RHEI ET SENNÆ (Ph. U. S.), L. _Prep._ (Ph. U. S.) Rhubarb, 1 oz.; senna
and red sanders wood, of each 2 dr.; coriander and fennel seed, of each 1
dr.; saffron and extract of liquorice, of each 1/2 dr.; stoned raisins, 6
oz.; proof spirit, 2-1/2 pints; macerate for 14 days. A popular stomachic
and laxative.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 1-1/2 fl. oz.
=Tincture (Riemer’s Nervous).= _Prep._ From oil of juniper, 1 part;
volatile liquor of hartshorn, 4 parts; rectified spirit, 16
parts.——_Dose_, 1 teaspoonful in water.
=Tincture of Rose.= _Syn._ TINCTURA ROSÆ. _Prep._ Dried red rose, 4 oz.;
proof spirit, 1 pint. Digest for 10 days.
=Tincture of Rosemary.= _Syn._ TINCTURA ROSMARINI. (Ph. Bruns.) _Prep._
Flowering tops of rosemary, 1-1/2 oz.; spirit of rosemary, 6 oz. Digest,
express, and filter.
=Tincture, Ruspini’s.= See TINCTURE, TOOTH.
=Tincture of Saf′fron.= _Syn._ TINCTURA CROCI (B. P., Ph. E. & D.), T. C.
SATIVÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Saffron, 1; proof spirit, 20; macerate 48
hours with 15 of the spirit, agitating occasionally, pack in a percolator,
let it drain, and then pour on the remaining spirit; when it ceases to
drop, wash the marc with spirit to make up 20.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 2 dr.
2. (Ph. E.) Hay saffron, 2 oz. (2 oz.——Ph. D.); proof spirit, 1 quart (1
pint——Ph. D.); proceed either by maceration (for 14 days——Ph. D.) or by
displacement. Stimulant, and emmenagogue.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 fl. dr. Chiefly
used for its colour and flavour.
=Tincture of Saponin.= _Syn._ TINCTURA SAPONINI. _Prep._ Bark of _Quillai
Saponaria_, 1 part; alcohol (90 per cent.), 4 parts. Heat to ebullition
and filter.
=Tincture of Sarsaparilla (Compound).= _Syn._ TINCTURA SARZÆ COMPOSITA,
LIQUEUR DÉPURATIVE. (François.) _Prep._ Sarsaparilla, guaiacum, china
root, sassafras, of each 1 oz.; proof spirit, 16 oz.
=Tincture of Savine.= _Syn._ TINCTURA SABINÆ. (B. P.) _Prep._ Savine tops,
dried, and coarsely powdered, 2-1/2 oz.; proof spirit, 1 pint. Proceed as
for tincture of aconite.
=Tincture of Scammony.= _Syn._ TINCTURA SCAMMONII. (P. Cod.) _Prep._
Scammony, 4 oz.; rect. spirit, 20 oz. (by weight).
=Tincture of Senega.= _Syn._ TINCTURA SENEGÆ. (B. P.) _Prep._ Senega,
bruised, 2-1/2 oz.; proof spirit, 1 pint. Prepared as tincture of aconite.
=Tincture of Senna (Compound).= _Syn._ TINCTURE OF SENNA, ELIXIR OF
HEALTH†; TINCTURA SENNÆ (B. P.), TINCTURA SENNÆ COMPOSITÆ (Ph. L., E., &
D.), L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Senna, broken small, 5; raisins, freed from
seeds, 4; caraway, bruised, 1; coriander, bruised, 1; proof spirit, 40;
macerate the ingredients 48 hours in three fourths of the spirit,
agitating occasionally; pack in a percolator, and when it ceases to drop,
pour on the remaining spirit; press, filter, and make up 40.——_Dose_, 2 to
8 dr.
2. (Ph. L.) Senna, 3-1/2 oz.; caraway seeds, bruised, 3-1/2 dr.; cardamom
seeds, bruised, 1 dr.; stoned raisins, 5 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart;
macerate for 7 days, press, and filter.
