat, or the flue of an ordinary
chimney. It is also used of a shaft or channel in rocks, and in the
decoying of wild-fowl is applied to the cone-shaped passage leading from
a pond and covered with a net, a "funnel-net," into which the birds are
decoyed.
FUR (connected with O. Fr. _forre_, a sheath or case; so "an outer
covering"), the name specially given to the covering of the skin in
certain animals which are natives of the colder climates, lying
alongside of another and longer covering, called the overhair. The fur
differs from the overhair, in that it is soft, silky, curly, downy and
barbed lengthwise, while the overhair is straight, smooth and
comparatively rigid. These properties of fur constitute its essential
value for felting purposes, and mark its difference from wool and silk;
the first, after some slight preparation by the aid of hot water,
readily unites its fibres into a strong and compact mass; the others can
best be managed by spinning and weaving.
On the living animal the overhair keeps the fur filaments apart,
prevents their tendency to felt, and protects them from injury--thus
securing to the animal an immunity from cold and storm; while, as a
matter of fact, this very overhair, though of an humbler name, is most
generally the beauty and pride of the pelt, and marks its chief value
with the furrier. We arrive thus at two distinct and opposite uses and
values of fur. Regarded as useful for felt it is denominated staple fur,
while with respect to its use with and on the pelt it is called fancy
fur.
_History._--The manufacture of fur into a felt is of comparatively
modern origin, while the use of fur pelts as a covering for the body,
for the couch, or for the tent is coeval with the earliest history of
all northern tribes and nations. Their use was not simply a barbarous
expedient to defend man from the rigours of an arctic winter; woven wool
alone cannot, in its most perfect form, accomplish this. The pelt or
skin is requisite to keep out the piercing wind and driving storm, while
the fur and overhair ward off the cold; and "furs" are as much a
necessity to-day among more northern peoples as they ever were in the
days of barbarism. With them the providing of this necessary covering
became the first purpose of their toil; subsequently it grew into an
object of barter and traffic, at first among themselves, and afterwards
with their neighbours of more temperate climes; and with the latter it
naturally became an article of fashion, of ornament and of luxury. This,
in brief, has been the history of its use in China, Tatary, Russia,
Siberia and North America, and at present the employment of fancy furs
among civilized nations has grown to be more extensive than at any
former period.
The supply of this demand in earlier times led to such severe
competition as to terminate in tribal pillages and even national wars;
and in modern times it has led to commercial ventures on the part of
individuals and companies, the account of which, told in its plainest
form, reads like the pages of romance. Furs have constituted the price
of redemption for royal captives, the gifts of emperors and kings, and
the peculiar badge of state functionaries. At the present day they vie
with precious gems and gold as ornaments and garniture for wealth and
fashion; but by their abundance, and the cheapness of some varieties,
they have recently come within the reach of men of moderate incomes. The
history of furs can be read in Marco Polo, as he grows eloquent with the
description of the rich skins of the khan of Tatary; in the early
fathers of the church, who lament their introduction into Rome and
Byzantium as an evidence of barbaric and debasing luxury; in the
political history of Russia, stretching out a powerful arm over Siberia
to secure her rich treasures; in the story of the French occupation of
Canada, and the ascent of the St Lawrence to Lake Superior, and the
subsequent contest to retain possession against England; in the history
of early settlements of New England, New York and Virginia; in Irving's
_Astoria_; in the records of the Hudson's Bay Company; and in the annals
of the fairs held at Nizhniy Novgorod and Leipzig. Here it may suffice
to give some account of the present condition of the trade in fancy
furs. The collection of skins is now chiefly a matter of private
enterprise. Few, if any, monopolies exist.
