[1] Sir Wm. Wallace in a report on Northern Nigeria ("Colonial
Office" series, No. 551, 1907) calls attention to the exodus "of
thousands of Fulani of all sorts, but mostly Mellawa, from the French
Middle Niger," and states that the majority of the emigrants are
settling in the Nile valley.
FULCHER (or FOUCHER) OF CHARTRES (1058-c. 1130), French chronicler, was
a priest who was present at the council of Clermont in 1095, and
accompanied Robert II., duke of Normandy, on the first crusade in 1096.
Having spent some time in Italy and taken part in the fighting on the
way to the Holy Land, he became chaplain to Baldwin, who was chosen king
of Jerusalem in 1100, and lived with Baldwin at Edessa and then at
Jerusalem. He accompanied this king on several warlike expeditions, but
won more lasting fame by writing his _Historia Hierosolymitana_ or
_Gesta Francorum Jerusalem expugnantium_, one of the most trustworthy
sources for the history of the first crusade. In its final form it is
divided into three books, and covers the period between the council of
Clermont and 1127, and the author only gives details of events which he
himself had witnessed. It was used by William of Tyre. Fulcher died
after 1127, probably at Jerusalem. He has been confused with Foucher of
Mongervillier (d. 1171), abbot of St-Pere-en-Vallee at Chartres, and
also with another person of the same name who distinguished himself at
the siege of Antioch in 1098.
The _Historia_, but in an incomplete form, was first published by J.
Bongars in the _Gesta Dei per Francos_ (Hanover, 1611). The best
edition is in tome iii. of the _Recueil des historiens des croisades,
Historiens occidentaux_ (Paris, 1866); and there is a French
translation in tome xxiv. of Guizot's _Collection des memoires
relatifs a l'histoire de France_ (Paris, 1823-1835).
See H. von Sybel, _Geschichte des ersten Kreuzzuges_ (Leipzig, 1881);
and A. Molinier, _Les Sources de l'histoire de France_, tome ii.
(Paris, 1902).
FULDA, a town and episcopal see of Germany, in the Prussian province of
Hesse-Nassau, between the Rhon and the Vogel-Gebirge, 69 m. N.E. from
Frankfort-on-Main on the railway to Bebra. Although irregularly built
the town is pleasantly situated, and contains two fine squares, on one
of which stands a fine statue of St Boniface. The present cathedral was
built at the beginning of the 18th century on the model of St Peter's at
Rome, but it has an ancient crypt, which contains the bones of St
Boniface and was restored in 1892. Opposite the cathedral is the former
monastery of St Michael, now the episcopal palace. The Michaelskirche,
attached to it, is a small round church built, in imitation of the Holy
Sepulchre, in 822 and restored in 1853. Of other buildings may be
mentioned the Library, with upwards of 80,000 printed books and many
valuable MSS., the stately palace with its gardens and orangery, the
former Benedictine nunnery (founded 1625, and now used as a seminary),
and the Minorite friary (1238) now used as a furniture warehouse. Among
the secular buildings are the fine _Schloss_, the _Bibliothek_, the town
hall and the post office. There are several schools, a hospital founded
in the 13th century, and some new artillery barracks. Many industries
are carried on in Fulda. These include weaving and dyeing, the
manufacture of linen, plush and other textiles and brewing. There are
also railway works in the town. A large trade is done in cattle and
grain, many markets being held here. Fine views are obtained from
several hills in the neighbourhood, among these being the Frauenberg,
the Petersberg and the Kalvarienberg.
Fulda owes its existence to its famous abbey. It became a town in 1208,
and during the middle ages there were many struggles between the abbots
and the townsfolk. During the Peasants' War it was captured by the
rebels and during the Seven Years' War by the Hanoverians. It came
finally into the possession of Prussia in 1866. From 1734 to 1804 Fulda
was the seat of a university, and latterly many assemblies of German
bishops have been held in the town.
The great Benedictine abbey of Fulda occupies the place in the
ecclesiastical history of Germany which Monte Cassino holds in Italy, St
Gall in South Germany, Corvey in Saxony, Tours in France and Iona in
Scotland. Founded in 744 at the instigation of St Boniface by his pupil
Sturm, who was the first abbot, it became the centre of a great
missionary work. It was liberally endowed with land by the princes of
the Carolingian house and others, and soon became one of the most famous
and wealthy establishments of its kind. About 968 the pope declared that
its abbot was primate of all the abbots in Germany and Gaul, and later
he became a prince of the Empire. Fulda was specially famous for its
school, which was the centre of the theological learning of the early
middle ages. Among the teachers here were Alcuin, Hrabanus Maurus, who
was abbot from 822 to 842, and Walafrid Strabo. Early in the 10th
century the monastery was reformed by introducing monks from Scotland,
who were responsible for restoring in its old strictness the Benedictine
rule. Later the abbey lost some of its lands and also its high position,
and some time before the Reformation the days of its glory were over.
Johann von Henneberg, who was abbot from 1529 to 1541, showed some
sympathy with the teaching of the reformers, but the Counter-Reformation
made great progress here under Abbot Balthasar von Dernbach. Gustavus
Adolphus gave the abbey as a principality to William, landgrave of
Hesse, but William's rule only lasted for ten years. In 1752 the abbot
was raised to the rank of a bishop, and Fulda ranked as a
prince-bishopric. This was secularized in 1802, and in quick succession
it belonged to the prince of Orange, the king of France and the
grand-duchy of Frankfort. In 1816 the greater part of the principality
was ceded by Prussia to Hesse-Cassel, a smaller portion being united
with Bavaria. Sharing the fate of Hesse-Cassel, this larger portion was
annexed by Prussia in 1866. In 1829 a new bishopric was founded at
Fulda.
For the town see A. Hartmann, _Zeitgeschichte von Fulda_ (Fulda,
1895); J. Schneider, _Fuhrer durch die Stadt Fulda_ (Fulda, 1899); and
_Chronik von Fulda und dessen Umgebungen_ (1839). For the history of
the abbey see Gegenbaur, _Das Kloster Fulda im Karolinger Zeitalter_
(Fulda, 1871-1874); Arndt, _Geschichte des Hochstifts Fulda_ (Fulda,
1860); and the _Fuldaer Geschichtsblatter_ (1902 fol.).
FULGENTIUS, FABIUS PLANCIADES, Latin grammarian, a native of Africa,
flourished in the first half of the 6th (or the last part of the 5th)
century A.D. He is to be distinguished from Fulgentius, bishop of Ruspe
(468-533), to whom he was probably related, and also from the bishop's
pupil and biographer, Fulgentius Ferrandus. Four extant works are
attributed to him. (1) _Mythologiarum libri iii._, dedicated to a
certain Catus, a presbyter of Carthage, containing 75 myths briefly
told, and then explained in the mystical and allegorical manner of the
Stoics and Neoplatonists. For this purpose the author generally invokes
the aid of etymologies which, borrowed from the philosophers, are highly
absurd. As a Christian, Fulgentius sometimes (but less frequently than
might have been expected) quotes the Bible by the side of the
philosophers, to give a Christian colouring to the moral lesson. (2)
_Expositio Vergilianae continentiae (continentia_ = contents), a sort of
appendix to (1), dedicated to Catus. The poet himself appears to the
author and explains the twelve books of the _Aeneid_ as a picture of
human life. The three words _arma_ (= virtus), _vir_ (= sapientia),
_primus_ (= princeps) in the first line represent respectively
_substantia corporalis, sensualis, ornans_. Book i. symbolizes the birth
and early childhood of man (the shipwreck of Aeneas denotes the peril of
birth), book vi. the plunge into the depths of wisdom. (3) _Expositio
sermonum antiquorum_, explanations of 63 rare and obsolete words,
supported by quotations (sometimes from authors and works that never
existed). It is much inferior to the similar work of Nonius, with which
it is often edited. (4) _Liber absque litteris de aetatibus mundi et
hominis_. In the MS. heading of this work, the name of the author is
given as Fabius Claudius Gordianus Fulgentius (Claudius is the name of
the father, and Gordianus that of the grandfather of the bishop, to whom
some attribute the work). The title _Absque litteris_ indicates that one
letter of the alphabet is wholly omitted in each successive book (A in
bk. i., B in bk. ii.). Only 14 books are preserved. The matter is
chiefly taken from sacred history. In addition to these, Fulgentius
speaks of early poetical attempts after the manner of Anacreon, and of a
work called _Physiologus_, dealing with medical questions, and including
a discussion of the mystical signification of the numbers 7 and 9.