3. (Ph. E.) Senna and stoned raisins, of each 4 oz.; sugar, 2-1/2 oz.;
corianders, 1 oz.; jalap, 6 dr.; caraways and cardamoms, of each 5 dr.;
proof spirit, 1 quart; digest, or proceed by percolation.
4. (Ph. D.) Senna, 4 oz.; caraway and cardamom seeds, of each, bruised,
1/2 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 14 days.
5. (Wholesale.) From senna, 6 lbs.; treacle, 2 lbs.; caraways, 3/4 lb.;
cardamoms, 1/4 lb.; rectified spirit and water, of each 4 galls.; as
before. Carminative, stomachic, and purgative.——_Dose_, 1/4 to 1 fl. oz.
_Obs._ “If Alexandrian senna be used for this preparation, it must be
freed from cynanchum (argol) leaves, by picking.” (Ph. E.)
=Tincture of Ser′pentary.= _Syn._ TINCTURE OF VIRGINIAN SNAKE ROOT;
TINCTURA SERPENTARIE (B. P., Ph. L., & E.), L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.)
Serpentary, bruised, 1; proof spirit, 8; macerate 48 hours, with 6 of the
spirit, agitating occasionally, pack in a percolator and let it drain;
pour on the remaining spirit, and when it ceases to drop, press, and wash
the marc to make up 8.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 2 dr.
2. (Ph. L.) Serpentary, bruised, 3-1/2 oz. (cochineal, 1 dr.——Ph. E);
proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days (or by percolation——Ph. E.),
strain, and filter. Stimulant, tonic, and diaphoretic.——_Dose_, 1 to 3 fl.
dr.
=Tincture of Sesquichloride of Iron.= _Syn._ TINCTURE OF MURIATE OF IRON,
TINCTURE OF STEEL, STEEL DROPS; TINCTURA FERRI PERCHLORIDI (B. P.),
TINCTURA FERRI SESQUICHLORIDI (Ph. L. & D.), T. FERRI MURIATIS (Ph. E.),
FERRI MURIATIS LIQUOR, L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Strong solution of
perchloride of iron, 1; rectified spirit, 3; mix.——_Dose_, 10 to 30 minims
in water.
2. (Ph. L.) Sesquioxide of iron, 6 oz.; hydrochloric acid, 1 pint; mix,
and digest in a sand bath, frequently shaking (with a gentle heat, for a
day——Ph. E.), until solution is complete, then add, when cold, of
rectified spirit, 3 pints, and (in a short time) filter. Sp. gr. ·992. “1
fl. oz., potash being added, deposits nearly 30 gr. of sesquioxide of
iron.” (Ph. L.)
3. (Ph. D.) Iron wire, 8 oz.; pure hydrochloric acid, 1 quart; distilled
water, 1 pint; mix, and dissolve by a gentle heat; next add, in successive
portions, of pure nitric acid, 18 fl. dr.; evaporate by a gentle heat to a
pint, and, when cold, mix this in a bottle with rectified spirit, 1-1/2
pint; lastly, after 12 hours, filter. Sp. gr. 1·237.
_Obs._ This tincture is an active ferruginous tonic.——_Dose_, 10 to 30
drops, gradually increased, taken in water, ale, or wine. In the old
tinctura martis, Ph. L., iron filings, and in the T. ferri muriatis, Ph.
E. 1817, black oxide of iron, were used instead of the sesquioxide or
carbonate. ‘Bestuchef’s nervine tincture’ of the P. Cod. is prepared by
dissolving 1 dr. of dry sesquichloride of iron in 7 dr. of spirit of
sulphuric ether. See GOLDEN DROPS.
