would not otherwise inquire the price, thinking it might be above their
means, will now become purchasers. Others, not themselves intending to
purchase, may incidentally cause their friends to purchase by quoting
the prices they have seen affixed to certain articles. Others again, may
be induced by the cheapness of an article to purchase it for uses for
which it was not originally intended,—as, for instance, a beautiful
chintz for papering a room.
§ In almost all works of industry, whatever may be the kind of
excellence of an article exhibited, it is possible to produce one of
greater excellence.
Take for instance a sheet of window-glass; its size might be adduced as
the ground of excellence. The beautiful process of “_flashing_” by which
it is made, is preceded by another in which the workman blows a large
globe of glass. The size of the expanded flat circle of glass, called a
“_table_,” depends on the magnitude of this sphere, which again is
limited by the power of the workman’s lungs. But when larger tables were
wanted, an observant workman found that if his mouth had been previously
washed out with water, a greater sphere was produced. In fact, a small
portion of the water, carried over with his breath, became converted
into steam by the heat, and thus increased the pressure within. This led
to a new limit, and there can be no doubt that by means of expensive
mechanical contrivances, still larger spheres might be blown.
§ Now the whole merit of any such new process, in the eye of the
manufacturer, would depend on the _price_ at which the produce could be
sold.
The same principle prevails in almost all works of the civil engineer.
With the talent now existing in that profession, scarcely any
undertaking is impossible. The real and most important limitation is the
_price_ of execution.
§ In the fine arts also the ultimate object still is the acquisition by
the public of the productions submitted to their examination. If,
however, the price is not stated, it may happen that a person of
moderate means, more capable of appreciating a work of art than richer
men, might be prevented from acquiring it by a feeling of delicacy. For
not liking to ask the price, and thinking probably that it is beyond his
means, the object may be sold to a richer competitor at a lower price
than he would himself willingly have given.
This consequence of the absence of price is injurious both to art and to
artists: it occasionally removes from the field of competition the best
judges of real merit. It is true that in several professions a certain
delicacy respecting money matters exists which is wanting in others.
Medical men and artists are peculiarly subject to its influence; but it
is not reported of any lawyer that he ever refused a fee, and it is
recorded of some Secretary of the Admiralty that he claimed _a quarter
of a year’s war salary_, on account of the two days interruption of
peace by the combat of Algiers.
§ Another result of the prices not being marked upon objects is, that
the public are unable to form any just estimate of their commercial
value; consequently, no proper public opinion arises to assist the
juries in their decisions. This is a matter of considerable importance:
the duty of a juror at an exposition is quite different from that of a
juror in a legal question. It is the business of the Industrial juror to
avail himself of the knowledge and the observations of all around him.
Much of what he thus hears he may be able himself to verify by
examination or experiment, and thus public opinion will be more matured,
and the decisions of the juries have greater weight.
§ Many of the qualities of the articles exhibited can only be
ascertained by use, or even by their destruction. In such cases a single
sample would often be purchased if it had its price affixed to it.
Another class, small indeed in number, but important from its functions,
suffers the greatest inconvenience from the absence of price. Those
engaged in studying the commercial and economical relations of various
manufactures, either for the gratification of their own tastes or for
the instruction of the public, are entirely deprived of the most
important element of their reasonings.
If _every article_ had its price affixed, many relations would strike
the eye of an experienced observer which might lead him to further
inquiries, and probably to the most interesting results. But it is quite
impossible for him to write to any considerable portion of 15,000
expositors for their list of prices, or even to go round and ask for it
in the building itself.
§ Price in many cases offers at once a verification of the truth of
other statements. Thus, to a person conversant with the subjects,
The low _price_ of an article might prove that it had been manufactured
in some mode entirely different from that usually practised. This would
lead to an examination of it, in order to discover the improved process.
The _price_ of an article compared with its weight, might prove that the
metal of which it is made _could not_ be genuine.
The _price_ of a woven fabric, added to a knowledge of its breadth and
substance, even without its weight, might in many cases effectually
disprove the statement of its being entirely made of wool, or hair, or
flax, or silk, as the case might be.
The exchange of commodities between those to whom such exchanges may be
desirable, being the great and ultimate object of the Exposition, every
circumstance that can give publicity to the things exhibited, should be
most carefully attended to. The price in money is the _most important
element_ in every bargain; to omit it, is not less absurd than to
represent a tragedy without its hero, or to paint a portrait without a
nose.
It commits a double error: for it withholds the only test by which the
comparative value of things can be known, and it puts aside the greatest
of all interests, that of the consumer, in order to favour a small and
particular class—the middle-men.
The composition of that Commission must be most extraordinary, where an
error so contrary to the principles and so fatal to the objects of the
Exposition, could have been committed. It is not too late to apply at
least a partial remedy to the evil, and it is scarcely credible that
those with whom it rests, can remain unconscious of the mistake into
which they have been led.
§ At the eighth meeting of the Commissioners, on the 28th Feb. 1850,
further conditions and limitations were submitted to them by Col. Reid,
one of which was—
“A price may be attached to the objects exhibited, and the objects, if
sold, may be marked; but no sales will be permitted within the
building.”
This judicious recommendation was, however, not adopted, for on the 11th
April, 1850, the following rule was published—
“The Exhibition being intended for the purposes of display only, and
not for those of sale....
“For the same reason the Commissioners have decided that the prices
are not to be affixed to the articles exhibited.”
Several strong remonstrances were addressed to the Commissioners against
the rule forbidding the affixing prices to the articles exhibited.
Efforts were made both in public and through private representations to
some of its individual members, by persons competent to advise, and
anxious for the success of a great and meritorious undertaking.
In the report of the Leeds Committee to the Commissioners the following
passage occurs:—
“They are, further, most strongly of opinion that the statement of
price is essential, _if the Exhibition is to be of any real utility_.
To the manufacturer or merchant price will be the test of comparative
value and excellence in the majority of cases; and the inspection of
particular fabrics, especially the products of other districts or
countries, for the purposes of information or improvement, will be of
no avail to them if price as well as style and finish is not before
them.”
From the secretary to the Hamburg Commission a communication was
received stating that—
“In consequence of the decision of the Commissioners with respect to
the prohibition to attach prices, it is the opinion that there will be
an _incurable deficiency_ in the Exhibition.”
From the Central Danish Commission a letter was sent, stating that—
“By reason of the regulation of Her Majesty’s Commissioners that
prices may not be attached to articles sent for exhibition, and Danish
goods being chiefly remarkable for their cheapness, a space of about
450 square ft. will be sufficient for Denmark.”
The Chevalier Bunsen transmitted a despatch from the Prussian
government, _objecting to the decision_ of the Commissioners which
_prohibits the affixing of prices_ to articles exhibited.
§ On the 14th November, 1850, an answer to this letter was approved, and
ordered to be sent to all foreign commissioners.
The following are extracts:—
“The arguments advanced by you in favour of authorizing the affixing
of prices to the articles exhibited, have received the maturest
consideration of Her Majesty’s Commissioners, who are fully sensible
of the great importance of the subject.
“At the same time, every wish is felt on their part, to give to each
exhibitor the _benefit_ to be derived by him from the knowledge on the
part of the public, of the cheapness of the articles exhibited by him.
They feel, however, as they have already intimated, that by allowing
the affixing of the actual prices to articles themselves, they should
be making themselves responsible for the accuracy of those prices in
all instances, and they would not consider themselves warranted in
assuming this responsibility in the case of an Exhibition of the
productions of all the nations in the world (however perfect may be
the machinery in an individual country, like Prussia, for ensuring
that accuracy, and for preventing the liability to deception). But Her
Majesty’s Commissioners authorize the attachment of a notice to those
Goods, of which the merit consists in the low price at which they can
be produced, to the effect that they are _exhibited for cheapness_,
and they have made it a condition that all persons making this claim
must send the prices in an invoice to the Commissioners, who will
instruct the juries to make this an essential element in their
determination of their awards.”
The Decision No. 16 was then altered as follows:—
“Prices are not to be affixed to the articles exhibited, although the
articles may be marked as shown for economy of production. But as the
cost at which articles can be produced will, in some cases, enter into
the question of the distribution of rewards, the Commissioners, or the
persons intrusted with the adjudication of the rewards, may have to
make inquiries, and possibly to take evidence, upon the subject; still
they do not consider it expedient to affix a note of the price to the
articles displayed. When the Exhibitor considers the merit of his
article to consist in its cheapness, and founds a claim on this
ground, he must state the price in the invoice sent to the
Commissioners.”
This rule is a model specimen of what very clever men united in a large
committee can assent to.
The first and last sentences of the oracular writing pronounce that—
Prices must not be affixed to any article exhibited for the judgment of
the public, _even though_ there should be _no other reason_ for
exhibiting it than its price.
The intervening sentence reveals to us that even Commissioners may in
some cases be themselves unable to judge without a knowledge of the
price—that it may perchance be so important that they must take evidence
upon it. Yet, with a very flattering deference to the sagacity of the
public, they seem to think _it_ can, without that information, form as
good an opinion as their own.