Fulgentius is a representative of the so-called late African style,
taking for his models Apuleius, Tertullian and Martianus Capella. His
language is bombastic, affected and incorrect, while the lengthy and
elaborate periods make it difficult to understand his meaning.
See the edition of the four works by R. Helm (1898, Teubner series);
also M. Zink, _Der Mytholog Fulgentius_ (1867); E. Jungmann, "De
Fulgentii aetate et scriptis," in _Acta Societatis Philologae
Lipsiensis_, i. (1871); A. Ebert, _Allgemeine Geschichte der Litt. des
Mittelalters_, i.; article "Fulgentius" by C.F. Bohr in Ersch and
Gruber's _Allgemeine Encyklopadie_; Teuffel-Schwabe, _History of Roman
Literature_ (Eng. trans.).
FULGINIAE (mod. _Foligno_), an ancient town of Umbria, Italy, on the
later line of the Via Flaminia, 15 m. S. of Nuceria. It appears to have
been of comparatively late origin, inasmuch as it had no city walls,
but, in imperial times especially, owing to its position on the new line
of the Via Flaminia, it must have increased in importance as being the
point of departure of roads to Perusia and to Picenum over the pass of
Plestia. It appears to have had an amphitheatre, and three bridges over
the Topino are attributed to the Roman period. Three miles to the N.
lies the independent community of Forum Flaminii, the site of which is
marked by the church of S. Giovanni Profiamma, at or near which the
newer line of the Via Flaminia rejoined the older. It was no doubt
founded by the builder of the road, C. Flaminius, consul in 220 B.C.
(See FOLIGNO and FLAMINIA, VIA.) (T. As.)
FULGURITE (from Lat. _fulgur_, lightning), in petrology, the name given
to rocks which have been fused on the surface by lightning, and to the
characteristic holes in rocks formed by the same agency. When lightning
strikes the naked surfaces of rocks, the sudden rise of temperature may
produce a certain amount of fusion, especially when the rocks are dry
and the electricity is not readily conducted away. Instances of this
have been observed on Ararat and on several mountains in the Alps,
Pyrenees, &c. A thin glassy crust, resembling a coat of varnish, is
formed; its thickness is usually not more than one-eighth of an inch,
and it may be colourless, white or yellow. When examined under the
microscope, it usually shows no crystallization, and contains minute
bubbles due to the expansion of air or other gases in the fused
pellicle. Occasionally small microliths may appear, but this is uncommon
because so thin a film would cool with extreme rapidity. The minerals of
the rock beneath are in some cases partly fused, but the more refractory
often appear quite unaffected. The glass has arisen from the melting of
the most fusible ingredients alone.
Another type of fulgurite is commonest in dry sands and takes the shape
of vertical tubes which may be nearly half an inch in diameter.
Generally they are elliptical in cross section, or flattened by the
pressure exerted by the surrounding sand on the fulgurite at a time when
it was still very hot and plastic. These tubes are often vertical and
may run downwards for several feet through the sand, branching and
lessening as they descend. Tubular perforations in hard rocks have been
noted also, but these are short and probably follow original cracks. The
glassy material contains grains of sand and many small round or
elliptical cavities, the long axes of which are radial. Minerals like
felspar and mica are fused more readily than quartz, but analysis shows
that some fulgurite glasses are very rich in silica, which perhaps was
dissolved in the glass rather than simply fused. The central cavity of
the tube and the bubbles in its walls point to the expansion of the
gases (air, water, &c.) in the sand by sudden and extreme heating. Very
fine threads of glass project from the surface of the tube as if fused
droplets had been projected outwards with considerable force. Where the
quartz grains have been greatly heated but not melted they become white
and semi-opaque, but where they are in contact with the glass they
usually show partial solution. Occasionally crystallization has begun
before the glass solidified, and small microliths, the nature of which
is undeterminable, occur in streams and wisps in the clear hyaline
matrix. (J. S. F.)
FULHAM, a western metropolitan borough of London, England, bounded N.W.
by Hammersmith, N.E. by Kensington, E. by Chelsea, and S.E., S. and S.W.
by the river Thames. Pop. (1901) 137,289. The principal thoroughfares
are Fulham Palace Road running S. from Hammersmith, Fulham Road and
King's Road, W. from Chelsea, converging and leading to Putney Bridge
over the Thames; North End Road between Hammersmith and Fulham Roads;
Lillie Road between South Kensington and Fulham Palace Road; and
Wandsworth Bridge Road leading S. from New King's Road to Wandsworth
Bridge. In the north Fulham includes the residential district known as
West Kensington, and farther south that of Walham Green. The manor house
or palace of the bishops of London stands in grounds, beautifully
planted and surrounded by a moat, believed to be a Danish work, near the
river west of Putney Bridge. Its oldest portion is the picturesque
western quadrangle, built by Bishop Fitzjames (1506-1522). The parish
church of All Saints, between the bridge and the grounds, was erected in
1881 from designs by Sir Arthur Blomfield. The fine old monuments from
the former building, dating from the 16th to the 18th centuries, are
mostly preserved, and in the churchyard are the memorials of several
bishops of London and of Theodore Hook (1841). The public recreation
grounds include the embankment and gardens between the river and the
palace grounds, and there are also two well-known enclosures used for
sports within the borough. Of these Hurlingham Park is the headquarters
of the Hurlingham Polo Club and a fashionable resort; and Queen's Club,
West Kensington, has tennis and other courts for the use of members, and
is also the scene of important football matches, and of the athletic
meetings between Oxford and Cambridge Universities, and those between
the English and American Universities held in England. In Seagrave Road
is the Western fever hospital. The parliamentary borough of Fulham
returns one member. The borough council consists of a mayor, 6 aldermen
and 36 councillors. Area, 1703.5 acres.
Fulham, or in its earliest form _Fullanham_, is uncertainly stated to
signify "the place" either "of fowls" or "of dirt." The manor is said to
have been given to Bishop Erkenwald about the year 691 for himself and
his successors in the see of London, and Holinshed relates that the
Bishop of London was lodging in his manor place in 1141 when Geoffrey de
Mandeville, riding out from the Tower of London, took him prisoner. At
the Commonwealth the manor was temporarily out of the bishops' hands,
being sold to Colonel Edmund Harvey. There is no record of the first
erection of a parish church, but the first known rector was appointed in
1242, and a church probably existed a century before this. The earliest
part of the church demolished in 1881, however, did not date farther
back than the 15th century. In 879 Danish invaders, sailing up the
Thames, wintered at Fulham and Hammersmith. Near the former wooden
Putney Bridge, built in 1729 and replaced in 1886, the earl of Essex
threw a bridge of boats across the river in 1642 in order to march his
army in pursuit of Charles I., who thereupon fell back on Oxford.