=Tincture of Sesquini′trate of Iron‡.= _Syn_. TINCTURA FERRI
SESQUINITRATIS, L. _Prep._ (Onion.) Iron filings, 1/2 oz.; nitric acid
(1·5), 2-1/4 oz.; dissolve, add of hydrochloric acid (1·16), 6 dr., simmer
for 2 or 3 minutes, cool, add of rectified spirit, 8 oz., and filter.
Proposed as a substitute for the last preparation, but the name
misrepresents its chemical constitution.
=Tincture of Soap.= _Syn._ TINCTURA SAPONIS. (P. Cod.) _Prep._ White soap,
3 oz.; carbonate of potash, 1 dr.; proof spirit, 5 oz. (by weight).
Dissolve.
=Tincture of Soap with Turpentine.= _Syn._ TINCTURA SAPONIS
TEREBINTHINATA. BAUMÉ DE VIE EXTERNE. _Prep._ White soap, 3 oz.; oil of
turpentine, 3 oz.; spirit of wild thyme, 2 lb.; white of ammonia, 2 oz.
=Tincture of Squills.= _Syn._ TINCTURA BECHICA, TINCTURA SCILLÆ (B. P.,
Ph. L., E., & D.), L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Dried squill, bruised, 1; proof
spirit, 8; macerate for 48 hours with 6 of the spirit, agitating
occasionally, pack in a percolator, let it drain, and pour on the
remaining spirit; when it ceases to drop, press, filter, and make up to
8.——_Dose_, 15 to 30 minims.
2. (Ph. L.) Squills, recently dried and sliced (or in coarse powder), 5
oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days (14 days——Ph. D.; or by
percolation——Ph. E.), press and filter. A stimulating expectorant and
diuretic.——_Dose_, 10 to 30 drops; in chronic coughs, and other bronchial
affections.
=Tincture of Squills (Alkaline).= _Syn._ TINCTURA SCILLÆ ALKALINA. (Ph.
G.) _Prep._ Squill, 8 parts; caustic potash, 1 part; rectified spirit, 50
parts; macerate, 8 days.
=Tincture of Stavesacre (Concentrated).= _Syn._ TINCTURA STAPHISAGRIÆ
CONCENTRATA. (Dr Turnbull.) _Prep._ Digest stavesacre seeds in twice their
weight of rectified spirit. For external use in neuralgic and rheumatic
affections, as a substitute for solution of delphinia.
=Tincture, Stomach′ic.= Compound tincture of cardamoms. Compound tincture
of gentian is also, occasionally, so called.
=Tincture of Stramo′′nium.= _Syn._ TINCTURE OF THORN-APPLE; TINCTURA
STRAMONII (B. P., Ph. D. & U. S.), L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Stramonium seeds,
bruised, 1; proof spirit, 8; macerate 48 hours with 6 of the spirit,
agitating occasionally; pack in a percolator, let it drain, and pour on
the remaining spirit. When it ceases to drop, press, filter, and add
spirit to make 8.——_Dose_, 10 to 20 minims.
2. (Ph. D.) Stramonium or thorn-apple seeds (bruised), 5 oz.; proof
spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 14 days (or by displacement——Ph. U. S.),
then press, and filter. Anodyne.——_Dose_, 10 to 20 drops; in neuralgia,
rheumatism, &c. Said to be superior to laudanum.
=Tincture, Styptic.= _Syn._ TINCTURA STYPTICA. (Ph. L. 1746.) _Prep._
Calcined sulphate of iron, 1 dr.; French brandy, coloured by the cask, 2
lbs.
=Tincture, Sudorific.= _Syn._ TINCTURA SUDORIFICA. (Ph. E. 1744.) _Prep._
Serpentary root, 5 dr.; cochineal, 4 dr.; castor oil, 1 dr.; saffron, 2
scruples; opium, 1 scruple; spirit of Mindererus, 16 oz. Digest for 3
days and strain.
=Tincture of Sum′bul.= _Syn._ TINCTURA SUMBULI (B. P.) _Prep._ 1. (B. P.)