It may be remarked that the permission to ask of the attendant the price
of an article, on which much stress has been laid, depends on several
contingencies, namely:—that every article has an attendant;—that he is
at all times at his post;—and also that he _knows_ its price.
It is admitted that the Commissioners wish “to give each exhibitor the
_benefit_ to be derived by him from the knowledge [of price] on the part
of the public,” and also that the public cannot judge without that
information, and yet, with singular inconsistency, they forbid the
simplest and most natural mode of accomplishing this object, placing in
fact an impediment in the way of their own wishes.
The only argument which is urged in favour of this rule, occurs in the
reply to the Prussian application, in which it is stated, “after the
maturest consideration on the part of Her Majesty’s Commissioners,” they
feel “that by allowing the affixing the actual price to the articles
themselves, they should be making themselves responsible for the
accuracy of those prices in all instances.” This singular timidity in
fact involves the Commissioners in far larger responsibility, since
according to their own argument they admit that they are “_responsible_”
for any statement they “_allow_” the exhibitors to make; it follows,
therefore, that any statement they _command_ the exhibitors to attach to
the articles exposed must be still more firmly _guaranteed_ by the
Commissioners.
But they have very rightly ordered that every article shall have
attached to it a statement of the _reason_ for which it is exhibited.
Consequently _they guarantee the statements made by exhibitors_.
If, therefore, a piece of calico is exhibited entirely for the sake of
the _permanence_ of the beautiful colour with which it is dyed, the
beauty it is true may be evident to the eye, but the merit will consist
wholly in the _permanence_. If this is stated by the exhibitor, the
Commissioners themselves are responsible for its truth.
Again, some beautiful damasked fabric is exhibited; the only merit
consists in its being made entirely of flax. This statement must be
appended, or there is no use in exhibiting it; but if stated, the
_Commissioners are responsible_ that there is no silk intermixed:
multitudes of similar cases might be adduced.
But the truth is, that no such responsibility as that which they have
assumed, ought to be placed on the Commissioners; their duty is
sufficiently arduous, and their previous experience very limited. A
certain per centage of error and accident, will necessarily occur, even
to the most highly informed, and if they industriously exercise the
knowledge they may acquire in carrying on this undertaking, the public
ought to be grateful for their labours—to assist them in carrying out
their regulations, and remonstrate strongly only when their rules
violate the very foundations of those principles on which the whole
advantage of the Exposition rests.
§ Nothing could have been more simple than to have repudiated any such
guarantee, and to have left the public to trust to the integrity and
honour of the exhibitors, which, considering the danger and facility of
detection, would have been a sufficient security. The Royal, and almost
all other scientific Societies, place at the head of each volume a
distinct declaration that their authors alone are responsible, both for
the facts as well as for the reasonings contained in their respective
memoirs.
§ If the alternative were proposed, Shall the rule rigidly laid down
be?—
“No article shall have its price marked on it”—or,
“Every article must have its price marked upon it,”—the disadvantages
would be far less under the latter rule. The essential principle of the
Exposition being the increase of commerce and the exchange of
commodities, it might even be contended that sales should be permitted
on the premises. The chief objection to this arises from the impediments
it might offer to the free access of visitors to the examination of the
articles exhibited.
Means, however, might be suggested by which that objection would be
considerably removed. It might, for instance, be permitted to all those
exhibitors of articles of moderate size, that they should bring in with
them each morning a sufficient number of such articles, done up in paper
ready to be delivered to the purchaser on his handing over the money
price. This would apply to a large number of articles, as shawls,
dresses, &c.
In other articles, sold by weight, packets might be previously made up
of various weights, as one pound, three pounds, six pounds, &c. In those
sold by length, parcels of fixed numbers of yards might be prepared.
If this system were still thought to be inconvenient from causing crowds
in particular spots, it might be permitted to the attendants to take
orders for articles to be sent home in the evening, and paid for either
at the time or on delivery.
It is quite certain that under either of these conditions a much larger
quantity of merchandize would be sold immediately.
Many would purchase on the spot who could never return for that purpose,
or who were on the point of leaving London, and much trouble would be
saved to a large class of purchasers.
The effect of the purchases made in the earlier days of the Exposition,
would act as so many advertisements to attract visitors on the
succeeding days; some articles thus purchased would probably be sent
into the country by friends, and others be taken home by visitors, and
many additional country visitors would thus be attracted before the end
of the season.
Another and a very important advantage would also accrue from such an
arrangement. The manufacturers acquire their knowledge of the demand for
their productions from the factors and agents; these again from the
shopkeepers who sell by retail to the public. Under the proposed
circumstances, this knowledge would be acquired much more rapidly, and
in the course of the first two or three weeks the opinion of the public
would be known upon all the articles of most popular demand.
§ Upon the whole, the best plan seems to be that the rule should be—
“Every article must have its price attached.”
The exception should be exemptions granted by officers of the
Commission, and the ground of those exemptions should be stated on the
respective articles.
At the Exposition at Paris, in 1849, the general rule was that upon each
article its price should be marked. Certain exceptions occurred, and in
two instances the writer of these pages wishing to purchase specimens,
although assisted most willingly by M. Le Dieu, the indefatigable head
of the management always present on the spot, was unable, after some
correspondence and much inquiry, to purchase or obtain samples of the
objects he desired.
§ Perhaps the best way of complying with the rules of the Commissioners,
and yet giving the public what they tacitly admit the public will
demand, would be that the exhibitor should fix on each of his articles,
in a conspicuous manner, a letter or a number,[9] and that he should
have on the printed bill or card of address all the corresponding
numbers or letters, and opposite to each the price at which it was to be
sold at his warehouse or place of business. Each expositor might have a
quantity of these addresses hung up or placed upon his stall, with an
indication to the public that they were at liberty to take away these
cards or bills.
It may be worth while to make a few observations on the reasons which
probably influenced and misled the Commission on so important a point.
The tradesmen of London had been unduly and rather indelicately pressed
to subscribe towards the Exposition; many were compelled to subscribe
against their wishes. They saw few or none of the advantages which would
accrue to them from it, and they believed, (erroneously,) that it would
inundate the country with foreign and cheaper articles that would
supplant their own trade.
It was thought that, when the public became acquainted with the
wholesale as well as with the retail price of articles, such knowledge
would lead to a reduction of the retail profits. The public, it was
argued, would be reluctant to make a fair allowance for the various
items which contribute to swell the amount of the difference between the
wholesale and retail price of commodities.
§ It may be useful then to state broadly the principle, that it is
greatly for the advantage of the public, both as regards economy of time
and of money, that there should always exist a sufficient number of
middle-men of various orders.
The shopkeeper, who is the one in immediate contact with the public, and
therefore liable to the greatest misrepresentation, has, amongst others,
the following expenses to add to the cost of production, which must
necessarily increase the retail price:—
1. Commission to broker or other middle-man.
2. Cost of carriage from manufactory to shop.
3. Rent of shop itself, and perhaps, also of a warehouse.
4. Insurance of stock against fire.
5. Attendants to sell in shop.
6. Sending goods home to purchasers.
7. Expense of paper, string, &c. for packing goods delivered.
8. Loss by plunder of servants.
9. Expense of taking stock to diminish this loss.
10. Goods soiled or injured by exposing to sale.
11. Goods going out of fashion, cheapened by improved manufacture, or
superseded by new inventions.
12. Giving long credit.
13. Bad debts.
14. Payment for his own personal services, as retail trader.
15. Interest on capital employed.
§ Admitting, however, that these grounds fully account for a large
difference between the wholesale and retail price, they will by no means
justify several practices which are too frequent at some shops at the
west end of the town.
Different prices for the very same article are often demanded by retail
tradesmen, according to the supposed position of the purchaser. Fish,
for example, which varies much in price, and is at times very cheap,
will seldom be found charged in the household bill much below the
average price, unless the housekeeper is honest and looks sharply after
the matter. Few circumstances more annoy a customer or are more
injurious to the tradesman than this offence of having two prices.
When the same prices are charged equally to all customers, it often
happens that it is much higher in the western than in less fashionable
localities. This may arise from a vicious system of giving credit, and
the extra price is necessary to compensate for risk of loss, and of
capital lying unproductive. The effect, however, is injurious to the
tradesman: many of those who pay ready money and would therefore be his
best customers, desert the shop. Those whose means are small, go to a
greater distance for the daily or weekly purchases; whilst those
possessed of larger incomes, purchase the same articles, not only at a
cheaper shop in the city but in larger quantities, and therefore more
nearly at the wholesale price.
Our foreign visitors naturally ask how it happened that in the country
of Adam Smith so strange a mistake could have been made: they inquire
why none of the eminent disciples of that school were placed on the
Commission? They will learn with surprise that our Minister of Commerce
took, as befitted his office, an active part in it; that the great
economist, to whose profound views and extensive experience in monetary
affairs more than one minister has been indebted, was also a member;
that even the apostle of _free trade_ himself, whose successful
exertions have been crowned with merited reward, sat on the same
commission; and yet that the talents, the knowledge, and the eloquence
of such men, failed to convince the understandings of their colleagues,
who, in violation of the first principles of “_Free trade_,”
deliberately raised an obstacle against _competition_.