Margravine Road recalls the existence of Bradenburg House, a riverside
mansion built by Sir Nicholas Crispe in the time of Charles I., used as
the headquarters of General Fairfax in 1647 during the civil wars, and
occupied in 1792 by the margrave of Bradenburg-Anspach and Bayreuth and
his wife, and in 1820 by Caroline, consort of George IV.
FULK, king of Jerusalem (b. 1092), was the son of Fulk IV., count of
Anjou, and his wife Bertrada (who ultimately deserted her husband and
became the mistress of Philip I. of France). He became count of Anjou in
1109, and considerably added to the prestige of his house. In particular
he showed himself a doughty opponent to Henry I. of England, against
whom he continually supported Louis VI. of France, until in 1127 Henry
won him over by betrothing his daughter Matilda to Fulk's son Geoffrey
Plantagenet. Already in 1120 Fulk had visited the Holy Land, and become
a close friend of the Templars. On his return he assigned to the order
of the Templars an annual subsidy, while he also maintained two knights
in the Holy Land for a year. In 1128 he was preparing to return to the
East, when he received an embassy from Baldwin II., king of Jerusalem,
who had no male heir to succeed him, offering his daughter Melisinda in
marriage, with the right of eventual succession to the kingdom. Fulk
readily accepted the offer; and in 1129 he came and was married to
Melisinda, receiving the towns of Acre and Tyre as her dower. In 1131,
at the age of thirty-nine, he became king of Jerusalem. His reign is not
marked by any considerable events: the kingdom which had reached its
zenith under Baldwin II., and did not begin to decline till the capture
of Edessa in the reign of Baldwin III., was quietly prosperous under his
rule. In the beginning of his reign he had to act as regent of Antioch,
and to provide a husband, Raymund of Poitou, for the infant heiress
Constance. But the great problem with which he had to deal was the
progress of the atabeg Zengi of Mosul. In 1137 he was beaten near Barin,
and escaping into the fort was surrounded and forced to capitulate. A
little later, however, he greatly improved his position by strengthening
his alliance with the vizier of Damascus, who also had to fear the
progress of Zengi (1140); and in this way he was able to capture the
fort of Banias, to the N. of Lake Tiberias. Fulk also strengthened the
kingdom on the south; while his butler, Paganus, planted the fortress of
Krak to the south of the Dead Sea, and helped to give the kingdom an
access towards the Red Sea, he himself constructed Blanche Garde and
other forts on the S.W. to overawe the garrison of Ascalon, which was
still held by the Mahommedans, and to clear the road towards Egypt.
Twice in Fulk's reign the eastern emperor, John Comnenus, appeared in
northern Syria (1137 and 1142); but his coming did not affect the king,
who was able to decline politely a visit which the emperor proposed to
make to Jerusalem. In 1143 he died, leaving two sons, who both became
kings, as Baldwin III. and Amalric I.
Fulk continued the tradition of good statesmanship and sound
churchmanship which Baldwin I. and Baldwin II. had begun. William of
Tyre speaks of him as a fine soldier, an able politician, and a good son
of the church, and only blames him for partiality to his friends, and a
forgetfulness of names and faces, which placed him at a disadvantage and
made him too dependent on his immediate intimates. Little, perhaps, need
be made of these censures: the real fault of Fulk was his neglect to
envisage the needs of the northern principalities, and to head a
combined resistance to the rising power of Zengi of Mosul.
His reign in Jerusalem is narrated by R. Rohricht (_Geschichte des
Konigreichs Jerusalem_, Innsbruck, 1898), and has been made the
subject of a monograph by G. Dodu (_De Fulconis Hierosolymitani
regno_, Paris, 1894). (E. Br.)
FULK (d. 900), archbishop of Reims, and partisan of Charles the Simple
in his struggle with Odo, count of Paris, was elected to the see as
archbishop in 883 upon the death of Hincmar. In 887 he was engaged in a
struggle with the Normans who invaded his territories. Upon the
deposition of Charles the Fat he sided with Charles the Simple in his
contest for the West Frankish dominions against Count Odo of Paris, and
crowned him king in his own metropolitan church at Reims after most of
the nobles had gone over to Odo (893). Upon the death of Odo he
succeeded in having Charles recognized as king by a majority of the West
Frankish nobility. In 892 he obtained special privileges for his
province from Pope Formosus, who promised that thereafter, when the
archbishopric became vacant, the revenues should not be enjoyed by
anyone while the vacancy existed, but should be reserved for the new
incumbent, provided the election took place within the canonical limit
of three months. From 898 until his death he held the office of
chancellor, which for some time afterwards was regularly filled by the
archbishop of Reims. In his efforts to keep the wealthy abbeys and
benefices of the church out of the hands of the nobles, he incurred the
hatred of Baldwin, count of Flanders, who secured his assassination on
the 17th of June 900, a crime which the weak Carolingian monarch left
unpunished.
Fulk left some letters, which are collected in Migne, _Patrologia
Latina_, vol. cxxxi. 11-14.
FULKE, WILLIAM (1538-1589), Puritan divine, was born in London and
educated at Cambridge. After studying law for six years, he became a
fellow at St John's College, Cambridge, in 1564. He took a leading part
in the "vestiarian" controversy, and persuaded the college to discard
the surplice. In consequence he was expelled from St. John's for a
time, but in 1567 he became Hebrew lecturer and preacher there. After
standing unsuccessfully for the headship of the college in 1569, he
became chaplain to the earl of Leicester, and received from him the
livings of Warley, in Essex, and Dennington in Suffolk. In 1578 he was
elected master of Pembroke Hall, Cambridge. As a Puritan
controversialist he was remarkably active; in 1580 the bishop of Ely
appointed him to defend puritanism against the Roman Catholics, Thomas
Watson, ex-bishop of Lincoln (1513-1584), and John Feckenham, formerly
abbot of Westminster, and in 1581 he was one of the disputants with the
Jesuit, Edmund Campion, while in 1582 he was among the clergy selected
by the privy council to argue against any papist. His numerous polemical
writings include _A Defense of the sincere true Translations of the
holie Scriptures into the English tong_ (London, 1583), and confutations
of Thomas Stapleton (1535-1598), Cardinal Allen and other Roman Catholic
controversialists.
FULK NERRA (c. 970-1040), count of Anjou, eldest son of Count Geoffrey
I., "Grisegonelle" (Grey Tunic) and Adela of Vermandois, was born about
970 and succeeded his father in the countship of Anjou on the 21st of
July 987. He was successful in repelling the attacks of the count of
Rennes and laying the foundations of the conquest of Touraine (see
ANJOU). In this connexion he built a great number of strong castles,
which has led in modern times to his being called "the great builder."
He also founded several religious houses, among them the abbeys of
Beaulieu, near Loches (c. 1007), of Saint-Nicholas at Angers (1020) and
of Ronceray at Angers (1028), and, in order to expiate his crimes of
violence, made three pilgrimages to the Holy Land (in 1002-1003, c. 1008
and in 1039). On his return from the third of these journeys he died at
Metz in Lorraine on the 21st of June 1040. By his first marriage, with
Elizabeth, daughter of Bouchard le Venerable, count of Vendome, he had a
daughter, Adela, who married Boon of Nevers and transmitted to her
children the countship of Vendome. Elizabeth having died in 1000, Fulk
married Hildegarde of Lorraine, by whom he had a son, Geoffrey Martel
(q.v.), and a daughter Ermengarde, who married Geoffrey, count of
Gatinais, and was the mother of Geoffrey "le Barbu" (the Bearded) and of
Fulk "le Rechin" (see ANJOU).