_Natural Supplies._--We are dependent upon the Carnivora, Rodentia,
Ungulata and Marsupialia for our supplies of furs, the first two classes
being by far of the greatest importance. The Carnivora include bears,
wolverines, wolves, raccoons, foxes, sables, martens, skunks, kolinskis,
fitch, fishers, ermines, cats, sea otters, fur seals, hair seals, lions,
tigers, leopards, lynxes, jackals, &c. The Rodentia include beavers,
nutrias, musk-rats or musquash, marmots, hamsters, chinchillas, hares,
rabbits, squirrels, &c. The Ungulata include Persian, Astrachan,
Crimean, Chinese and Tibet lambs, mouflon, guanaco, goats, ponies, &c.
The Marsupialia include opossums, wallabies and kangaroos. These, of
course, could be subdivided, but for general purposes of the fur trade
the above is deemed sufficient.
The question frequently arises, not only for those interested in the
production of fur apparel, but for those who derive so much comfort and
pleasure from its use, whether the supply of fur-bearing animals is
likely to be exhausted. Although it is a fact that the demand is ever
increasing, and that some of the rarer animals are decreasing in
numbers, yet on the other hand some kinds of furs are occasionally
neglected through vagaries of fashion, which give nature an opportunity
to replenish their source. These respites are, however, becoming fewer
every day, and what were formerly the most neglected kinds of furs are
becoming more and more sought after. The supply of some of the most
valuable, such as sable, silver and natural black fox, sea otter and
ermine, which are all taken from animals of a more or less shy nature,
does very gradually decrease with persistent hunting and the
encroachment of man upon the districts where they live, but the climate
of these vast regions is so cold and inhospitable that the probabilities
of man ever permanently inhabiting them in numbers sufficient to scare
away or exterminate the fur-bearing wild animals is unlikely. Besides
these there are many useful, though commonplace, fur-bearing animals
like mink, musquash, skunk, raccoon, opossum, hamster, rabbit, hares and
moles, that thrive by depredations upon cultivated land. Some of these
are reared upon extensive wild farms. In addition there are domestic
fur-bearing animals, such as Persian, Astrachan and Chinese lambs, and
goats, easily bred and available.
With regard to the rearing of the Persian lamb, there is a prevalent
idea that the skins of the unborn lamb are frequently used; this,
however, is a mistake. A few such skins have been taken, but they are
too delicate to be of any service. The youngest, known as "broadtails,"
are killed when a few days old, but for the well-developed curly fur,
the lambs must be six or seven weeks old. During these weeks their
bodies are covered with leather so that the fur may develop in close,
light and clean curls. The experiment has been tried of rearing rare,
wild, fur-bearing animals in captivity, and although climatic conditions
and food have been precisely as in their natural environment, the fur
has been poor in quality and bad in colour, totally unlike that taken
from animals in the wild state. The sensation of fear or the restriction
of movement and the obtaining of food without exertion evidently prevent
the normal development of the creature.
In mountainous districts in the more temperate zones some good supplies
are found. Chinchillas and nutrias are obtained from South America,
whence come also civet cats, jaguars, ocelots and pumas. Opossums and
wallabies, good useful furs, come from Australia and New Zealand. The
martens, foxes and otters imported from southern Europe and southern
Asia, are very mixed in quality, and the majority are poor compared with
those of Canada and the north.
Certain characteristics In the skin reveal to the expert from what
section of territory they come, but in classifying them it is considered
sufficient to mention territories only.
Some of the poorer sorts of furs, such as hamster, marmot, Chinese goats
and lambs, Tatar ponies, weasels, kaluga, various monkeys, antelopes,
foxes, otters, jackals and others from the warmer zones, which until
recently were neglected on account of their inferior quality of colour,
by the better class of the trade, are now being deftly dressed or dyed
in Europe and America, and good effects are produced, although the lack
of quality when compared with the better furs from colder climates which
possess full top hair, close underwool and supple leathers, is readily
manifest. It is only the pressure of increasing demand that makes
marketable hard pelts with harsh brittle hair of nondescript hue, and
these would, naturally, be the last to attract the notice of dealers.