Sumbul, bruised fine, 1; proof spirit, 8; digest 7 days and
filter.——_Dose_, 15 to 30 minims.
2. From sumbul, bruised, 5 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for a
week, and strain, with expression. Stimulant and tonic.——_Dose_, 10 to 30
or 40 drops.
=Tincture of Tartrated Iron.= _Syn._ TINCTURA MARTIS TARTARIZATA. _Prep._
Pure iron filings, 100 parts; cream of tartar, 250, rectified spirit, 50
parts (by weight). Put the filings and tartar into an iron kettle with
sufficient water to form a paste, leave them for 24 hours, add 3000 parts
of soft water and boil for 2 hours, stirring constantly and supplying the
waste of water. Decant and filter the liquor, and evaporate it till it has
the density of 1·286, and add the spirit.——_Dose_, 3 to 6 drops.
=Tincture of Thorn-apple.= Tincture of stramonium.
=Tincture of Thuja.= _Syn._ TINCTURA THUJÆ. Fresh leaves of thuja, 1 part;
spirit (90 per cent.), 10 parts. Macerate for 10 days, and
filter.——_Dose_, 10 drops in water. The leaves of thuja are collected in
June and July. Those of the _T. orientalis_ and _T. occidentalis_, have
the reputation in Belgium of curing smallpox.
=Tincture of Tobac′co.= _Syn._ TINCTURA NICOTIANÆ, TINCTURA TABACI, L.
_Prep._ From pure manufactured tobacco, 1-1/4 oz,; proof spirit, 1 pint;
macerate for 7 days. Compound spirit of juniper is often used instead of
proof spirit. Sedative and narcotic.——_Dose_, 10 to 30 drops. A tincture
is also made from the fresh leaves. See VEGETABLE JUICES and TINCTURES
(Ethereal).
=Tincture of Tol′u.= _Syn._ TINCTURA TOLUTANUS (B. P.), TINCTURA TOLUTANA
(Ph. L. & D.), T. BALSAMI TOLUTANI, T. TOLUIFERÆ BALSAMI, L. _Prep._ 1.
(B. P.) Balsam of Tolu, 1; rectified spirit, 8; dissolve, filter, and make
up to 8.——_Dose_, 15 to 30 minims, mixed with mucilage or syrup.
2. (Ph. L.) Balsam of Tolu, 2 oz. (3-1/2 oz.——Ph. E.); rectified spirit, 1
quart (1 pint——Ph. D.); dissolve (by the aid of a gentle heat——Ph. E. &
D.), and filter.
_Obs._ This tincture is reputed pectoral and expectorant; but it is
chiefly used as an adjuvant in mixtures, on account of its
flavour.——_Dose_, 10 to 60 drops.
=Tincture, Tooth.= _Prep._ 1. (Greenhough’s.) From bitter almonds, 2 oz.;
Brazil wood, cinnamon, and orris root, of each 1/2 oz.; alum, cochineal,
and salt of sorrel, of each 1 dr.; spirit of scurvy grass, 2 fl. oz.;
proof spirit, 1-1/2 pint; macerate a week.
2. (Hudson’s.) From the tinctures of myrrh and cinchona, and cinnamon
water, equal parts, with a little arquebusade and gum Arabic.
3. (Ruspini’s.) From orris root, 8 oz.; cloves, 1 oz.; ambergris, 20 gr.;
rectified spirit, 1 quart; digested for 14 days. The above are used as
cosmetics for the teeth and gums. The last has long been a popular
dentifrice.
=Tincture, Toothache.= Odontalgic tincture. See also DROPS, ESSENCE, &c.
=Tincture of Turmeric.= _Syn._ TINCTURA CURCUMÆ. (Dr Wood.) _Prep._
Turmeric, 1 oz.; proof spirit, 6 oz.
=Tincture of Turpentine.= _Syn._ TINCTURA TEREBINTHINÆ. (P. Cod.) _Prep._
Venice turpentine, 4 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 pint.