See Louis Halphen, _Le Comte d'Anjou au XI^e siecle_ (Paris, 1906).
The biography of Fulk Nerra by Alexandre de Salies, _Histoire de
Foulques Nerra_ (Angers, 1874) is confused and uncritical. A very
summary biography is given by Celestin Port, _Dictionnaire historique,
geographique et biographique de Maine-et-Loire_ (3 vols.,
Paris-Angers, 1874-1878), vol. ii. pp. 189-192, and there is also a
sketch in Kate Norgate, _England under the Angevin Kings_ (2 vols.,
London, 1887), vol. i. ch. iii. (L. H.*)
FULLEBORN, GEORG GUSTAV (1769-1803), German philosopher, philologist and
miscellaneous writer, was born at Glogau, Silesia, on the 2nd of March
1769, and died at Breslau on the 6th of February 1803. He was educated
at the University of Halle, and was made doctor of philosophy in
recognition of his thesis _De Xenophane, Zenone et Gorgia_. He took
diaconal orders in 1791, but almost immediately became professor of
classics at Breslau. His philosophical works include annotations to
Garve's translation of the _Politics_ of Aristotle (1799-1800), and a
large share in the _Beitrage zur Geschichte der Philosophie_ (published
in twelve parts between 1791 and 1799), in which he collaborated with
Forberg, Reinhold and Niethammer. In philology he wrote _Encyclopaedia
philologica sive primae lineae Isagoges in antiquorum studia_ (1798; 2nd
ed., 1805); _Kurze Theorie des lateinischen Stils_ (1793); _Leitfaden
der Rhetorik_ (1802); and an annotated edition of the _Satires_ of
Persius. Under the pseudonym "Edelwald Justus" he published several
collections of popular tales--_Bunte Blatter_ (1795); _Kleine Schriften
zur Unterhaltung_ (1798); _Nebenstunden_ (1799). After his death were
published _Taschenbuch fur Brunnengaste_ (1806) and _Kanzelreden_
(1807). He was a frequent contributor to the press, where his writings
were very popular.
See Schummel, _Gedachtnisrede_ (1803) and _Garve und Fulleborn_;
Meusel, _Gelehrtes Teutschland_, vol. ii.
FULLER, ANDREW (1754-1815), English Baptist divine, was born on the 6th
of February 1754, at Wicken in Cambridgeshire. In his boyhood and youth
he worked on his father's farm. In his seventeenth year he became a
member of the Baptist church at Soham, and his gifts as an exhorter met
with so much approval that, in the spring of 1775, he was called and
ordained as pastor of that congregation. In 1782 he removed to Kettering
in Northamptonshire, where he became friendly with some of the most
eminent ministers of the denomination. Before leaving Soham he had
written the substance of a treatise in which he had sought to counteract
the prevailing Baptist hyper-Calvinism which, "admitting nothing
spiritually good to be the duty of the unregenerate, and nothing to be
addressed to them in a way of exhortation excepting what related to
external obedience," had long perplexed his own mind. This work he
published, under the title _The Gospel worthy of all Acceptation_, soon
after his settlement in Kettering; and although it immediately involved
him in a somewhat bitter controversy which lasted for nearly twenty
years, it was ultimately successful in considerably modifying the views
prevalent among English dissenters. In 1793 he published a treatise,
_The Calvinistic and Socinian systems examined and compared as to their
moral tendency_, in which he rebutted the accusation of antinomianism
levelled by the Socinians against those who over-emphasized the
doctrines of free grace. This work, along with another against Deism,
entitled _The Gospel its own Witness_, is regarded as the production on
which his reputation as a theologian mainly rests. Fuller also published
an admirable _Memoir of the Rev. Samuel Pearce_, of Birmingham, and a
volume of _Expository Lectures in Genesis_, besides a considerable
number of smaller pieces, chiefly sermons and pamphlets, which were
issued in a collected form after his death. He was a man of forceful
character, more prominent on the practical side of religion than on the
devotional, and accordingly not pre-eminently successful in his local
ministry. His great work was done in connexion with the Baptist
Missionary Society, formed at Kettering in 1792, of which he was
secretary until his death on the 7th of May 1815. Both Princeton and
Yale, U.S.A., conferred on him the degree of D. D., but he never used
it.
Several editions of his collected works have appeared, and a _Memoir_,
principally compiled from his own papers, was published about a year
after his decease by Dr Ryland, his most intimate friend and coadjutor
in the affairs of the Baptist mission. There is also a biography by
the Rev. J.W. Morris (1816); and his son prefixed a memoir to an
edition of his chief works in Bohn's Standard Library (1852).
FULLER, GEORGE (1822-1884), American figure and portrait painter, was
born at Deerfield, Massachusetts, in 1822. At the age of twenty he
entered the studio of the sculptor H.K. Brown, at Albany, New York,
where he drew from the cast and modelled heads. Having attained some
proficiency he went about the country painting portraits, settling at
length in Boston, where he studied the works of the earlier Americans,
Stuart, Copley and Allston. After three years in that city, and twelve
in New York, where in 1857 he was elected a member of the National
Academy of Design, he went to Europe for a brief visit and for study.
During all this time his work had received little recognition and
practically no financial encouragement, and on his return he settled on
the family farm at Deerfield, where he continued to work in his own way
with no thought of the outside world. In 1876, however, he was forced by
pressing needs to dispose of his work, and he sent some pictures to a
dealer in Boston, where he met with immediate success, financial and
artistic, and for the remaining eight years of his life he never lacked
patrons. He died in Boston on the 21st of March 1884. He was a poetic
painter, and a dreamer of delicate fancies and quaint, intangible phases
of nature, his canvases being usually enveloped in a brown mist that
renders the outlines vague. Among his noteworthy canvases are: "The
Turkey Pasture," "Romany Girl," "And she was a Witch," "Nydia,"
"Winifred Dysart" and "The Quadroon."
FULLER, MARGARET, Marchioness Ossoli (1810-1850), American authoress,
eldest child of Timothy Fuller (1778-1835), a lawyer and politician of
some eminence, was born at Cambridgeport, Massachusetts, on the 23rd of
May 1810. Her education was conducted by her father, who, she states,
made the mistake of thinking to "gain time by bringing forward the
intellect as early as possible," the consequence being "a premature
development of brain that made her a youthful prodigy by day, and by
night a victim of spectral illusions, nightmare and somnambulism." At
six years she began to read Latin, and at a very early age she had
selected as her favourite authors Shakespeare, Cervantes and Moliere.
Soon the great amount of study exacted of her ceased to be a burden, and
reading became a habit and a passion. Having made herself familiar with
the masterpieces of French, Italian and Spanish literature, she in 1833
began the study of German, and within the year had read some of the
masterpieces of Goethe, Korner, Novalis and Schiller.