As it is impossible that we shall ever discover any new fur-bearing
animals other than those we know, it behoves responsible authorities to
enforce close seasons and restrictions, as to the sex and age, in the
killing for the purpose of equalizing the numbers of the catches. As
evidence of indiscriminate slaughter the case of the American buffaloes
may be cited. At one time thousands of buffalo skins were obtainable and
provided material for most useful coats and rugs for rough wear in cold
regions, but to-day only a herd or so of the animals remain, and in
captivity.
The majority of animals taken for their fur are trapped or snared, the
gun being avoided as much as possible in order that the coat may be
quite undamaged. Many weary hours are spent in setting baits, traps and
wires, and, frequently, when the hunter retraces his steps to collect
the quarry it is only to find it gone, devoured by some large animal
that has visited his traps before him. After the skins have been
carefully removed--the sooner after death the better for the subsequent
condition of the fur--they are lightly tacked out, pelt outwards, and,
without being exposed to the sun or close contact with a fire, allowed
to dry in a hut or shady place where there is some warmth or movement of
air. With the exception of sealskins, which are pickled in brine, all
raw skins come to the various trade markets simply dried like this.
_Quality and Colour._--The best fur is obtained by killing animals when
the winter is at its height and the colder the season the better its
quality and colour. Fur skins taken out of season are indifferent, and
the hair is liable to shed itself freely; a good furrier will, however,
reject such faulty specimens in the manufacturing. The finest furs are
obtained from the Arctic and northern regions, and the lower the
latitude the less full and silky the fur, till, at the torrid zone, fur
gives place to harsh hair without any underwool. The finest and closest
wools are possessed by the amphibious Carnivora and Rodentia, viz.
seals, otters, beavers, nutrias and musquash, the beauty of which is not
seen until after the stiff water or top hairs are pulled out or
otherwise removed. In this class of animal the underneath wool of the
belly is thicker than that of the back, while the opposite is true of
those found on the land. The sea otter, one of the richest and rarest of
furs, especially for men's wear, is an exception to this unhairing
process, which it does not require, the hair being of the same length as
the wool, silky and bright, quite the reverse of the case of other
aquatic animals.
Of sealskins there are two distinct classes, the fur seals and the hair
seals. The latter have no growth of fur under the stiff top hair and are
killed, with few exceptions (generally of the marbled seals), on account
of the oil and leather they yield. The best fur seals are found off the
Alaska coast and down as far south as San Francisco.
It is found that in densely wooded districts furs are darker in colour
than in exposed regions, and that the quality of wool and hair is softer
and more silky than those from bare tracts of country, where nature
exacts from its creatures greater efforts to secure food, thereby
developing stronger limbs and a consequently coarser body covering.
As regards density of colour the skunk or black marten has the blackest
fur, and some cats of the domestic kind, specially reared for their fur,
are nearly black. Black bears have occasionally very black coats, but
the majority have a brownish underwool. The natural black fox is a
member of the silver fox family and is very rare, the skins bringing a
high price. Most silver foxes have dark necks and in some the dark shade
runs a quarter, half-way, or three-quarters, or even the whole length of
the skin, but it is rather of a brownish hue. Some Russian sables are of
a very dense bluish brown almost a black, which is the origin
undoubtedly of the term "sables," while some, from one district in
particular, have a quantity of silver hairs, evenly interspersed in the
fur, a peculiarity which has nothing to do with age. The best sea otters
have very dark coats which are highly esteemed, a few with silver hairs
in parts; where these are equally and evenly spread the skins are very
valuable. Otters and beavers that run dark in the hair or wool are more
valuable than the paler ones, the wools of which are frequently touched
with a chemical to produce a golden shade. This is also done with
nutrias after unhairing. The darker sorts of mink, musquash, raccoon
and wolverine are more valuable than the paler skins.