=Tincture of Tuyaya.= _Syn._ TINCTURA TUYAYÆ. _Prep._ Tuyaya root, in
powder, 12 oz.; proof spirit, 36 oz.; macerate for 14 days. If for
internal use it must be diluted with four times its volume of
spirit.——_Dose_, 1 to 10 minims. In syphilis.
=Tincture of Vale′rian.= _Syn._ TINCTURA VALERIANÆ (B. P., Ph. L., E., &
D.), L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Valerian bruised, 1; proof spirit, 8; macerate
the valerian 48 hours with 6 of the spirit, agitating occasionally; pack
in a percolator, let it drain, pour on the remainder of the spirit; when
it ceases to drop, press and filter, washing the marc with spirit to make
up 8.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 dr.
2. (Ph. L.) Valerian root, bruised, 5 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate
7 days (14 days——Ph. D.; or by percolation——Ph. E.), press, and filter.
Tonic and antispasmodic.——_Dose_, 1 to 3 fl. dr.; in hysteria, epilepsy,
&c.
=Tincture of Valerian (Compound).= _Syn._ AMMONIATED TINCTURE OF VALERIAN,
VOLATILE T. OF V.; TINCTURA VALERIANÆ COMPOSITA (Ph. L.), T. V. AMMONIATA
(B. P., Ph. E.), L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Valerian, bruised, 1; aromatic
spirit of ammonia, 8; macerate the valerian 7 days, press, filter, and add
spirit to make up 8.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 1 dr.
2. (Ph. L.) Valerian root, bruised, 5 oz.; aromatic spirit of ammonia
(simple——Ph. E.), 1 quart; macerate for 7 days (or by percolation——Ph.
E.), then press, and filter. Stimulant, tonic, and antispasmodic.——_Dose_
and _use_, same as those of the simple tincture, than which it is thought
to be more powerful. The tincture of the shops is generally made with only
1 lb. of the root to the gallon.
=Tincture of Vanilla.= _Syn._ TINCTURA VANILLÆ. (Ph. G.) _Prep._ Vanilla
pods, 1 part; rectified spirit, 5 parts. Macerate 8 days.
=Tincture of Veratria.= _Syn._ TINCTURA VERATRIÆ. (Magendie.) _Prep._
Veratria, 4 gr.; rectified spirit, 1 dr.
=Tincture of Vera′trum.= _Syn._ TINCTURE OF WHITE HELLEBORE; TINCTURA
VERATRI VIRIDIS; TINCTURA HELLEBORI ALBI, T. VERATRI (Ph. E.), L. _Prep._
1. (B. P.) Green hellebore root, in coarse powder, 4; rectified spirit,
20; macerate the powder with 15 of the spirit 48 hours, agitating
occasionally, pack it in a percolator, let it drain, pour on the remainder
of the spirit, when it ceases to drop, press, filter, wash the marc with
spirit to make up 20.——_Dose_, 5 to 20 minims.
2. (Ph. E.) White hellebore, 4 oz.; proof spirit, 1 pint; digest or
percolate.——_Dose_, 10 drops, 2 or 3 times a day, gradually increased; in
gout, rheumatism, &c., as a substitute for colchicum; also, externally.
=Tincture of Virginian Snake Root.= Tincture of serpentary.
=Tincture of Vittie-vayr.= _Syn._ TINCTURA VETIVERIÆ, L. _Prep._ From
vittie-vayr (roots of _Andropogon muricatis_), 2-1/2 oz.; proof spirit, 1
pint; macerate a week. Stimulant, tonic, and sudorific.——_Dose_, 15 to 30
drops.
=Tincture, Vulnerary.= _Syn._ TINCTURA VULNERARIA. (P. Cod.) _Prep._ Fresh
leaves of wormwood, angelica, basil, calamint, fennel, hyssop, marjoram,
balm peppermint, origanum, rosemary, rue, savory, sage, wild thyme, St
John’s wort tops, lavender tops, of each 1 oz. (all cut up); rectified
spirit, 20 oz. (by weight). Digest 10 days.