After her father's death in 1835 she went to Boston to teach languages,
and in 1837 she was chosen principal teacher in the Green Street school,
Providence, Rhode Island, where she remained till 1839. From this year
until 1844 she stayed at different places in the immediate neighbourhood
of Boston, forming an intimate acquaintance with the colonists of Brook
Farm, and numbering among her closest friends R.W. Emerson, Nathaniel
Hawthorne and W.H. Channing. In 1839 she published a translation of
Eckermann's _Conversations with Goethe_, which was followed in 1842 by a
translation of the correspondence between Karoline von Gunderode and
Bettina von Arnim, entitled _Gunderode_. Aided by R.W. Emerson and
George Ripley, she in 1840 started _The Dial_, a poetical and
philosophical magazine representing the opinions and aims of the New
England Transcendentalists. This journal she continued to edit for two
years, and while in Boston she also conducted conversation classes for
ladies in which philosophical and social subjects were discussed with a
somewhat over-accentuated earnestness. These meetings may be regarded as
perhaps the beginning of the modern movement in behalf of women's
rights. R.W. Emerson, who had met her as early as 1836, thus describes
her appearance: "She was then twenty-six years old. She had a face and
frame that would indicate fulness and tenacity of life. She was rather
under the middle height; her complexion was fair, with strong fair hair.
She was then, as always, carefully and becomingly dressed, and of
ladylike self-possession. For the rest her appearance had nothing
prepossessing. Her extreme plainness, a trick of incessantly opening and
shutting her eyelids, the nasal tone of her voice, all repelled; and I
said to myself we shall never get far." On better acquaintance this
unprepossessing exterior seemed, however, to melt away, and her
inordinate self-esteem to be lost in the depth and universality of her
sympathy. She possessed an almost irresistible power of winning the
intellectual and moral confidence of those with whom she came in
contact, and "applied herself to her companion as the sponge applies
itself to water." She obtained from each the best they had to give. It
was indeed more as a conversationalist than as a writer that she earned
the title of the Priestess of Transcendentalism. It was her intimate
friends who admired her most. Smart and pungent though she is as a
writer, the apparent originality of her views depends more on
eccentricity than either intellectual depth or imaginative vigour. In
1844 she removed to New York at the desire of Horace Greeley to write
literary criticism for _The Tribune_, and in 1846 she published a
selection from her articles on contemporary authors in Europe and
America, under the title _Papers on Literature and Art_. The same year
she paid a visit to Europe, passing some time in England and France, and
finally taking up her residence in Italy. There she was married in
December 1847 to the marquis Giovanni Angelo Ossoli, a friend of
Mazzini. During 1848-1849 she was present with her husband in Rome, and
when the city was besieged she, at the request of Mazzini, took charge
of one of the two hospitals while her husband fought on the walls. In
May 1850, along with her husband and infant son, she embarked at Leghorn
for America, but when they had all but reached their destination the
vessel was wrecked on Fire Island beach on the 16th of June, and the
Ossolis were among the passengers who perished.
_Life Without and Life Within_ (Boston, 1860) is a collection of
essays, poems, &c., supplementary to her _Collected Works_, printed in
1855. See the _Autobiography of Margaret Fuller Ossoli_, with
additional memoirs by J.F. Clarke, R.W. Emerson and W.H. Channing (2
vols., Boston, 1852); also _Margaret Fuller (Marchesa Ossoli)_, by
Julia Ward Howe (1883), in the "Eminent Women" series; _Margaret
Fuller Ossoli_ (Boston, 1884), by Thomas Wentworth Higginson in the
"American Men of Letters" series, which is based largely on unedited
material; and _The Love Letters of Margaret Fuller, 1845-1846_ (London
and New York, 1903), with an introduction by Julia Ward Howe.
FULLER, MELVILLE WESTON (1833-1910), American jurist, chief justice of
the Supreme Court of the United States, was born at Augusta, Maine, on
the 11th of February 1833. After graduating at Bowdoin College in 1853
he spent a year at the Harvard Law School, and in 1855 began the
practice of law at Augusta, where he was an associate-editor of a
Democratic paper, _The Age_, and served in the city council and as city
attorney. In 1856 he removed to Chicago, Illinois, where he continued to
practise until 1888, rising to a high position at the bar of the
Northwest. For some years he was active in Democratic politics, being a
member of the Illinois Constitutional Convention in 1862 and of the
State House of Representatives from 1863 to 1865. He was a delegate to
various National conventions of his party, and in that of 1876 placed
Thomas A. Hendricks in nomination for the presidency. In 1888, by
President Cleveland's appointment, he succeeded Morrison R. Waite as
chief-justice of the Supreme Court of the United States. In 1899 he was
appointed by President McKinley a member of the arbitration commission
at Paris to settle the Venezuela-British Guiana boundary dispute.
FULLER, THOMAS (1608-1661), English divine and historian, eldest son of
Thomas Fuller, rector of Aldwincle St Peter's, Northamptonshire, was
born at his father's rectory and was baptized on the 19th of June 1608.
Dr John Davenant, bishop of Salisbury, was his uncle and godfather.
According to Aubrey, Fuller was "a boy of pregnant wit." At thirteen he
was admitted to Queens' College, Cambridge, then presided over by Dr
John Davenant. His cousin, Edward Davenant, was a tutor in the same
college. He was apt and quick in study; and in Lent 1624-1625 he became
B.A. and in July 1628 M.A. Being overlooked in an election of fellows of
his college, he was removed by Bishop Davenant to Sidney Sussex College,
November 1628. In 1630 he received from Corpus Christi College the
curacy of St Benet's, Cambridge.
Fuller's quaint and humorous oratory soon attracted attention. He
published in 1631 a poem on the subject of David and Bathsheba, entitled
_David's Hainous Sinne, Heartie Repentance, Heavie Punishment_. In June
of the same year his uncle gave him a prebend in Salisbury, where his
father, who died in the following year, held a canonry. The rectory of
Broadwindsor, Dorsetshire, then in the diocese of Bristol, was his next
preferment (1634); and on the 11th of June 1635 he proceeded B.D. At
Broadwindsor he compiled _The Historie of the Holy Warre_ (1639), a
history of the crusades, and _The Holy State and the Prophane State_
(1642). This work describes the holy state as existing in the family and
in public life, gives rules of conduct, model "characters" for the
various professions and profane biographies. It was perhaps the most
popular of all his writings. He was in 1640 elected proctor for Bristol
in the memorable convocation of Canterbury, which assembled with the
Short Parliament. On the sudden dissolution of the latter he joined
those who urged that convocation should likewise dissolve as usual. That
opinion was overruled; and the assembly continued to sit by virtue of a
royal writ. Fuller has left in his _Church History_ a valuable account
of the proceedings of this synod, for sitting in which he was fined
L200, which, however, was never exacted. His first published volume of
sermons appeared in 1640 under the title of _Joseph's party-coloured
Coat_, which contains many of his quaint utterances and odd conceits.
His grosser mannerisms of style, derived from the divines of the former
generation, disappeared for the most part in his subsequent discourses.
About 1640 he had married Eleanor, daughter of Hugh Grove of Chisenbury,
Wiltshire. She died in 1641. Their eldest child, John, baptized at
Broadwindsor by his father, 6th June 1641, was afterwards rector of
Sidney Sussex College, edited the _Worthies of England_, 1662, and
became rector of Great Wakering, Essex, where he died in 1687.