Since the first edition of this work was printed, the Crystal Palace has
been filled by the industry and peopled by the nations of the earth. The
fears of the ignorant, the hopes of the selfish, the vaticinations of
the shallow, have proved alike groundless. Opinions expressed by the few
who were competent to judge, which were then scouted as the ravings of
visionaries, have now become realized as facts.
However great the admitted advantages resulting from the Exposition have
been, still it has failed to produce anything like the information which
it was calculated to afford. Many of those who most rejoice in its
success regret that so much perseverance and energy have not, owing to
one fatal error, been permitted to accomplish the full amount of good
which they so well deserved to have achieved.
The public have now had ample opportunity of forming their own opinion
upon the question of _price_; and they are almost unanimous in their
decision that without having the _price_ on the articles they examine,
the collection is of little intrinsic use to them, although it is a very
agreeable and splendid show.
No attempt to answer the arguments on that question contained in the
first edition of this work has yet reached me. An entirely different
reason has now been assigned for the omission of _price_.
It is asserted that the shopkeepers of London persuaded the
Commissioners that if _prices_ were permitted to be fixed upon articles,
they, the shopkeepers, would destroy the Exhibition, by not exhibiting
anything themselves, and by their determination ruin the producer, if,
by affixing prices to his produce, he should expose the “_secrets of
trade_.”
One of the proverbs most frequently appealed to is—deprecation of
_protection_ by one’s _friends_: few cases have ever occurred in which
its application is more necessary.
These friends thus maintain that the reason for _forbidding prices_ to
be placed upon articles, stated by the Commissioners to have been
arrived at after mature consideration, and _officially_ communicated by
them to foreign governments,—was not the _real reason_.
The motive of the rule laid down by the Commission seems to have been a
conscientious wish not to mislead the public, and was at most only an
error of judgment.
The _friends_ of the Commission, however, have imputed to them a line of
conduct which, to use the mildest form of expression, is highly
undignified, and have suggested that they were driven to the adoption of
the rule by fears which were absurd.
Some of the fashionable shopkeepers at the West-end may have endeavoured
to alarm their too credulous customers by holding out such exaggerated
estimates of their own power; but the mass of London tradesmen are a
shrewder race, and estimate more truly their own influence. They well
know, in the present state of rapid communication throughout the land,
that any such attempt must necessarily fail. Imagine for a moment the
present race of butchers attempting to starve London by combining to
withhold meat. The utmost they could accomplish, if so inclined, would
be to put their customers to some small and temporary inconvenience, at
the expense of certain ruin to themselves.
The practical effect of forbidding prices has been very unfortunate. The
great and meritorious efforts by which the plan has been carried out,
have been shorn of much of their utility. A building of half the size,
containing only articles _each_ of which had attached to it a short and
clear statement of the grounds on which it was exhibited, and the price
at which it could be acquired, would have conveyed far more instruction
to the public, and have been far more effective for the promotion of
commerce, thus fulfilling much more completely the two great objects of
the Exposition.
To reply that prices may be obtained on inquiry, betrays a childish
ignorance of the whole subject. It is practically impossible to obtain
the required information; and those who have made the effort, have found
that even in the cases where an attendant is present to explain the
articles, he is often entirely ignorant of their price.
The effect of the absence of price on visitors is a source of painful
annoyance to themselves, and of loss to the manufacturers and
shopkeepers, from whom they would otherwise have purchased largely.
Foreigners are so sensible of this defect, that they have in many
instances printed priced catalogues of their own articles. Their
interpretation of our refusal to allow prices to be affixed is, that we
are unable to compete with other nations in economy of production.
The philosopher and the economist, by whose researches and comparisons
the public might have been instructed, wander through the lofty avenues
and splendid galleries of the Crystal Palace, tantalized by
expectations, raised but to be disappointed. They at last are compelled
to abandon their mission in hopeless despair, wilfully deprived, by the
managers of this industrial feast, of that information on which all
their conclusions must ultimately rest.
[9] As by one of the rules each separate article exhibited must have a
number, the same numbers might be used in the bills.
CHAPTER IX.
PRIZES.
The great feature of the original plan of the Exposition was to give
large prizes. One, at least, was to have been 5,000_l._, and the whole
amount of them 20,000_l._
The anticipation of these prizes gave hope and industry to thousands:
means were examined and measures taken by many a workman, at the expense
of great personal sacrifices, to enable him to complete a model of some
favourite scheme, by which he might hope to win one amongst the many
pecuniary prizes, and thus be repaid at least for a portion of his
efforts.
The announcement on the Continent of these liberal arrangements was
received with unbounded astonishment and admiration. The magnitude of
the great prize seemed to foreigners incredible, and the liberality of
offering it to the competing world, was altogether beyond their
conception of the character assigned to us as a nation.
It was certainly very unfortunate that such an announcement should have
been made and then withdrawn. But as the question will probably arise
again, it may be useful for some future occasion to inquire now into the
principles on which pecuniary prizes should be awarded.
Science, literature, and industrial art are in some measure subject to
the same laws in the distribution of pecuniary rewards. It is desirable
that such prizes should be given to those objects only which, possessing
very considerable merit and utility, are of such a nature as not to
repay the first inventors.
§ One effect of such rewards would be to increase very much the number
of minds engaged in making inventions. This itself is a matter of more
importance than might at first be thought, as will be shown on some
future occasion in examining the question of monopoly.
The inventor, the capitalist, and the manufacturer of articles are
usually distinct persons. Of these the inventor is generally the least
rewarded. The capitalist and the manufacturer can almost always make
their own way to wealth, and if successful their reward is usually
large, and almost always greater even than the highest prize which could
be offered by the managers of such an Exhibition as is now contemplated.
If it were a condition for obtaining a prize that no patent should be
taken out, then the prize may be considered as the purchase money of the
patent for the use of the public. If a patent is desired by the
inventor, a medal or an honorary prize might be given, with the addition
in certain cases of a reward in money.
Perhaps an enumeration of some objects which might become fit subjects
for prizes, may best illustrate these views.
§ One of the inventions most important to a class of highly skilled
workmen (engineers) would be a small motive power,—ranging perhaps from
the force of half a man, to that of two horses, which might commence as
well as cease its action at a moment’s notice, require no expense of
time for its management, and be of moderate price both in original cost
and in daily expense. A small steam-engine does not fulfil these
conditions. In a town where water is supplied at high-pressure, a
cylinder and a portion of apparatus similar to that of a high-pressure
engine, would fully answer the conditions, if the water could be
supplied at a moderate price. Such a source of power would in many cases
be invaluable to men just rising from the class of journeyman to that of
master. It might also be of great use to many small masters in various
trades. If the cost per day were even somewhat greater than that of
steam for an equal extent of power, it would yet be on the whole much
cheaper, because it would _never consume power without doing_ _work_. It
might be applied to small planing and drilling machines, to lathes, to
grindstones, grinding mills, mangling, and to a great variety of other
purposes.
§ In all large workshops a separate tool, or rather machine, is used for
each process, and this contributes to the economy of the produce. But
many masters in a small way are unable to afford such an expense, not
having sufficient work for the full employment of any one machine.
Of this class are many jobbing masters who live by repairing machines.
Such also are that class of masters who make models of the inventions of
others and carry out for them their mechanical speculations. To these
two classes, that of amateur engineers may be added.
The lathe with its sliding rest is the basis of their stock. With this
they can drill, and with the addition of a few wheels can cut screws.
The further addition of a vertical slide will enable them to plane small
pieces of metal by means of facing cutters on the mandril. By other
additions the teeth of wheels may also be cut, and in some rare cases, a
lathe may be converted into a small planing machine. The loss of time in
making the changes necessary to enable the lathe to fulfil all these
different functions, necessarily confines its use to the peculiar
classes alluded to above, but to make these changes is often less
expensive than to be obliged continually to send to larger workshops
where the heavier portion of their work can be executed. It would
certainly be desirable, if some good plan cannot be devised for bringing
the whole of such operations within the reach of _one_ machine of
moderate price, that at least a system should be devised for combining
them in _two_ separate machines.
Some readers may possibly think such combinations as have been
mentioned, too minute and special for the subject of a prize: but when
it is considered that they bear upon the interests of one of the best
classes of workmen, and how important it is for the welfare of the
community that skill, industry, and intelligence should be assisted in
their efforts to rise in the social scale, these details will be
excused.
§ The improvements which have been made in the economy of working
voltaic batteries, lead to the expectation that they may be employed as
sources of artificial light. Although the light thus obtained is not yet
sufficiently steady for general use, it may possibly become available
for light-houses.
Galvanic light offers some advantages for this purpose on account of its
intensity and of the facility it affords for darkening and restoring the
light, by breaking and renewing the galvanic circuit.
But it would be possible to adapt the same principle of occultations to
ordinary lighthouses. It would only be necessary to apply mechanism
which should periodically pull down an opaque shade over the glass
cylinders of the argand burners. This should be instantaneously thrown
back by a spring. A series of obscurations corresponding to the digits
of any number, and separated by any intervals, might thus be continually
repeated.
Ready means might thus be supplied of clearly distinguishing one
light-house from another. For this purpose it would be necessary to
denote the light-houses on any coast by different numbers.