=Tincture of Walnuts.= _Syn._ TINCTURA INGLANDIS. (Ph. Dan.) _Prep._ Green
shells of walnut, 6 oz.; proof spirit, 24 oz. Digest for 6 days.
=Tincture of Walnut Leaves.= _Syn._ TINCTURA INGLANDIS FOLIORUM. (Mr
Ince.) _Prep._ Dried walnut leaves, 16 oz.; macerated for 7 days in a
gallon of proof spirit.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 teaspoonfuls. To prevent sickness,
or to cover the taste of cod-liver oil.
=Tincture, Warburg’s Fever.= _Syn._ TINCTURA FEBRIFUGA WARBURGII. The
composition was for a long time kept secret; but in 1875 Dr. W. published
the following formula for it, through Prof. Maclean:——Aloes (Soc.), lb. j;
Rad. Rhei, Sem. Angelic., Conf. Damocrat. āā ℥iv; Rad. Helenii, Croci
Sat., Sem. Fœnic., Cretæ ppt. āā ℥ij; Rad. Gent., Rad. Zedoar., Pip.
Cubeb., Myrrhæ, Camphoræ, Boleti laric., āā ℥j. Digest with 500 oz. of
proof spirit in a water-bath for 12 hours; express, and add quinin.
disulph. ℥x. Then replace in water-bath until the quinine is dissolved.
Filter when cool. _Dose_, 1/2 oz. (undiluted) after an aperient.
=Tincture of Wild Cherry Bark.= _Syn._ TINCTURA PRUNI VIRGINIANÆ. _Prep._
Wild cherry bark, bruised, 2 oz.; proof spirit, 1 pint. Digest 14 days,
press, and filter. May also be made by percolation.
=Tincture of Winter Cherry.= _Syn._ TINCTURA PHYSALIS ALKIKENGÆ. _Prep._
Take of the whole plant, dried, 4 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 pint. Digest
for 10 days, strain, and filter. Diuretic and febrifuge.——_Dose_, 1/2 dr.
to 1 dr.
=Tincture of Wormwood.= _Syn._ TINCTURA ABSINTHII. (Ph. G.) _Prep._ Dried
wormwood, 6 oz.; proof spirit, 30 oz. (by weight.); macerate for 8 days,
and strain.——_Dose_, 1 dr.
=Tincture of Wormwood (Compound).= _Syn._ TINCTURA ABSINTHII COMPOSITA.
(P. Cod.) _Prep._ Dried wormwood tops, 1 oz.; gentian, bitter orange peel,
of each 1 oz.; germander, 1 oz.; rhubarb, 3/4 oz.; aloes, 2 dr.;
cascarilla, 2 dr.; proof spirit, 2 pints.
_Loss of Spirit in making Tinctures by the British
Pharmacopœia._[236]——MR UMNEY gives the following
table, as embodying the result of his experience:——
[Footnote 236: ‘Pharm. Journ,’, 3rd series, 1, 321-379.]
------------------------------+------------+------------+--------+--------
|Alcohol ·838|Alcohol ·920| Loss |Gain
Quantity|to make |to make |p. c. by|p. c. by
made. |up measure. |up measure. |volume. |volume.