_Collective Supplies and Sales._--There are ten large American and
Canadian companies with extensive systems for gathering the annual hauls
of skins from the far-scattered trappers. These are the Hudson's Bay
Co., Russian Fur Co., Alaska Commercial Co., North American Commercial
Co., Russian Sealskin Co., Harmony Fur Co., Royal Greenland Fur Co.,
American Fur Co., Missouri Co. and Pacific Co. Most of the raw skins are
forwarded to about half-a-dozen brokers in London, who roughly sort them
in convenient lots, issuing catalogues to the traders of the world, and
after due time for examination of the goods by intending purchasers, the
lots are sold by public auction. The principal sales of general furs are
held in London in January and March, smaller offerings being made in
June and October; while the bulk of fur sealskins is sold separately in
December. The Hudson's Bay Co.'s sales take place before the others,
and, as no reserves are placed on any lot, the results are taken as
exactly indicating current values. While many buyers from America and
Russia are personally in attendance at the sales, many more are
represented by London and Leipzig agents who buy for them upon
commission. In addition to the fur skins coming from North America vast
numbers from Russia, Siberia, China, Japan, Australia and South America
are offered during the same periods at public auction. Fairs are also
held in Siberia, Russia and Germany for the distribution of fur skins as
follows:--
January: Frankfort-on-the- Small collection of provincial produce,
Oder such as otter, fox, fitch and marten.
February: Irbit, Siberia General Russian furs.
Easter: Leipzig, Germany General furs.
August: Nizhniy Novgorod, Persian lamb and general furs.
Russia
August: Kiakhta, Siberia Chinese furs and ermine.
December: Ishim, Siberia Chiefly squirrels.
Of course there are many transactions, generally in the cheaper and
coarser kinds of furs, used only in central Europe, Russia and Asia
which in no way interest the London market, and there are many direct
consignments of skins from collectors in America and Russia to London,
New York and Leipzig merchants. But the bulk of the fine furs of the
world is sold at the large public trade auction sales in London. The
chief exceptions are the Persian and Astrachan lambs, which are bought
at the Russian fairs, and are dressed and dyed in Leipzig, and the
ermine and Russian squirrels, which are dressed and manufactured into
linings either in Russia or Germany before offered for sale to the
wholesale merchants or manufacturers.
The annual collection of fur skins varies considerably in quantity
according to the demand and to the good or bad climatic conditions of
the season; and it is impossible to give a complete record, as many
skins are used in the country of their origin or exported direct to
merchants. But a fairly exact statement of the numbers sold in the great
public trade auction sales in London during the year 1905-1906 is
herewith set out.
_Year ending 31st of March 1906._ Total Number
of Skins.
Badger 28,634
Badger, Japanese 6,026
Bear 18,576
Beaver 80,514
Cat, Civet 157,915
Cat, House 126,703
" Wild 32,253
Chinchilla (La Plata), known also as Bastard 43,578
" Peruvian finest 5,603
Deer, Chinese 124,355
Ermine 40,641
Fisher 5,949
Fitch 77,578
Fox, Blue 1,893
" Cross 10,276
" Grey 59,561
" Japanese 81,429
" Kit 4,023
" Red 158,961
" Silver 2,510
" White 27,463
Goats, Chinese 261,190
Hares 41,256
Kangaroo 7,115
Kid, Chinese linings and skins equal to 5,080,047
Kolinsky 114,251
Lamb, Mongolian linings and skins equal to 214,072
" Slink " " " 167,372
" Tibet " " " 794,130
Leopard 3,574
Lynx 88,822
Marmot, linings and skins equal to 1,600,600
Marten, Baum 4,573
" Japanese 16,461
" Stone 12,939
Mink, Canadian and American 299,254
" Japanese 360,373
Mouflon 23,594
Musk-rat or Musquash, Brown 5,126,339
" " Black 41,788
Nutria 82,474
Opossum, American 902,065
" Australian 4,161,685
Otter, River 21,235
" Sea 522
Raccoon 310,712
Sable, Canadian and American 97,282
" Japanese 556
" Russian 26,399
Seals, Fur 77,000
" Hair 31,943
Skunk 1,068,408
Squirrel 194,596
" Linings each averaging 126 skins 1,982,736
Tiger 392
Wallaby 60,956
Wolf 56,642
Wolverine 1,726
Wombat 193,625
A brief account of the different qualities of the pelts, with some
general remarks as to their customary uses, follows. The prices quoted
are subject to constant fluctuation and represent purely trade prices
for bulk, and it should be explained that the very great variations are
due to different sizes, qualities and colours, and moreover are only
_first cost_, before skins are dressed and prepared. These preparations
are in some cases expensive, and there is generally a considerable
percentage of waste. The prices cannot be taken as a guide to the
wholesale price of a single and finished skin, but simply as _relative_
value.