Any digit might be expressed by an equivalent number of occultations and
restorations of the light: thus—
1 2 3 9
0.0 0.0.0 0.0.0.0, &c., 0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0
Again, the character of the digit might be indicated by occultations
preceded and followed, by shorter or longer intervals of light.
At the commencement, the first digit of any number, might be
distinguished by a previous uniform continuance of the light during ten
or twenty seconds, whilst the separation of each digit from the next in
order might be denoted by a short pause of two or three or more seconds.
Thus, if the number of a light-house were 253: after a cessation of any
obscuration during ten seconds, two occultations should follow each
other at intervals of about a second. A pause should then occur during
three seconds, after which five occultations should occur, at intervals
of one second, as before. Another pause of three seconds must then
happen, and be succeeded by three other occultations occurring at
intervals of one second each; after which ten seconds must elapse before
the cycle thus described is repeated.
These might be thus represented:—
2 hundreds. 5 tens. 3 units.
0000000000·0·000·0·0·0·0·000·0·0·0000000000
\-------------------------------/
Thus, at about every half minute the number of the lighthouse would be
repeated.
In this manner any number under 1,000 may be expressed in less than one
minute; since the largest, 999, would require
Seconds.
For each digit 9, or in all 27
Two short pauses between the digits 6
One long long pause at end of the number 10
---
43
Every light-house, therefore, would be continually repeating its own
number.
It would contribute still more to prevent mistakes, if the light-houses
on a coast were not numbered in succession; for should any mistake be
made in counting the obscurations, it would most probably be detected if
the digits of the numbers of the light-houses on the same part of the
coast were as different as possible.
Lighthouse numbered in succession—
234 235 236 237 238
Ditto irregularly—
142 324 581 787 612
If a mistake of a single obscuration were made in the units of the
number 237, and it had been counted 236, this observation might, until
repeated, mislead the sailor, and induce him to suppose himself opposite
the preceding light-house. On the contrary, if the irregular mode of
numbering were adopted, the mistake of 786 for 787 could not mislead,
because the seven in the hundreds place would point out the error. It
would, however, be better to have the figure in the tens’ place also
different in any two light-houses so near that a possibility of mistake
is likely to occur. The general benefit which would result to all
maritime nations, renders the practical application of these principles
a peculiarly fit subject for a prize.
Since the first edition of this work was published, an occulting light
has been exhibited for about three weeks, representing during each night
the constant repetition of one of the following numbers, 136, 227, 354,
432.
As might easily have been anticipated, its effect was quite satisfactory
in determining those numbers. At about a distance of a quarter of a
mile, its occultations were even more distinct than at shorter
distances.
Successive improvements have occurred, until it now seems desirable to
revise and simplify the light-houses of the world, by making them speak
one universal language, intelligible even to the commonest capacity. No
time could be more favourable than the present for establishing an
international system of signals, founded on numbers, and adapted to the
wants and convenience of all nations. The following brief outline of
such a plan requires, therefore, no apology.
The present modes of identifying lighthouses are by
1. The _colour_ of the lights.
2. The _number_, _distance_, and _relative position_ of the lights
exhibited.
3. The _variations_ in colour or intensity, or in the time during
which the lights are partially or totally obscured, compared with
that during which they are visible.
4. By striking bells or gongs in foggy weather.
There are around the coasts of Great Britain about 290 light-houses and
light-ships. They exhibit nearly 390 lights. Of these, about one hundred
lights are coloured, chiefly red. Fifty-five are revolving lights,
varying in their periods from five seconds to four minutes. In foggy
weather fifteen of these toll bells, and thirty-three strike gongs. It
is proposed to abolish all the revolving lights, and to retain white
light, to distinguish by its occupations the number of the light-house
which it is destined to indicate.
With respect to those lighthouses which indicate ports, next to the
information as to the name of the port, the most important question is
the depth of water at its entrance. This may be given by allowing the
occupations of the white light to indicate the number of the port, after
which a glass of green or of any other colour being interposed, the
number of occultations mark the number of feet of the depth of water at
the time.
A float in a well, to which the tide has access by a small aperture,
will serve the double purpose of raising the weight that drives the
mechanism for occulting, and of prescribing, according to the height of
the tide in feet, the corresponding number of occultations of the green
light.
Thus a constant alternation will go on during the whole night of
repetitions of the _number_ of the port, by occultations of white light,
and of the number of feet which indicate the depth of water at its
entrance, by green light.
There are certain cases of obscuration of lights by fog in which bells
and gongs are continually sounded. These convey information of danger,
but do not identify its position. The same principle which gives
numerical accuracy to light-houses, and even the same mechanism, may be
made to operate during fogs with equal effect on sounds. Thus, by
striking the gong the requisite number of times to indicate the
hundreds, the tens, and the units denoting the light, allowing, of
course, the usual pauses and the same long intervals, the number of the
light-house or light-ship may be known as quickly and as certainly by
means of bells, or gongs, or other sounds, as by the occultations of its
light.
It may be worth examining what musical notes are heard at the greatest
distances through fogs, and the sounds of what instruments penetrate
farthest amidst the roar of winds and waves. The shrill whistle of the
steam carriage should be tried against the deep tones of the organ and
the loud noise of the trumpet. The most powerful sounds produced by air
require but little physical force for their generation; and whenever the
directions in which it is necessary to give warning are known, the
sounds employed may be concentrated by reflectors, in the same manner as
light.
The depth of water at the entrance of harbours may easily be indicated
in the day-time by a tide-telegraph governed by the same float which
produces the occultations during the night. Its form may be as below,
[Illustration: The tide-telegraph.]
in which the arms projecting on the left side indicate the tens; those
on the right side the units. The long arm for the fifth saves trouble in
counting. These arms must be movable on centres within the mast, and
must be governed by cams connected with the float, so as to indicate at
any time the state of the tide. If it were found necessary to
distinguish light-houses during the day, then signs expressing their
permanent numbers might be painted upon them, or fixed to masts rising
out of each. The right side of the telegraph might, if required, be used
as a day telegraph for communicating with vessels.
By means of such light-houses it would be easy to convey telegraphic
messages either to vessels in distress, or for other purposes. It would
simply be required to use the light itself or a subsidiary one to
indicate a series of numbers corresponding to those in some known
Telegraphic Dictionary. No danger of any mistake could arise during the
few minutes thus employed, because any other vessel on counting the
succession of obscurations would not only perceive that the light-house
was telegraphing, but would also know the object of the message. A small
apparatus might easily be contrived for the use of vessels, by which
they might ask any questions necessary for their safety. Such means for
ships sailing in company, or even for fleets, might enable them to
proceed on their voyage during the night, and to communicate any orders
even with greater facility than in the day.
Sir David Brewster proposed in the _Edinburgh Philosophical
Transactions_ a plan for distinguishing light-houses by optical means.
The light transmitted through a thin film, when analysed by a prism,
appears either single, or subdivided into two, three, four or more
parts. Light-houses, therefore, might thus be distinguished from one
another numerically.
CHAPTER X.
JURIES, ETC.
A clear statement of the _principles_ on which each jury is to award
prizes, should be placed before them. These principles ought to be well
discussed, and in that discussion manufacturers should be invited to
take a part.
The first object of the jury should be to lay down rules by which these
principles are to be carried out. Each class of the subjects to be
rewarded will have its own rules. They will generally be few in number,
and capable of being expressed in few words: some of these are suggested
below, but merely by way of example.
One of the most general rules will indicate the means by which the jury
can ascertain the fact, that the material of the manufacture under
consideration is truly the substance it is represented to be.
For instance: some woven fabric is examined, professing to be made
either entirely of wool, or wholly of flax. It may be quite true that
experienced manufacturers and dealers, are able to detect any
adulteration of either material by admixture with the other. But
statements of facts made on authority, never possess the same weight
with the public as those which are accompanied by information enabling
any individual among that public to verify the fact for himself.
The form of the fibre as shown by the microscope is one test. A more
simple one is to burn some fibres in the flame of a candle. Every fibre
which, when thus treated, produces the smell of burnt feathers, is
animal matter of some kind, as wool, silk, horse-hair, &c. The burnt
fibres of hemp, flax, cotton, and other vegetable matters have a totally
different scent; a fact of which any one may readily assure himself by
making the experiment.
It may perhaps be necessary in some cases to wash the fabric under
examination, lest in what is termed the “getting up for the market,”
some animal matter or size might mislead. But the jury ought to be
acquainted with all such difficulties, and they should state the method
they took for investigating them.
The microscope is of great use in the detection of adulterations in most
vegetable substances.
§ Every object produced is subject to certain defects, and possessed of
certain excellences: these should be clearly enumerated. Whenever such
statements are expressed by numbers, the information will be more
satisfactory.
Thus, in cutting tools, as applied to various metals, it is very
important that the angle at which the tool is applied, should be stated:
it is also necessary to state the angle which the edge of the tool
receiving the shaving cut off, makes with the surface cut. The velocity
of the tool in cutting should be stated, also the names of the fluids,
if any, used in cutting.