At Broadwindsor, early in the year 1641, Thomas Fuller, his curate Henry
Sanders, the church wardens, and others, nine persons altogether,
certified that their parish, represented by 242 grown-up male persons,
had taken the Protestation ordered by the speaker of the Long
Parliament. Fuller was not formally dispossessed of his living and
prebend on the triumph of the Presbyterian party, but he relinquished
both preferments about this time. For a short time he preached with
success at the Inns of Court, and thence removed, at the invitation of
the master of the Savoy (Dr Balcanqual) and the brotherhood of that
foundation, to be lecturer at their chapel of St Mary Savoy. Some of the
best discourses of the witty preacher were delivered at the Savoy to
audiences which extended into the chapel-yard. In one he set forth with
searching and truthful minuteness the hindrances to peace, and urged the
signing of petitions to the king at Oxford, and to the parliament, to
continue their care in advancing an accommodation. In his _Appeal of
Injured Innocence_ Fuller says that he was once deputed to carry a
petition to the king at Oxford. This has been identified with a petition
entrusted to Sir Edward Wardour, clerk of the pells, Dr Dukeson, "Dr
Fuller," and four or five others from the city of Westminster and the
parishes contiguous to the Savoy. A pass was granted by the House of
Lords, on the 2nd of January 1643, for an equipage of two coaches, four
or six horses and eight or ten attendants. On the arrival of the
deputation at Uxbridge, on the 4th of January, officers of the
Parliamentary army stopped the coaches and searched the gentlemen; and
they found upon the latter "two scandalous books arraigning the
proceedings of the House," and letters with ciphers to Lord Viscount
Falkland and the Lord Spencer. Ultimately a joint order of both Houses
remanded the party; and Fuller and his friends suffered a brief
imprisonment. The Westminster Petition, notwithstanding, reached the
king's hands; and it was published with the royal reply (see J.E.
Bailey, _Life of Thomas Fuller_, pp. 245 _et seq._). When it was
expected, three months later, that a favourable result would attend the
negotiations at Oxford, Fuller preached a sermon at Westminster Abbey,
on the 27th of March 1643, on the anniversary of Charles I.'s accession,
on the text, "Yea, let him take all, so my Lord the King return in
peace." On Wednesday, the 26th of July, he preached on church
reformation, satirizing the religious reformers, and maintaining that
only the Supreme Power could initiate reforms.
He was now obliged to leave London, and in August 1643 he joined the
king at Oxford. He lived in a hired chamber at Lincoln College for 17
weeks. Thence he put forth a witty and effective reply to John
Saltmarsh, who had attacked his views on ecclesiastical reform. Fuller
subsequently published by royal request a sermon preached on the 10th of
May 1644, at St Mary's, Oxford, before the king and Prince Charles,
called _Jacob's Vow_.
The spirit of Fuller's preaching, always characterized by calmness and
moderation, gave offence to the high royalists, who charged him with
lukewarmness in their cause. To silence unjust censures he became
chaplain to the regiment of Sir Ralph Hopton. For the first five years
of the war, as he said, when excusing the non-appearance of his _Church
History_, "I had little list or leisure to write, fearing to be made a
history, and shifting daily for my safety. All that time I could not
live to study, who did only study to live." After the defeat of Hopton
at Cheriton Down, Fuller retreated to Basing House. He took an active
part in its defence, and his life with the troops caused him to be
afterwards regarded as one of "the great cavalier parsons." In his
marches with his regiment round about Oxford and in the west, he devoted
much time to the collection of details, from churches, old buildings,
and the conversation of ancient gossips, for his _Church-History_ and
_Worthies of England_. He compiled in 1645 a small volume of prayers and
meditations,--the _Good Thoughts in Bad Times_,--which, set up and
printed in the besieged city of Exeter, whither he had retired, was
called by himself "the first fruits of Exeter press." It was inscribed
to Lady Dalkeith, governess to the infant princess, Henrietta Anne (b.
1644), to whose household he was attached as chaplain. The corporation
gave him the Bodleian lectureship on the 21st of March 1645/6, and he
held it until the 17th of June following, soon after the surrender of
the city to the parliament. _The Fear of losing the Old Light_ (1646)
was his farewell discourse to his Exeter friends. Under the Articles of
Surrender Fuller made his composition with the government at London, his
"delinquency" being that he had been present in the king's garrisons. In
_Andronicus, or the Unfortunate Politician_ (1646), partly authentic and
partly fictitious, he satirized the leaders of the Revolution; and for
the comfort of sufferers by the war he issued (1647) a second devotional
manual, entitled _Good Thoughts in Worse Times_, abounding in fervent
aspirations, and drawing moral lessons in beautiful language out of the
events of his life or the circumstances of the time. In grief over his
losses, which included his library and manuscripts (his "upper and
nether millstone"), and over the calamities of the country, he wrote his
work on the _Cause and Cure of a Wounded Conscience_ (1647). It was
prepared at Boughton House in his native county, where he and his son
were entertained by Edward Lord Montagu, who had been one of his
contemporaries at the university and had taken the side of the
parliament.
For the next few years of his life Fuller was mainly dependent upon his
dealings with booksellers, of whom he asserted that none had ever lost
by him. He made considerable progress in an English translation from the
MS. of the _Annales_ of his friend Archbishop Ussher. Amongst his
benefactors it is curious to find Sir John Danvers of Chelsea, the
regicide. Fuller in 1647 began to preach at St Clement's, Eastcheap, and
elsewhere in the capacity of lecturer. While at St Clement's he was
suspended; but speedily recovering his freedom, he preached wherever he
was invited. At Chelsea, where also he occasionally officiated, he
covertly preached a sermon on the death of Charles I., but he did not
break with his Roundhead patrons. James Hay, 2nd earl of Carlisle, made
him his chaplain, and presented him in 1648 or 1649 to the curacy of
Waltham Abbey. His possession of the living was in jeopardy on the
appointment of Cromwell's "Tryers"; but he evaded their inquisitorial
questions by his ready wit. He was not disturbed at Waltham in 1655,
when the Protector's edict prohibited the adherents of the late king
from preaching. Lionel, 3rd earl of Middlesex, who lived at Copt Hall,
near Waltham, gave him what remained of the books of the lord treasurer
his father; and through the good offices of the marchioness of Hertford,
part of his own pillaged library was restored to him. Fuller was thus
able to prosecute his literary labours, producing successively his
descriptive geography of the Holy Land, called _A Pisgah-Sight of
Palestine_ (1650), and his _Church-History of Britain_ (1655), from the
birth of Jesus Christ until the year 1648. With the _Church-History_ was
printed _The History of the University of Cambridge since the Conquest_
and _The History of Waltham Abbey_. These works were furthered in no
slight degree by his connexion with Sion College, London, where he had a
chamber, as well for the convenience of the press as of his city
lectureships. The _Church-History_ was angrily attacked by Dr P. Heylyn,
who, in the spirit of High-Churchmanship, wished, as he said, to
vindicate the truth, the church and the injured clergy. About 1652
Fuller married his second wife, Mary Roper, youngest sister of Thomas,
Viscount Baltinglass, by whom he had several children. At the Oxford Act
of 1657, Robert South, who was _Terrae filius_, lampooned Fuller, whom
he described in this _Oratio_ as living in London, ever scribbling and
each year bringing forth new _folia_ like a tree. At length, continues
South, the _Church-History_ came forth with its 166 dedications to
wealthy and noble friends; and with this huge volume under one arm, and
his wife (said to be little of stature) on the other, he ran up and
down the streets of London, seeking at the houses of his patrons
invitations to dinner, to be repaid by his dull jests at table.