The fullest and darkest skins of each kind are the most valuable, and,
in cases of bluish grey or white, the fuller, clearer and brighter are
the more expensive. A few albinos are found in every species, but
whatever their value to a museum, they are of little commercial
importance. Some odd lots of skins arrive designated simply as
"sundries," so no classification is possible, and this will account for
the absence of a few names of skins of which the imports are
insignificant in quantity, or are received direct by the wholesale
merchants.
_Names, Qualities and Uses of Pelts._[1]
ASTRACHAN.--See _Lambs_, below.
BADGER.--Size 2 X 1 ft. American sorts have coarse thick underwool of
a pale fawn or stone colour with a growth of longer black and white
hairs, 3 or 4 in. long; a very durable but clumsy fur. The best skins
are exported to France, Spain and Italy, and used for carriage rugs
and military purposes. Asiatic, including Japanese, skins are more
woolly. Russian and Prussian kinds are coarser and darker, and used
mostly for brush trade. Value 6d. to 19s.
BEAR, AUSTRALIAN.--See _Wombat_, below.
BEAR, BLACK.--Size 6 X 3 ft. Fine dark brown underwool with bright
black and flowing top hair 4 in. long. Cubs are nearly as long in the
hair although only about half the size and not only softer and better,
but have the advantage of being very much lighter in pelt. Widely
distributed in North America, the best come from Canada, are costly
and are used for military caps, boas, muffs, trimmings, carriage rugs
and coachmen's capes, and the fur wears exceedingly well. Value 17s.
6d. to 86s. Those from East India and warm climates are harsh, poor
and only fit for floor rugs.
BEAR, BROWN.--Size 6 X 3 ft. Similar in quality to the black, but far
more limited in number; the colours range from light yellow to a rich
dark brown. The best come from Hudson Bay territory and are valuable.
Used for muffs, trimmings, boas, and carriage rugs. Inferior sorts,
almost grizzly in effect and some very pale, are found in Europe and
Asia and are mostly used locally. In India there is a species called
Isabelline bear, which was formerly imported to Great Britain, but
does not now arrive in any quantity worth mentioning. Value 10s. 6d.
to 60s., Isabelline sort 10s. 6d. to 78s.
BEAR, GRIZZLY.--Size 8 X 4 ft. Coarse hair, heavy pelt, mostly dark
yellowish and brown colours, only found in western parts of United
States, Russia and Siberia. Used as carriage rugs and floor rugs, most
durable for latter purpose and of fine effect. They are about half the
value of brown bear. Value 15s. to 54s.
BEAR, ISABELLINE.--See _Bear_, _Brown_, above.
BEAR, WHITE.--Size 10 X 5 ft. The largest of all bears. Short close
hair except on flanks, colour white to yellow. An inhabitant of the
Arctic circle, best from Greenland. Used for floor rugs, very durable;
and very white specimens are valuable. Value 20s. to 520s.
BEAVER. Size 3 X 2 ft. The largest of rodents, it possesses a close
underwool of bluish-brown hue, nearly an inch in depth, with coarse,
bright, black or reddish-brown top hair, 3 in. long. Found widely in
North America. After being unhaired the darkest wools are the most
valuable, although many people prefer the bright, lighter brown tones.
Used for collars, cuffs, boas, muffs, trimmings, coat linings and
carriage aprons, and is of a most durable nature, in addition to
having a rich and good appearance. Value 10s. to 39s. 6d.
BROADTAIL.--See _Lambs_, below.
CARACAL.--A small lynx from India, the fur very poor, seldom imported.