The durability of woven fabrics, as well as of a great variety of other
manufactured articles, is a most essential quality, on which, combined
with the price, their chief value to the customer depends.
It is very desirable that the jury should find satisfactory means of
testing this most important character, which is not discernible, even by
the most curious and instructed spectator.
The knowledge of the weight required for tearing asunder any woven
fabric, as a ribbon, a stay-lace, tape, &c., together with the breaking
weight of their individual threads, and the number of these threads in
an inch, may in some cases be very valuable, especially in coarse
articles, such as sailcloth, sacking, &c.
In other cases, the articles may be submitted to twenty or thirty
washings and dryings, during which it may repeatedly be examined. The
greatest change will most frequently occur on the first washing, which
removes the dressing.
§ In many articles the durability of different parts varies
considerably. In some cases one part will wear out, if replaced, many
times before the remainder of the article is at all injured by use. In
all such cases the jury should adopt such rules as the following:—
Examine the durability of each part, and also the difficulty and the
expense of replacing it when injured.
Examine also, for the same purpose, what parts are most exposed to
injury or destruction by accident.
Examine also the _relative_ expense of putting the article in a working
state when first purchased and brought home.
These rules will be best understood by an illustration. Let us suppose a
jury to be examining the relative merits of several cottage stoves for
cooking. Of course the first inquiry will be as to which admits of the
best performance of the operations of—
Boiling, Baking,
Stewing, Supply of hot water,
Roasting, Ironing,
Broiling, &c.
The cost of the fuel must not only be given, but also its weight,
because the price of fuel varies in different localities. The capability
of using different sorts of fuel in the several stoves, and the amount
of fuel so consumed for its equivalent of coal, should also be stated.
These and other comparative inquiries having been made, the durability
of that part of the stove which is subjected to the direct action of the
burning fuel, must be examined. It will be made either of iron or of
earthenware; and the relative merit of the various stoves will, as far
as this point is concerned, consist in the facility and economy with
which such parts can be removed, and the corresponding new parts be
purchased and replaced in their proper position. It is always desirable
for the consumer that the vendors of such articles should keep a stock
of the parts liable to wear out, and that the latter should undertake to
replace them at a fixed price.
Those parts of the stove which project so as to be liable to accidental
blows, and those which from their more constant use are much exposed to
accident, as the hinges and the latches of doors, should then be
examined. These, if of cast-iron or other brittle material, and
constituting part of the substance of the door, should be sufficiently
strong to resist fracture: if they are attached to it by rivets or
otherwise, they will be lighter and stronger when made of wrought-iron.
The last inquiry is into the expense of fixing the stove for use. It may
be set in brickwork, within the chimney, in which case it will require a
bricklayer and a large mass of materials in the shape of bricks and
mortar, and possibly of stone. Or it may stand on its own base
containing its own ash-pit, and by means of a small iron pipe the smoke
may be conveyed into a flue. In this case almost any workman with hammer
and chisel and a small quantity of mortar or cement, can fix it ready
for use.
Again, the stop-cock for the water-cistern may be either hard-soldered,
riveted, or screwed in. If the latter, it can easily be unscrewed or
reground when necessary. The same remark applies to the leaden
supply-pipe; it may be connected by soldering, or by a union joint. In
the former case these parts will require the aid not only of the tinman
or coppersmith, but also of the plumber.
§ The expense of repairing a machine does not in all cases depend on the
cost of the part replaced, or even on the actual cost of replacing that
part alone. It often happened in the earlier days of locomotive engines,
that the expense of some small reparation necessary to keep the machine
in good working order, did not amount to ten shillings; whilst the
expense of removing and replacing other parts, without which the workman
could not get at the defective part, amounted to fifty or eighty
shillings, or even to a still larger sum.
Thus facility of getting at all the parts of an engine for the purposes
of repair, or even of examination, is one of the advantages which the
broad possesses over the narrow gauge.
§ In many articles exposed to great or sudden force, and to much wear
and tear, it is very desirable that if any breakage occur, it should
happen at that point where the consequences would be the least dangerous
to the persons using it, and the reparation of it least expensive.
During a series of experiments made by the author in 1839, on the Great
Western Railway, it was necessary, amongst a variety of other curves, to
cause a pen to draw upon long rolls of paper the curve described by the
centre of a carriage, projected on the plane of the road. When
everything is in proper order, this line ought to be parallel to, and in
the middle between, the two rails. But it is well known that instead of
answering these conditions, it often describes a _serpentine_ curve,
arising from that snake-like motion of a train which the carriages
acquire by rolling alternately towards each rail, until they are checked
by the flanges pressing against it.
To accomplish the drawing of the line above-mentioned, it was necessary
to have depending from the carriage, a very stout jointed wooden arm,
terminating in an iron _shoe_ with a steel projection. This _shoe_ was,
by a powerful spring, pressed close to the rail in the middle point
between the two side wheels of the carriage, and by a communication with
the pen the required curve was described.
But such an apparatus was exposed to very rough work, and, in fact, was
generally broken three or four times during each experimental journey.
If the broken part had fallen between the wheel and the rail, it might
have caused a serious accident. To prevent this the following
precautions were taken—
The wooden arm was strengthened with thin strips of iron, except at one
part about an inch long. At this part of the wood a small notch was cut
with a saw. The lower portion had a strong iron eye fixed into it, which
was connected loosely to a hook by a rope passing through a hole in the
middle of the carriage.
Whenever the apparatus broke, it was always at the notch. The position
of the loose rope holding the broken part was such, that the tendency
was immediately to drag it into the middle of the road under the centre
of the carriage. This at once removed it from interference with the
wheels. The pen describing the curve soon gave notice by ceasing to move
laterally, that the arm was broken; on which one of the assistants
immediately took hold of the loose rope, and pulling the broken fragment
close up to the bottom of the carriage, prevented the possibility of any
further danger.
§ If each jury were to explain concisely the means employed by them to
examine the qualities of each class of objects submitted to them, much
valuable information would result. A collection of these rules for the
judgment or verification of articles, if reduced into order, and
published in a small compass, by a competent person, at the close of the
Exposition, would be invaluable to the public. The result would be
beneficial to all _honest_ tradesmen, and injurious only to the
_fraudulent_. Such means when put into the hands of the public would
soon enable it to distinguish the genuine from the sophisticated
articles, and to select those which in point of excellence and
durability are best suited to the means or wants of the purchaser.[10]
The increased knowledge of the public would be felt by the retail
dealers, and would make them more anxious to obtain excellent and
durable goods from the manufacturer.
§ Several of the papers issued by the Commission bear honourable
testimony to the sagacity of those who composed them. They treat the
persons addressed as reasoning men, explaining to them the results
contemplated: thus whilst offering their own most strenuous exertions,
they admit that these would scarcely prove effective without the
co-operation of the public in a plan devised for the common advantage of
all.
In former days had there been water-fowl in our parks, some such notice
as this would have been placarded:—
“Whoever throws stones at, or frightens these birds, shall be prosecuted
with the utmost severity of the law.”
In the present day we read the much more effective address,
“These birds are recommended to the protection of the public.”
However ragged the coat of the passer-by, his feelings not his fears are
addressed, and his pride is gratified by being appointed as it were a
temporary trustee for the safety of his feathered friends. The advantage
of acting upon this principle is not confined merely to its direct
efficiency for its purpose. A still more important benefit remains
latent, one which never ought to be lost sight of in the enactment or
the administration of laws.
_It enlists public opinion in favour of law and of order._[11]
Thus aiding the prevention, the detection, and the punishment of
offenders, it renders the interference of the police far less necessary,
and when called for, more effective.
§ This principle might perhaps be applied with advantage to the
admission under regulations of certain classes of _skilled_ workmen by
means of tickets, for a limited number of days.
Most effective assistance might be rendered both to the police and to
the attendants at the Exposition by the following plan:—Allow a certain
number of persons, in whom the executive can repose
confidence,—generally master manufacturers or employers,—the privilege
of recommending a small number of their best and most regular workmen or
assistants, to whom should be granted tickets of admission, subject to
the following conditions:—
1. Tickets of admission shall be granted for periods of from three to
any greater number of days. Some tickets being for the first three days
of each week, or otherwise, as may be convenient.
2. They shall either be gratuitous or obtainable by a small payment.
3. Each ticket-holder shall wear the ticket by a string from the button
of his coat, or as may be arranged.
4. He shall, when required by the police or attendants, assist in any
duty they may desire for the safety or general convenience of the
expositors.
5. Whenever he observes any irregularity, or has reason to believe that
thieves or improper persons have obtained admission, he is to inform the
nearest policeman.
6. Whenever he observes any machine or any object exhibited, to be out
of order, or in danger of being injured, or its parts misplaced, he is
to communicate the fact to the nearest attendant, who will refer him to
the proper superintendent of that department. He will explain the defect
he has pointed out, and if asked by the superintendent, he is to put it
in order, or suggest to him some other person then present, who may be
better able to complete the reparation.
7. Each master should be required to pledge his word that he will only
recommend trustworthy persons. Each workman admitted might simply be
required to give his word of honour that he would assist.
These regulations ought to be printed and stuck up in various parts of
the building.