------------------------------+------------+------------+--------+--------
Galls. | Pints. | Pints. | |
Tinct. aconit 4 | 2·5 | ... | 7·9 |
Tinct. arnicæ 10 | 3·0 | ... | 3·8 |
Tinct. aurantii 10 | ... | 5·0 | 6·3 |
Tinct. belladonnæ 2 | ... | ·7 | 4·1 |
Tinct. benz. comp. 5 | ... | ... | ... | 10·0
Tinct. buchu 2 | ... | 1·0 | 6·3 |
Tinct. calumbæ 5 | ... | 3·0 | 7·1 |
Tinct. camphor, comp. 10 | ... | ·5 | ·7 |
Tinct. cantharid 4 | ... | ·6 | 1·9 |
Tinct. capsici 5 | 1·0 | ... | 2·5 |
Tinct. cardam. co. 20 | ... | ... | ... | 2·5
Tinct. cascarillæ 5 | ... | 2·0 | 5·0 |
Tinct. castor 2 | ·5 | ... | 3·2 |
Tinct. catechu 5 | ... | No loss. | ... |
Tinct. chirettæ 2 | ... | 2·0 | 12·5 |
Tinct. cinchonæ 10 | ... | 12·0 | 15·0 |
Tinct. cinchonæ co. 10 | ... | 9·0 | 11·3 |
Tinct. cinnam. 5 | ... | 4·0 | 10·0 |
Tinct. cocci 1 | ... | ·25 | 3·1 |
Tinct. colchici sem. 2 | ... | 1·5 | 9·4 |
Tinct. conii 2 | ... | ·75 | 4·6 |
Tinct. croci 1 | ... | ·60 | 7·5 |
Tinct. cubebæ 2 | ·5 | ... | 3·2 |
Tinct. digitatis 5 | ... | 3·0 | 7·5 |
Tinct. ergotæ 2 | ... | 2·0 | 12·5 |
Tinct. ferri acet. 1 | 1·2 | ... | 15·0 |
Tinct. gallæ 1 | ... | ·4 | 5·0 |
Tinct. gent. co. 10 | ... | 7·0 | 8·7 |
Tinct. hyoscyami 10 | ... | 6·0 | 7·5 |
Tinct. jalapæ 5 | ... | 2·0 | 5·0 |
Tinct. kino 1 | No loss. | ... | ... |
Tinct. krameriæ 5 | ... | 2·0 | 5·0 |
Tinct. lavand. comp. 20 | 2·0 | ... | 1·3 |
Tinct. limonis 2 | ... | 1·5 | 9·4 |
Tinct. lobeliæ 3 | ... | 2·5 | 10·5 |
Tinct. lobeliæ æther. 3 | 3·5[237]| ... | 14·5 |
Tinct. lupuli 5 | ... | 4·0 | 10·0 |
Tinct. myrrhæ 5 | 2·5 | ... | 6·2 |
Tinct. nuc. vom. 4 | ·0 | ... | 6·2 |
Tinct. opii 10 | ... | ·75 | 1·0 |
Tinct. opii ammon. 2·5 | ·5 | ... | 2·5 |
Tinct. pyrethri 1 | 1·0 | ... | 12·5 |
Tinct. quassiæ 1 | ... | ·7 | 8·7 |
Tinct. rhei 10 | ... | 4·0 | 5·0 |
Tinct. sabinæ 2 | ... | ·8 | 5·0 |
Tinct. scillæ 5 | ... | 3·0 | 7·5 |
Tinct. senegæ 1 | ... | ·75 | 9·3 |
Tinct. sennæ 10 | ... | 2·0 | 2·5 |
Tinct. serpentar 1 | ... | ·9 | 10·9 |
Tinct. stramon. 1 | ... | ·5 | 6·3 |
Tinct. sambul 3 | ... | 1·0 | 4·2 |
Tinct. valer. ammon. 5 | 3·5[238]| ... | 4·4 |
Tinct. valerian 5 | ... | 2·3 | 5·7 |
Tinct. veratri virid. 2 | 2·5 | ... | 15·6 |
Tinct. zingiber 5 | 2·5 | ... | 6·3 |
Tinct. zingiber fort. 10 | 3·6 | ... | 37·5 |
------------------------------+------------+------------+--------+--------
[Footnote 237: Sp. æther. sulph.]
[Footnote 238: Sp. ammon. aromat.]
=Tincture of Yellow Jasmine.= _Syn._ TINCTURA GELSEMII SEMPERVIRENS.