CARACUL.--See _Goats_ and _Lambs_, below.
CAT, CIVET.--Size 9 X 4-1/2 in., short, thick and dark underwool with
silky black top hair with irregular and unique white markings. It is
similar to skunk, but is much lighter in weight, softer and less full,
without any disagreeable odour. Used for coat linings it is very warm
and durable. A few come from China, but the fur is yellowish-grey,
slightly spotted and worth little. Value 1s. 1d. to 1s. 11d.
CAT, HOUSE, &C.--18 X 9 in., mostly black and dark brown, imported
from Holland, Bavaria, America and Russia, where they are reared for
their coats. The best, from Holland, are used for coat linings.
Although in colour, weight and warmth they are excellent, the fur is
apt to become loose and to fall off with friction of wear. The black
are known as genet, although the true genet is a spotted wild cat.
Wild sorts of the tabby order are coarser, and not so good and silky
in effect as when domestically reared. Value of the black sorts 2d. to
3s. Wild 9d. to 14s. Some small wild cats, very poor flat fur of a
pale fawn colour with yellow spots, are imported from Australia and
used for linings. Value 5-1/2d. to 1s. 1d.
CHEETAH.--Size of a small leopard and similar in colour, but has black
spots in lieu of rings. Only a few are now imported, which are used
for mats. Value 2s. 6d. to 18s.
CHINCHILLA, PERUVIAN and BOLIVIAN.--Size 12 X 7 in., fur 1 to 1-1/4
in. deep. Delicate blue-grey with black shadings, one of nature's most
beautiful productions, though not a durable one. Used for ladies'
coats, stoles, muffs, hats and trimmings. Yearly becoming scarcer and
most costly. Value 8s. 6d. to 56s. 8d.
CHINCHILLA, LA PLATA, incorrectly named and known in the trade as
"bastard chinchilla," size 9 X 4 in., in a similar species, but owing
to lower altitudes and warmer climatic conditions of habitation is
smaller, with shorter and less beautiful fur, the underwool colour
being darker and the top colour less pure. Used exactly as the better
kind, and the picked skins are most effective. As with the best sort
it is not serviceable for constant wear. Value 4s. 2d. to 27s. 6d.
CHINCHILLONE.--Size 13 X 8 in., obtained also from South America. Fur
is longer and weaker and poorer and yellower than chinchilla. Probably
a crossbred animal, very limited importation. Value 3s. 6d. to 16s.
8d.
DEER, CHINESE and EAST INDIAN.--Small, light, pelted skins, the
majority of which are used for mats. Reindeer and other varieties are
of little interest for use other than trophy mats. Thousands are taken
for the leather trade. Value of Chinese 1s. 2d. to 1s. 6d. each.
DOG.--The only dogs that are used in the fur trade in civilized
countries are those imported from China, which are heavy and coarse,
and only used in the cheaper trade, chiefly for rugs. Value 6d. to 1s.
DOG WOLF.--See _Wolf_, below.
ERMINE.--Size 12 X 2-1/2 in. Underwool short and even, with a shade
longer top hair. Pelt light and close in texture, and durable. In the
height of winter the colour is pure white with exception of the tip of
tail, which is quite black. Supplies are obtained from Siberia and
America. Best are from Ishim in Siberia. Used for cloak linings,
stoles, muffs and trimmings, also for embellishment of British state,
parliamentary and legal robes. When this fur is symmetrically spotted
with black lamb pieces it is styled miniver, in which form it is used
at the grand coronation functions of British sovereigns. Value 1s. 3d.
to 8s. 6d.
FISHER.--Size 30 X 12 in., tail 12 to 18 in. long, the largest of the
martens; has a dark shaded deep underwool with fine, glossy, dark and
strong top hair 2 in. or more long. Best obtained from British
America. The tails are almost black and make up most handsomely into
trimmings, muffs, &c. Tails worked separately in these forms are as
rich and fine and more durable than any other fur suitable for a like
purpose. The fur of the skin itself is something like a dark silky
raccoon, but is not as attractive as the tails. Value 12s. to 46s.