It would, indeed, be desirable to have a certain number of boards placed
in the most public parts of the Exposition, on which should be fixed and
properly classified all rules, and other information useful to the
public. Also notices as to prices and hours of visiting the Exposition
might from time to time be affixed. Each board ought also to have a plan
of the ground-floor and galleries of the building, on which the names of
the different subjects and countries occupying the various parts, might
be readily ascertained by the visitors.
[10] Several valuable papers containing rules of this kind have lately
appeared in the _Lancet_.
[11] The ancient law of rendering the hundred responsible for damages
done by a mob, is founded on this principle. It is so important, that
the reader will, perhaps, pardon another illustration.
Amongst boys as amongst men, a degree of pugnacity exists, to the
annoyance of the more quiet portion. This was checked at a certain
school by giving full permission to the boys to fight whenever they
liked, and at the same time prescribing certain simple rules for the
combat, as follows:—
1. When two boys wish to fight, they must inform the chief usher of
their wish.
2. He must appoint a time for the combat, not sooner than three,
nor more than six hours, after the notice.
3. At the appointed time, if the lads are still desirous of the
contest, the chief usher must take the pugnacious ones to an
enclosure, where they cannot be seen by their comrades. He then
desires them to fight until they are tired, he standing by to see
fair play.
4. Any boy present or assisting at an illegal fight will be
punished.
The consequence is that their honour or their ill-humour is soon
satisfied. No party is made, to back them; no friends call out to
them, “Give it him, Tom!” “At him, Jack!” Their pugnacity is not, as
it has been in some instances at public schools, unnaturally excited
by the stimulus either of betting or of brandy.
After long experience, it was found that quarrels rarely arrived at a
fight. It was the _interest_ of all the rest of the school to make
some just and amicable arrangement.
CHAPTER XI.
ULTERIOR OBJECTS.
Besides those universal advantages which will result, in a greater or
less degree, to every nation maintaining friendly intercourse with its
neighbours, there are others arising from the Exposition, which may be
secured by a little industry and small expense, if timely thought is
bestowed upon them.
There are also opportunities for advancing several kindred subjects to
which it may be useful to allude.
The most obvious is the facility it will afford of making extensive
collections of examples of the present state of many industrial
products.[12] All woven manufactures, for example, might be arranged in
books. A small piece of each article being pasted in, might be followed
by a short statement of the various facts relating to it—as, for
example, a piece of plain cambric—
PLAIN CAMBRIC. (Date.)
Woven in a ---- loom, at ---- by ----
Number of threads in warp.
Number of threads of weft, in ten inches length.
Breadth of piece in inches.
Length of piece in yards.
Weight per square yard.
Price per yard retail.
Price per piece of ---- yards, as sold by the manufacturer.
Coloured woven goods might be similarly arranged as regards colour, and
the note connected with them ought to contain the name and locality of
the dyer, and also the nature of the dye used. Such volumes would
hereafter become highly instructive, and save many costly experiments.
But it will be necessary to provide against, or to allow for the fading
of the colouring matter. This could be done only by preserving some
portion of it unchanged by time or exposure. Woven fabrics will not
supply this test, but another department of manufacture would, if
properly treated, give by the permanence of its colours, invaluable aid
not only to many arts, but also to the naturalist and the man of
science.
§ The enamel colours used on porcelain, have the permanent character
required. Different manufactories excel in different colours. The first
step therefore would be to invite each manufacturer to send tablets of
porcelain of a given size, on which are to be painted a number of small
squares, containing all the pure colours he employs. Besides these
squares, a certain number of other squares should contain two or more
combinations of these colours, two by two, or in such proportions as are
usually employed.
The comparison of these tablets would indicate where the purest and most
useful porcelain colours could be obtained. The next step would be that
a small committee of manufacturers and men of science, should decide on
the number of combinations and shades of colour it might be desirable to
bring together as permanent and standard objects of reference.
The different makers of porcelain should then each receive an order for
a certain number of tablets containing those colours in which they
respectively excel. Each small square should be numbered. A sufficient
quantity of the proper materials constituting each colour, should then
be mixed in the proper proportion, and applied at the same time, to the
same number on each tablet; and these tablets should be exposed to the
fire under as nearly as possible the same circumstances of heat, and for
the same length of time.
Thus an extensive system of unchangeable colours might be obtained, and
if 500 sets were made, they might be distributed in all the great cities
and universities of the world. It might perhaps be found that certain
colours were deficient, and this would of course stimulate discovery by
making known the want. Thus, in the course of upwards of twenty-five
years, during which the author has been collecting on a small scale,
such tablets of colours, he has been unable to meet with any specimen of
an enamel colour at all approaching to the pure scarlet of the common
geranium.
The utility of such sets of standard colours would be very great,
enabling all nations to speak a language regarding colour at once
accurate and universal. It might serve as the starting point and the
test of many analogous collections of materials tinted by colours of
more transitory duration, whose relative degree of fixity might thus be
measured: as silks, cottons, linens, woollens, leather, paper, and many
other materials.
There are two coloured substances which seem to promise a higher degree
of permanence than those just mentioned—sealing-wax and glass. For these
admit of the renewal of their surfaces by grinding, in case atmospheric
or external causes should have altered or impaired the superficial
colour.
A collection of small squares of sealing-wax would be cheaper, and might
if duly verified by comparison with the porcelain standard be in many
cases a useful instrument. Glass also might supply a suit of transparent
colours of great interest. A complete collection of the enamel colours
used for the mosaic work made at Rome would also be instructive.
§ Perhaps the most important advantage which such an Exposition can
confer, is to instruct the consumer in the art of judging of the
character of the commodity he is about to purchase. Besides the money we
pay in return for the skill, labour, and capital expended in producing
each article we purchase; a further, and often a very considerable sum
is paid in order to assure us that it possesses those qualities which
the vendor has asserted. This is called the _cost of verification_; in
some cases, as in that of white sugar, it is very small, for almost
every one can see by its external character the degree of goodness of
that article. In other cases nothing less than a whole life spent in
acquiring a knowledge of his subject, can be of any avail, as _in the
case of the purchase of a field_. The verification of the fact that the
vendor has really the right to sell it, can, in many cases, be arrived
at only by a profound chancery-lawyer, and sometimes requires an expense
even beyond the value of the field itself.
When the purchaser has been convinced that he is no judge of the
goodness of an article, he usually buys it at some shop having the
reputation of selling only the best of the kind. In this case he justly
pays a higher price to the vendor, who ought to be remunerated for his
skill in selecting good articles from the manufacturer or merchant, and
for his integrity in not taking advantage of the ignorance of his
customer.
It may be contended that it is cheaper for the purchaser to pay for the
use of the skill and integrity of the vendor than to spend his own time
in acquiring the same skill; and in many instances this is true. Still,
however, the integrity remains to be paid for, and if simple and ready
modes of verification were more generally known, a very large portion of
this loss of time would be saved.
In all those articles which are easily verified the retail price varies
but little; whilst on those that are difficult to verify, the price of
the same article, although apparently of the same quality, will be found
to vary considerably at different shops.
The duties of the various juries who will examine and recommend the
articles for which prizes are to be awarded, will require much
consideration. It cannot be expected, even after long experience through
several successive expositions, that it would be possible to form a jury
which should satisfy every exhibitor. Much, however, may be done, even
at the first, by a sincere desire to arrive at just conclusions, and by
an earnest endeavour to inform the public of the principles, and to
point out the observations, which have led their judgment to the
decisions at which they may arrive. Each of the purely mechanical arts
is allied to one or more of the sciences; almost all their various
processes are amenable to, and explicable by known laws; it is possible
for him who is a perfect master of his own craft, so to explain them
without technical terms, and in the language of common sense, that most
persons of tolerably liberal education, and possessing a fair average
intellect, may not only understand the effect produced, but admire the
ingenuity by which it was attained.
§ It is of great importance that an effort should be made to remove that
veil of mystery which unfortunately, even in minds otherwise well
instructed, often shrouds the principles on which perfection in
manufactures, in science, and still more remarkably in the fine arts,
depends. These principles nevertheless are founded immutably on the
nature of the material world around us, as well as upon our own internal
feelings. Those which regulate taste are as general, although its rules
are not so precise, as those which relate to physics. Nor need it be
dreaded that a knowledge of the _grounds_ of that admiration which works
of genius ever command from cultivated minds, should diminish the
pleasure derived from their contemplation.
Show to the student some mechanism effecting results apparently beyond
the reach of the art, and he becomes impressed with the immense distance
between his own intelligence and that which contrived it. Explain to him
the simple means and the beautiful combinations by which it is effected,
you then raise him in his own estimation, and the studious disciple thus
instructed, will ultimately arrive at the conclusion that the only
distance which is really _immense_, is that existing between the
perfection of the highest work of human skill and the simplest of the
productions of nature.
§ In questions relating to taste the subject matter is so idealized,
that the enthusiastic and the timid equally dread its contact with the
more sober powers of reasoning, lest the process of analysis should
disenchant its visionary scenes, and dissolve the unreal basis of their
delight. Taste the most perfect, without a knowledge of the principles
on which it rests, resembles the barren instinct of animals: like them,
it gathers but little improvement from experience, and like them it
perishes with the extinction of the individual life; its labours leave
no inheritance to its race.