His last and best patron was George Berkeley, 1st Earl Berkeley
(1628-1698), of Cranford House, Middlesex, whose chaplain he was, and
who gave him Cranford rectory (1658). To this nobleman Fuller's reply to
Heylyn's _Examen Historicum_, called _The Appeal of Injured Innocence_
(1659), was inscribed. At the end of the _Appeal_ is an epistle "to my
loving friend Dr Peter Heylyn," conceived in the admirable Christian
spirit which characterized all Fuller's dealings with controversialists.
"Why should _Peter_," he asked, "fall out with _Thomas_, both being
disciples to the same Lord and Master? I assure you, sir, whatever you
conceive to the contrary, I am cordial to the cause of the English
Church, and my hoary hairs will go down to the grave in sorrow for her
sufferings."
In _An Alarum to the Counties of England and Wales_ (1660) Fuller argued
for a free and full parliament--free from force, as he expressed it, as
well as from abjurations or previous engagements. _Mixt Contemplations
in Better Times_ (1660), dedicated to Lady Monk, tendered advice in the
spirit of its motto, "Let your moderation be known to all men: the Lord
is at hand." There is good reason to suppose that Fuller was at the
Hague immediately before the Restoration, in the retinue of Lord
Berkeley, one of the commissioners of the House of Lords, whose last
service to his friend was to interest himself in obtaining him a
bishopric. _A Panegyrick to His Majesty on his Happy Return_ was the
last of Fuller's verse-efforts. On the 2nd of August, by royal letters,
he was admitted D.D. at Cambridge. He resumed his lectures at the Savoy,
where Samuel Pepys heard him preach; but he preferred his conversation
or his books to his sermons. Fuller's last promotion was that of
chaplain in extraordinary to Charles II. In the summer of 1661 he
visited the west in connexion with the business of his prebend, which
had been restored to him. On Sunday, the 12th of August, while preaching
at the Savoy, he was seized with typhus fever, and died at his new
lodgings in Covent Garden on the 16th of August. He was buried in
Cranford church, where a mural tablet was afterwards set up on the north
side of the chancel, with an epitaph which contains a conceit worthy of
his own pen, to the effect that while he was endeavouring (viz. in _The
Worthies_) to give immortality to others, he himself attained it.
Fuller's wit and vivacious good-humour made him a favourite with men of
both sides, and his sense of humour kept him from extremes. Probably
Heylyn and South had some excuse for their attitude towards his very
moderate politics. "By his particular temper and management," said
Echard (_Hist. of England_, iii. 71), "he weathered the late great storm
with more success than many other great men." He was known as "a perfect
walking library." The strength of his memory was proverbial, and some
amusing anecdotes are connected with it.
His writings were the product of a highly original mind. He had a
fertile imagination and a happy faculty of illustration. Antithetic and
axiomatic sentences abound in his pages, embodying literally the wisdom
of the many in the wit of one. He was "quaint," and something more.
"Wit," said Coleridge, in a well-known eulogy, "was the stuff and
substance of Fuller's intellect. It was the element, the earthen base,
the material which he worked in; and this very circumstance has
defrauded him of his due praise for the practical wisdom of the
thoughts, for the beauty and variety of the truths, into which he shaped
the stuff. Fuller was incomparably the most sensible, the least
prejudiced, great man of an age that boasted a galaxy of great men"
(_Literary Remains_, vol. ii. (1836), pp. 389-390). This opinion was
formed after the perusal of the _Church-History_. That work and _The
History of the Worthies of England_ are unquestionably Fuller's greatest
efforts. They embody the collections of an entire life; and since his
day they have been the delight of many readers. The _Holy State_ has
taken rank amongst the best books of "characters." Charles Lamb made
some selections from Fuller, and had a profound admiration for the
"golden works" of the "dear, fine, silly old angel." Since Lamb's time,
mainly through the appreciative criticisms of S.T. Coleridge, Robert
Southey and others, Fuller's works have received much attention.
There is an elaborate account of the life and writings of Fuller by
William Oldys in the _Biographia Britannica_, vol. iii. (1750), based
on Fuller's own works and the anonymous _Life of ... Dr Thomas Fuller_
(1661; reprinted in a volume of selections by A.L.J. Gosset, 1893).
The completest account of him is _The Life of Thomas Fuller, with
Notices of his Books, his Kinsmen and his Friends_ (1874), by J.E.
Bailey, who gives a detailed bibliography (pp. 713-762) of his works.
_The Worthies of England_ was reprinted by John Nichols (1811) and by
P.A. Nuttall (1840). His _Collected Sermons_ were edited by J.E.
Bailey and W.E.A. Axon in 1891. Fuller's quaint wit lends itself to
selection, and there are several modern volumes of extracts from his
works.
FULLER, WILLIAM (1670-c. 1717), English impostor, was born at Milton in
Kent on the 20th of September 1670. His paternity is doubtful, but he
was related to the family of Herbert. After 1688 he served James II.'s
queen, Mary of Modena, and the Jacobites, seeking at the same time to
gain favour with William III.; and after associating with Titus Oates,
being imprisoned for debt and pretending to reveal Jacobite plots, the
House of Commons in 1692 declared he was an "imposter, cheat and false
accuser." Having stood in the pillory he was again imprisoned until
1695, when he was released; and at this time he took the opportunity to
revive the old and familiar story that Mary of Modena was not the mother
of the prince of Wales. In 1701 he published his autobiographical _Life
of William Fuller_ and some _Original Letters of the late King James_.
Unable to prove the assertions made in his writings he was put in the
pillory, whipped and fined. He died, probably in prison, about 1717.
Fuller's other writings are _Mr William Fuller's trip to Bridewell, with
a full account of his barbarous usage in the pillory; The sincere and
hearty confession of Mr William Fuller_ (1704); and _An humble appeal to
the impartial judgment of all parties in Great Britain_ (1716).
He must be distinguished from WILLIAM FULLER (1608-1675), dean of St
Patrick's (1660), bishop of Limerick (1663), and bishop of Lincoln
(1667), the friend of Samuel Pepys; and also from William Fuller (c.
1580-1659), dean of Ely and later dean of Durham.
FULLER'S EARTH (Ger. _Walkererde_, Fr. _terre a foulon_, _argile
smectique_)--so named from its use by fullers as an absorbent of the
grease and oil of cloth,--a clay-like substance, which from its
variability is somewhat difficult to define. In colour it is most often
greenish, olive-green or greenish-grey; on weathering it changes to a
brown tint or it may bleach. As a rule it falls to pieces when placed in
water and is not markedly plastic; when dry it adheres strongly to the
tongue; since, however, these properties are possessed by many clays
that do not exhibit detergent qualities, the only test of value lies in
the capacity to absorb grease or clarify oil. Fuller's earth has a
specific gravity of 1.7-2.4, and a shining streak; it is usually
unctuous to the touch. Microscopically, it consists of minute
irregular-shaped particles of a mineral that appears to be the result of
a chloritic or talcose alteration of a felspar. The small size of most
of the grains, less than .07 mm., makes their determination almost
impossible. Chemical analysis shows that the peculiar properties of this
earth are due to its physical rather than its chemical nature.
The following analyses of the weathered and unweathered condition of
the earth from Nutfield, Surrey, represent the composition of one of
the best known varieties:--
Blue Earth (dried at 100 deg. C.).
Insoluble residue 69.96 | Insoluble residue--
Fe2O3 2.48 | SiO2 62.81
Al2O3 3.46 | Al2O3 3.46
CaO 5.87 | Fe2O3 1.30
MgO 1.41 | CaO 1.53
P2O5 0.27 | MgO 0.86
SO3 0.05 | -----
NaCl 0.05 | 69.96
K2O 0.74 | =====
H2O (combined) 15.57 |
----- |
99.86 |
===== |
Yellow Earth (dried at 100 deg. C.).