FITCH.--Size 12 X 3 in., of the marten species, also known as the pole
cat. Yellow underwool 1/3 in. deep, black top hair, 1-1/2 to 1-3/4 in.
long, very fine and open in growth, and not close as in martens.
Largest skins come from Denmark, Holland and Germany. The Russian are
smaller, but more silky and, as now dyed, make a cheap and fair
substitute for sable. They are excellent for linings of ladies' coats,
being of light weight and fairly strong in the pelt. English mayors'
and civic officials' robes are frequently trimmed with this fur in
lieu of sable. Value of the German variety 2s. to 5s. 6d. and of the
Russian 7d. to 1s. 4d.
FOX, BLUE.--Size 24 X 8 in. Underwool thick and long. Top hair fine
and not so plentiful as in other foxes. Found in Alaska, Hudson Bay
territory, Archangel and Greenland. Although called blue, the colour
is a slaty or drab tone. Those from Archangel are more silky and of a
smoky bluish colour and are the most valuable. These are scarce and
consequently dear. The white foxes that are dyed smoke and celestial
blue are brilliant and totally unlike the browner shades of this fox.
Value 34s. to 195s.
FOX, COMMON.--The variation of size and quality is considerable, and
the colour is anything from grey to red. In Great Britain the animal
is now only regarded for the sport it provides. On the European
continent, however, some hundreds of thousands of skins, principally
German, Russian and Norwegian, are sold annually, for home use, and
for dyeing and exportation, chiefly to the United States. The
qualities do not compare with those species found in North America and
the Arctic circle. The Asiatic, African and South American varieties
are, with the exception of those taken in the mountains, poorly furred
and usually brittle and therefore of no great service. No commercial
value can be quoted.
FOX, CROSS.--Size 20 X 7 in., are about as large as the silver and
generally have a pale yellowish or orange tone with some silvery
points and a darkish cross marking on the shoulders. Some are very
similar to the pale red fox from the North-West of America and a few
are exceptionally large. The darkest and best come from Labrador and
Hudson Bay, and the ordinary sorts from the north-west of the United
States and, as with silver and other kinds, the quality is inferior
when taken from warmer latitudes. Value 10s. 6d. to 60s.
FOX, GREY.--Size 27 X 10 in. Has a close dark drab underwool with
yellowish grizzly, grey, regular and coarse top hair. The majority
used for the trade come from Virginia and the southern and western
parts of the United States. Those from the west are larger than the
average, with more fur of a brighter tone. The fur is fairly
serviceable for carriage rugs, the leather being stout, but its
harshness of quality and nondescript colour does not contribute to
make it a favourite. Value 9d. to 4s. 9d.
FOX, JAPANESE.--See _Fox, Red_, and _Raccoon_, below.
FOX, KIT.--Size 20 X 6 in. The underwool is short and soft, as is also
the top hair, which is of very pale grey mixed with some
yellowish-white hair. It is the smallest of foxes, and is found in
Canada and the northern section of the United States. It is similar in
colour and quality to the prairie fox and to many kinds from the
warmer zones, such as from Turkey, eastern Asia and elsewhere. Value
1s. 3d. to 5s. 6d.
FOX, RED.--Size 24 X 8 in., though a few kinds are much larger. The
underwool is long and soft and the hair plentiful and strong. It is
found widely in the northern parts of America and in smaller numbers
south of the United States, also in China, Japan and Australia. The
colours vary from pale yellowish to a dark red, some being very
brilliant. Those of Kamschatka are rich and fine in quality. Farther
north, especially near the sea, the fur is coarse. Where the best
coloured skins are not used for carriage rugs they are extensively
dyed, and badger and other white hairs are inserted to resemble silver
fox. They are also dyed a sable colour. The skins, being the strongest
of foxes', both in the fur and pelt, are serviceable. The preparations
in imitation of the natural black and silver sorts are very good and
attractive. Value 1s. to 41s.