Taste united with an intimate knowledge of its principles, and still
more if conjoined with the power of eliminating from the fleeting
relations amongst the objects of its attention, those resemblances
which, when sufficiently multiplied and defined, lead up to the
discovery of higher generalizations, confers upon its enviable possessor
a double source of happiness; it adds the delight of an intellectual
triumph to those romantic feelings which are excited by the beautiful,
the lovely, or the sublime in Nature, or which are suggested by the most
perfect representations of art.
The comprehension of the cause of our pleasure renders us more acute to
perceive those elements which conduce to its existence, to trace their
connexion, to estimate their amount, to mould into form, and to call up
for the happiness of others and of ourselves, their endless
combinations.
There is, however, for that rare union of judgment, imagination, and
taste, which we call genius, when each exists in due proportion and in
rich abundance, a yet higher object, a still nobler ambition. To have
given to mankind those models, which, after twenty centuries, still
rivet their attention, commanding unbounded admiration and defying
rivalry, is indeed a splendid achievement, justly repaid by the undying
fame which accompanies the names of those benefactors to mankind.
But great as undoubtedly our gratitude ought to be for such gifts, it is
trifling compared with that which civilized society would owe to him,
who should instruct us in the _principles_ that guided the intellect as
well as the hands, of those by whom such immortal works were executed.
In the fine arts, and in the arts of industry, as well as in the
pursuits of science, the highest department of each is that of the
discovery of principles, and the invention of methods. To investigate
the laws by which human intellect picks with caution its uncertain track
through those obscure and outlying regions of our knowledge which
separate the known and the certain from the unknown;—to teach us how to
cast as it were an intellectual and temporary connecting line across
that chasm, by which a new truth is separated from the old—confident
that when arrested by that isolated truth it will have fixed itself upon
one solid point, amidst a floating chaos of error,—confident also that,
when once the fixity of that single point has been assured, it is always
_possible_, however formidable the task, to link it by innumerable ties
to established knowledge, and thus to fill up the intervening space even
to the very boundary of its enlarged domain:—to achieve such a conquest
in any science surpasses all other discoveries, for it supplies tools
for the use of intellect, and enlarges the limits and the powers of
human reason.
§ One of the great advantages of the Exposition will arise from the
interchange of kindly feelings between the inhabitants of foreign
countries and our own. The classes who visit us will consist neither of
the very elevated nor of the very low. They will all of them, probably,
possess more instruction and information than the average of their class
amongst their countrymen: consequently they will consist of persons the
most likely to derive instruction from their visit, and therefore to
return home with pleasing impressions.
It has been found on the continent that the periodic unions of men of
science have had an excellent effect in removing jealousies and
establishing friendships. It has not unfrequently happened that two
philosophers have met in such societies, and have entered into
discussions which have enabled each to appreciate more justly the talent
of the other, before one of them was aware that he had formerly
criticised a work of his new friend, in terms which their present good
understanding would effectually prevent him from repeating.
The experience we have had of the visit of the National Guard of Paris,
strongly confirms this view. It brought out the better feelings of our
nature towards our neighbours, and all classes took their share in
endeavouring to make those visits agreeable. On their return home, the
feeling excited by the visit was conveyed far beyond the actual
visitors; and it has left on the population of Paris a permanent advance
in good will towards Englishmen.
§ Several objects may be suggested whose discussion would be of the
greatest importance for the advancement of the industrial arts, but
which are not within the scope of the Exhibition. There are, however,
other places of meeting where some of these might be discussed. The
Society of Civil Engineers might entertain some inquiries, whilst the
Statistical Society would be the most appropriate place for others.
A few of these objects may be shortly alluded to.
§ The law of patents is, perhaps, one of the most interesting as well as
of the most difficult questions. Amongst our visitors, doubtless, there
will be several who have studied the subject in their own country and
who might assist us by their information and experience.
§ We have another law—that of partnership—which presents greater
obstacles to the advance of the mechanical arts than even the defective
state of the patent law. In England, whoever enters into a partnership,
however small a share of the profits he is to receive, yet his whole
fortune becomes responsible for any losses. In most other countries
there are a class of partnerships called anonymous, or _en commandite_,
in which persons willing to risk only a limited sum are entirely
relieved of all further responsibility.
The effect of our English system is highly unfavourable to inventors. It
prevents in all but a few cases a small capital from being raised by the
joint contributions of persons more immediately acquainted with the
character and prospects of the inventor, and who are in that respect
best fitted to measure the chance of his success.
A far greater impediment, however, arises from its entirely preventing a
considerable quantity of capital from being directed to inventions. Its
operation may be thus explained.
There exist in this country a great number of persons of manufacturing
and commercial habits, whose knowledge of men is considerable, and whose
judgment of the capabilities of a proposed scheme or invention, is
cautious and judicious.
Persons of this description often possess capital, or such credit as
easily to command its use. If partnerships could be entered into, in
which the liability was limited, many persons so circumstanced would
naturally use their skill and knowledge in selecting a certain number of
schemes, in each of which they would embark a small sum. By thus
spreading the risks over an extensive field, the profits to the
capitalist would be much more certain: whilst many an excellent
invention now lost for want of capital to carry it out, would thus
enrich its inventor and benefit the country.
§ Connected with the subject of patents is another, which is of some
consequence to the public. Many of those capable of improving the arts
by new inventions, have no desire to secure their discoveries by patent
and thus to render them profitable to themselves, but are willing to
give the public the entire advantage.
Now it is supposed that, if an inventor, under the existing law,
publishes the drawings of an engine which has not actually been
constructed, a machine-maker might make the machine, take out a patent
for it, and supply the public to the exclusion even of the inventor
himself.
If the invention is a purely mechanical contrivance, it is quite
possible with mere drawings and with the aid of the Mechanical Notation
to demonstrate the possibility of its construction and of all its
movements, with the same certainty as that with which a proposition in
Euclid is proved.
It seems then desirable, that some mode of publication should be
arranged by which the public should really enjoy the gifts which science
may present without risking monopoly by an interloper.
$ The subject of co-operation is one of the greatest importance, and
like many other social questions neither its principles nor its limits
seem to be clearly understood. It is of the utmost importance that the
masses should be enlightened on a subject so exciting, and bearing so
directly on their interests. But until it has been further investigated,
and numerous instances having a practical connexion with its principles
have been collected, it is hopeless to attempt a popular treatment of
the subject. It would be highly desirable that those of our foreign
visitors who have at all studied that most important question, should
communicate to us the results of their experience.
§ The _Mechanical Notation_ to which a slight allusion has been made, is
a system of signs by which all machinery may be perfectly described even
without the necessity of any explanation in words. It forms in fact an
universal language, which will be, when generally employed, capable of
being read by every people, just as the Arabic numerals are at present.
It has now been in use for more than twenty-five years, during which
time many improvements and additions have been made. A considerable
portion of it was published in 1826.[13] Amongst the subsequent
additions there is one called the Mechanical Alphabet, which consists of
very simple but expressive signs placed above those letters of the
alphabet used to express certain parts of machinery. Possibly from 100
to 200 of such signs may be required. Now before any publication is made
of those already used, it is of the greatest importance that they should
be thoroughly revised, and that practical mechanicians familiar with
every branch of the art, should contribute information respecting the
requirements in their different departments. Those also who are most
experienced in the art of mechanical drawing, ought to confer together
respecting the new rules according to which all drawings should have
letters attached to the various parts of the machinery they represent.
The _universality of the language_ is of such importance, that it would
be quite mischievous hastily to publish to the world any other than a
well-considered system of signs. The Exposition of 1851 furnishes an
opportunity for such a revision.
§ Considerable discussion has arisen respecting the ultimate fate of the
Crystal Palace. Three questions have been agitated:—
1. Shall it be pulled down?
2. Shall it be removed to another locality?
3. To what uses can the building be applied if it is retained?
Public opinion has undergone a great revolution since the opening of the
Exhibition; but however strongly it may now be expressed, it ought not
to interfere with public faith. If, after all the protestations and
pledges of the Commission, that the building was to be of temporary
duration, it should be permitted to remain permanently in its present
locality, little faith will be given in future to the promises of public
bodies. The pledge contained in the document by which the Commission was
appointed, viz. that 20,000_l._ should be given in prizes, has neither
been redeemed nor forgotten; and the treatment of the income-tax by the
successive political parties has added little to the respect with which
official promises are regarded.
If the country had originally maintained its undoubted right to use its
own parks for its own purposes, the building might then have remained;
but the inhabitants of Belgravia, having raised a violent opposition to
the selection of that locality, were only pacified on receiving the
strongest assurances that the building should be removed after it had
fulfilled its original purpose. In justice therefore to them, it must be
taken down.
The second question, Shall the Crystal Palace be removed? is by no means
decided by the answer given to the first. It would be perfectly
consistent with good faith to remove it to any other part of the park
not contiguous to Belgrave Square.
The third question, therefore, To what uses can the building be applied?
must now be examined, in order to arrive at a definitive decision upon
the second.