Insoluble residue 76.13 | Insoluble residue--
Fe2O3 2.41 | SiO2 59.37
Al2O3 1.77 | Al2O3 10.05
CaO 4.31 | Fe2O3 3.86
MgO 1.05 | CaO 1.86
P2O5 0.14 | MgO 1.04
SO3 0.07 | -----
NaCl 0.14 | 76.18
K2O 0.84 | =====
H2O (combined) 13.19 |
------ |
100.05 |
====== |
(Analysis by P.G. Sanford, _Geol. Mag._, 1889, 6, pp. 456, 526.)
Of other published analyses, not a few show a lower silica content
(44%, 50%), along with a higher proportion of alumina (11%, 23%).
Fuller's earth may occur on any geological horizon; at Nutfield in
Surrey, England, it is in the Cretaceous formations; at Midford near
Bath it is of Jurassic age; at Bala, North Wales, it occurs in
Ordovician strata; in Saxony it appears to be the decomposition product
of a diabasic rock. In America it is found in California in rocks
ranging from Cretaceous to Pleistocene age; in S. Dakota, Custer county
and elsewhere a yellow, gritty earth of Jurassic age is worked; in
Florida and Georgia occurs a brittle, whitish earth of Oligocene age.
Other deposits are worked in Arkansas, Texas, Colorado, Massachusetts
and South Carolina.
Fuller's earth is either mined or dug in the open according to local
circumstances. It is then dried in the sun or by artificial heat and
transported in small lumps in sacks. In other cases it is ground to a
fine powder after being dried; or it is first roughly ground and made
into a slurry with water, which is allowed to carry off the finer from
the coarser particles and deposit them in a creamy state in suitable
tanks. After consolidation this fine material is dried artificially on
drying floors, broken into lumps, and packed for transport. The use of
fuller's earth for cleansing wool and cloth has greatly decreased, but
the demand for the material is as great or greater than it ever was. It
is now used very largely in the filtration of mineral oils, and also for
decolourizing certain vegetable oils. It is employed in the formation of
certain soaps and cleansing preparations.
The term "Fuller's Earth" has a special significance in geology, for it
was applied by W. Smith in 1799 to certain clays in the neighbourhood of
Bath, and the use of the expression is still retained by English
geologists, either in this form or in the generalized "Fullonian." The
Fullonian lies at the base of the Great Oolite or Bathonian series, but
its palaeontological characters place it between that series and the
underlying Inferior Oolite. The zonal fossils are _Perisphinctes
arbustigerus_ and _Macrocephalus subcontractus_ with _Ostrea acuminata_,
_Rhynchonella concinna_ and _Goniomya angulifera_. The formation is in
part the equivalent of the "Vesulien" of J. Marcou (Vesoul in
Haute-Saone). In Dorsetshire and Somersetshire, where it is best
developed, it is represented by an Upper Fuller's Earth Clay, the
Fuller's Earth Rock (an impersistent earthy limestone, usually
fossiliferous), and the Lower Fuller's Earth Clay. Commercial fuller's
earth has been obtained only from the Upper Clay. In eastern
Gloucestershire and northern Oxfordshire the Fuller's Earth passes
downwards without break into the Inferior Oolite; northward it dies out
about Chipping Norton in Oxfordshire and passes laterally into the
Stonesfield Slates series; in the midland counties it may perhaps be
represented by the "Upper Estuarine Series." In parts of Dorsetshire the
clays have been used for brickmaking and the limestone (rock) for local
buildings.
See H.B. Woodward, "Jurassic Rocks of Great Britain," vol. iv. (1894),
_Mem. Geol. Survey_ (London). [J. A. H.]
FULLERTON, LADY GEORGIANA CHARLOTTE (1812-1885), English novelist and
philanthropist, youngest daughter of the 1st Earl Granville, was born at
Tixall Hall in Staffordshire on the 23rd of September 1812. In 1833 she
married Alexander George Fullerton, then an Irish officer in the guards.
After living in Paris for some eight years she and her husband
accompanied Lord Granville to Cannes and thence to Rome. In 1843 her
husband entered the Roman Catholic church, and in the following year
Lady Georgiana Fullerton published her first novel, _Ellen Middleton_,
which attracted W.E. Gladstone's attention in the _English Review_. In
1846 she entered the Roman Catholic church. The death of her only son in
1854 plunged her in grief, and she continued to wear mourning until the
end of her life. In 1856 she became one of the third order of St
Francis, and thenceforward devoted herself to charitable work. In
conjunction with Miss Taylor she founded the religious community known
as "The Poor Servants of the Mother of God Incarnate," and she also took
an active part in bringing to England the sisters of St Vincent of Paul.
Her philanthropic work is described in Mrs Augustus Craven's work _Lady
Georgiana Fullerton, sa vie et ses [oe]uvres_ (Paris, 1888), which was
translated into English by Henry James Coleridge. She died at
Bournemouth on the 19th of January 1885. Among her other novels were
_Grantley Manor_ (1847), _Lady Bird_ (1852), and _Too Strange not to be
True_ (1864).
FULMAR, from the Gaelic _Fulmaire_, the _Fulmarus glacialis_ of modern
ornithologists, one of the largest of the petrels (_Procellariidae_) of
the northern hemisphere, being about the size of the common gull (_Larus
canus_) and not unlike it in general coloration, except that its
primaries are grey instead of black. This bird, which ranges over the
North Atlantic, is seldom seen on the European side below lat. 53 deg.
N., but on the American side comes habitually to lat. 45 deg. or even
lower. In the Pacific it is represented by a scarcely separable form,
_F. glupischa_. It has been commonly believed to have two
breeding-places in the British Islands, namely, St Kilda and South
Barra; but, according to Robert Gray (_Birds of the West of Scotland_,
p. 499), it has abandoned the latter since 1844, though still breeding
in Skye. Northward it established itself about 1838 on Myggenaes Holm,
one of the Faeroes, while it has several stations off the coast of
Iceland and Spitsbergen, as well as at Bear Island. Its range towards
the pole seems to be only bounded by open water, and it is the constant
attendant upon all who are employed in the whale and seal fisheries,
showing the greatest boldness in approaching boats and ships, and
feeding on the offal obtained from them. By British seamen it is
commonly called the "molly mawk"[1] (corrupted from _Mallemuck_), and is
extremely well known to them, its flight, as it skims over the waves,
first with a few beats of the wings and then gliding for a long way,
being very peculiar. It only visits the land to deposit its single white
egg, which is laid on a rocky ledge, where a shallow nest is made in the
turf and lined with a little dried grass. Many of its breeding-places
are a most valuable property to those who live near them and take the
eggs and young, which, from the nature of the locality, are only to be
had at a hazardous risk of life. In St Kilda a large number of the young
are killed in one week of August, the only time when, by the custom of
the community, they are allowed to be taken. These, after the oil is
extracted from them, serve the islanders with food for the winter. The
oil has been chemically analysed and found to be a fish-oil, and to
possess nearly all the qualities of that obtained from the liver of the
cod, with a lighter specific gravity. It, however, has an extremely
strong scent, which is said by those who have visited St Kilda to
pervade every thing and person on the island, and is certainly retained
by an egg or skin of the bird for many years. Whenever a live example is
seized in the hand it ejects a considerable quantity of this oil from
its mouth.