A wish seems to be very generally entertained for the preservation of
the building; and various uses have been suggested to which it might be
advantageously applied.
Mr. Paxton wishes to convert it into a winter garden.
M. Gambardella, in his highly interesting pamphlet, “What shall we do
with the Glass Palace?”[14] has proposed to have within its walls
alternately exhibitions of painting and of sculpture.
Permanent galleries of the fine arts have also been proposed.
Collections of the industrial arts, and models, have also been
suggested.
A portion of it might also be appropriated to the building of several
theatres for lectures, of various sizes, capable of containing from 100
to 2,000 persons.
The great principle to be borne in mind is, that, whatever the future
destination of the building, it must be self-supporting. The best and
most certain test of its utility to the public is furnished by the fact
of their being willing to pay for the enjoyments it affords them.
The plan of having a considerable portion of the building devoted to a
winter garden would supply a great want in our wet and uncertain
climate. The temperature ought not to be high, so that exercise might be
taken under shelter. No dogs, horses, or carriages ought to be admitted.
A large portion of those residing in the immediate neighbourhood would
subscribe, and also many who possessed carriages. But the number of
subscribers would depend chiefly on the position chosen for the
building. In its _present_ locality, the prejudices of the wealthier
class would be increased by the injustice of retaining it in violation
of the strongest pledges, and it would probably have a very limited
number of subscribers.
Perhaps it might be desirable to add reading-rooms for newspapers and
for the periodical literature of the day. Subscriptions to these might
be either for limited periods, or even for a single day. A
refreshment-room, also, would be required.
If, however, the building were removed to the situation proposed in the
seventh chapter of this volume, it would be accessible to a much larger
number of subscribers. Its two ends being then placed at a small
distance from the two great thoroughfares passing Hyde Park Corner and
the Marble Arch, a large number of its visitors would arrive by the
omnibuses which pass each of those well-frequented localities.
Space might readily be found either for periodical or permanent
galleries of painting and of sculpture. An objection has been made to
the former, namely, that the light in the glass palace is not fit for
the exhibition of paintings. It is singular that it should not have
occurred to such objectors that this is almost the only building in
which, from its very nature, there exists the most unlimited control
over both the quantity and the direction of light that may be required.
The profit to be derived from this part of the establishment will, as in
the former questions, depend greatly on the situation of the building.
Another plan, mentioned in the first edition of this work, was, to have
collections of the produce and manufactures exhibited on the present
occasion. Few applications of the building would be more appropriate,
and scarcely any could be more useful, than this. Fortunately, the
Executive Committee have undertaken the task, and it cannot be doubted
that the exhibitors will willingly lighten their labour by giving every
assistance in their power. One or two suggestions may here be offered,
for the purpose of impressing on the exhibitors at future Expositions
the great importance of attaching to each object a brief and condensed
account of facts connected with it. In the article of raw materials
there will not be much difficulty, as there are many instances of
excellence in that department. The case of drugs from Liverpool is a
good illustration. Their price, however, is omitted, because it was
forbidden. In the permanent collection, this most important element
will, of course, occupy its proper place. It might also be useful to
give the date of the first importation of each drug, and the first
application to its various uses. The quantity, also, of the chemical
element on which its use is founded contained in a given weight of the
substance would, if known, be highly interesting: as, for instance, the
quantity of quinine in a given weight of bark.
In making a collection of machines, there is some fear of occupying a
very large space without a corresponding advantage. A lace frame, making
in one breadth of fifteen feet from sixty to a hundred repetitions of
the same lace, would, commercially speaking, be the most advantageous;
but such a frame with only ten repetitions would be more useful for
instruction. The various self-acting mules, also, would easily fill a
large room. Perhaps the collection might be confined to working models:
these might be made, from time to time, to replace the larger machines,
and funds for that purpose might be derived from the payments of the
visitors both to the exhibition and to the lectures which ought to be
given to explain the collection.
In making a collection of specimens of manufactured articles, as well as
of produce, it would in many cases add little to the expense if a
sufficient quantity were purchased to divide into many samples. Thus,
the collections of foreign countries and of our own cities might be
enriched by authentic specimens. This view applies more particularly to
collections of woven fabrics.
A well authenticated collection of cotton, flax, wool, and silk, in the
raw state, through all their successive stages of manufacture, up to the
woven fabrics of which they constitute the basis, if accompanied by the
prices of each at intervals of ten years during the last century, would
furnish materials of the most valuable kind, and would greatly aid the
economist, the statesman, and the philosopher, in discovering and
putting to the test the principles connected with their several
inquiries.
It is not necessary, or even desirable, that this collection should
consist of articles of fancy: it ought to be composed of all those
fabrics which, although at first rare and costly, have ultimately become
objects of habitual consumption by large classes of the community.
Another purpose of great importance to which a portion of such a
building might be applied, is the construction of convenient theatres
for the delivery of lectures, and for the discussion of questions of
interest. The want of such buildings in the western part of the
metropolis has long been felt, and acts injuriously on the progress of
knowledge.
In the present state of society, oral statements of the great principles
which govern it, illustrated by striking facts drawn with judgment from
varied sources, would, if delivered with ability and good taste, attract
large audiences. Even science itself might be rendered popular by such
means. Yet if any highly gifted person, qualified for such a task, were
willing to devote to the subject the time necessary to assure the
success of his efforts, he would now be stopped at the very threshold,
for he could find no convenient theatre in any part of the west of
London, which he could hire for the delivery of such a course of
lectures.
The only theatre capable of holding 1,000 persons, is that of the Royal
Institution in Albemarle Street. Let us suppose the lecturer capable of
attracting 1,000 subscribers, each willing to pay a sovereign for a
short course of lectures. How would the sum thus raised be divided? He
could lecture at that theatre only by the permission of the Managers,
who would scarcely pay him more than 100_l._[15] for the course. The
1,000_l._ therefore, which the public would willingly pay for the
instruction they received would be thus divided:—
To the intellect which charmed them £100
To the rent of the room in which they listened 900
------
£1,000
------
If the 900_l._ were the remuneration of the creative mind, and the
100_l._ were the payment for the use of the room and the necessary
attendants, the information of several classes of society would be far
other than it now is, and the status of the lecturer would be entirely
altered. At present, however great the talent of the instructor, his
position is not exactly that which the interests of society demand. The
term, _itinerant_ lecturer, has long been one of reproach, and even now
it is not thought quite dignified in a gentleman to give a lecture _for
money_. The reason is obvious: nothing is thought respectable in England
which does not produce wealth. Any shrewd and unscrupulous fellow, who
swindles on a gigantic scale, will, if he succeed, be immediately
received with welcome into what is called the best society. Neither wit
nor talent are necessary for his admission: if, indeed, he be horridly
vulgar, a few additional hundreds of thousands will procure him
absolution in fashionable eyes, even for that most deadly sin.
Enable the instructor to receive his due portion of that reward which
the public are willing to pay, and he too will become rich, and
therefore eminently respectable. With this increased remuneration, minds
of a higher order will be attracted to the study of the most difficult
of arts,—that of teaching; and the time will arrive when accomplished,
enlightened, and independent men may earn from five to ten thousand
a-year without courting a constituency for parliamentary influence, or a
minister for justice to merit he is incapable of appreciating.
Such results, however, demand the use of convenient theatres of various
sizes, placed in situations easily accessible.
It appears then that, on every ground which has been considered, the
utility of the Crystal Palace will depend almost entirely on the
situation chosen for its ultimate position.
Looking at the question in a purely commercial view, considering the
difficulty of access from the north to its present locality; contrasting
it with the facility of access from every quarter in the site proposed;
it is not too much to presume that its revenue would be so greatly
enlarged by the removal, that it would justify an expenditure of forty
or even of fifty thousand pounds.
[12] The French chamber has devoted 50,000 francs to the purchase of
specimens.—(_Illustrated News_, 2d. Feb. 1851.)
[13] Phil. Trans. 1826, p. 250.
[14] Published by Aylott and Jones, Paternoster Row.
[15] It is far from the author’s intention to reproach in the
slightest degree the Managers of that most valuable Institution. Every
member having a right to be present at every lecture, it is not in
their power to do otherwise.
CHAPTER XII.
INTRIGUES OF SCIENCE.
Several causes have justly lowered the position of science in England.
The conduct of the Royal Society, and of men of science themselves, has
equally contributed to this result. In a work on the Decline of
Science[16] in 1830, I exposed the wretched mismanagement of the Royal
Society, but not until in conjunction with Wollaston and other eminent
men, I had found the inutility of every effort we made to improve it
from within. Our reform bill stands recorded upon the minutes of the
council, with the signatures of Wollaston, of Young, of Herschel, and of
others whose names ought to have commanded respect: but it was defeated
by an ingenious manœuvre.
The facts stated in the work alluded to, have never been disputed: one
answer[17] only having, as far as I am aware, ever been attempted to any
part of that volume. It appeared in the Annals of Philosophy, and was
first mentioned to me by the late Francis Baily, F.R.S. Not having then
seen it, I inquired whether he thought any reply necessary; his answer
was, “_No: it is a full admission of the truth of your statement._”