_Prep._ Yellow jasmine, 1 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 pint.——_Dose_, 20 to 40
minims.
=Tincture of Zedoary.= _Syn._ TINCTURA ZEDOARIÆ. (Ph. Amst.) _Prep._
Zedoary root, 1 part; rectified spirit, 8 parts. Digest and filter.
=Tincture of Zedoary (Compound).= _Syn._ TINCTURA ZEDOARIÆ COMPOSITA;
WEDEL’S ESSENTIA CARMINATIVA. _Prep._ Zedoary, 4 oz.; calamus, galangal,
of each 2 oz.; chamomile, aniseed, caraway seed, of each 1 oz.;
bay-berries and cloves, of each 6 dr.; orange-peel and mace, of each 4
dr.; peppermint water and rectified spirit, of each 24 dr. In 6 days
strain, and add hydrochloric ether, 4 oz.
=TINCTURES (Concentrated).= _Syn._ TINCTURÆ CONCENTRATÆ HAENLI, L. _Prep._
(Ph. Baden.) Digest 8 parts of the vegetable powder in 16 of spirit of the
sp. gr. ·857 (45 o. p.), for 4 days, at 72° Fahr., with occasional
agitation, then press, and filter; to the marc or residuum add as much
spirit as it has absorbed, and again press, and filter; the weight of the
mixed liquors should be 16 parts. In this way are prepared concentrated
tinctures of aconite leaves; arnica and chamomile flowers; belladonna,
digitalis, hemlock, henbane, peppermint, and savine leaves; ipecacuanha
and valerian roots, &c.
=TINCTURES (Cu′linary).= See ESSENCES, SPIRITS, &c.
=TINCTURES (Ethe′′real).= _Syn._ TINCTURÆ ÆTHEREÆ, L. _Prep._ (P. Cod.)
From the vegetable substance, 1 oz.; sulphuric ether, 4 oz. (or 6 fl.
oz.); by maceration, for 4 days, in a well-closed vessel; or, preferably,
by percolation in a cylindrical glass vessel furnished with a stopper, and
terminating at the lower end in a funnel, obstructed with a little cotton.
The powder being introduced over the cotton, pour on enough ether to
moisten it, put in the stopper, fix the tube into the neck of a bottle,
and leave it for 48 hours; then add, gradually, the remaining portion of
the ether, and, lastly, enough water to displace the ether absorbed. In
this manner are prepared the ethereal tinctures of aconite leaves, arnica
flowers, belladonna, hemlock, foxglove, tobacco, pellitory, solanum,
valerian, stramonium, &c., of the Paris Codex.
The ethereal tinctures of amber, ambergris, assafœtida, cantharides
(acetic ether), castor, musk, tolu, &c., are prepared by maceration only.
=TINCTURES (Odorif′erous).= These are prepared from odoriferous substances
by the usual processes of digestion or percolation. See SPIRITS.
=TINCTURES from Recent Vegetables.= See VEGETABLE JUICES.
=TIN′DER (German).= See AMADOU.
=TISANE.= [Fr.] _Syn._ PTISAN; PTISANA, L. This form of medicine is much
used in France. Tisanes may be readily prepared by slightly medicating
barley, rice, or tamarind water, lemonade, &c. See DECOCTION, INFUSION,
JULEP, PTISAN, &c., and below.
=Tisane, Antimonial.= (Brera.) Lemonade, 2 pints; tartar emetic, 2 gr.;
sugar, q. s.
=Tisane, Antiscorbutic.= An infusion of buckbean and the fresh roots of
horseradish.
=Tisane, Antivenereal.= Various compound decoctions of sarsaparilla are
known by this name.
=Tisane of Arnica.= (P. Cod.) As elder flower tisane.
=Tisane of Arnica Flowers.= (P. Cod.) _Prep._ Arnica flowers, 1/2 oz.;
boiling water, 6 pints. Infuse half to an hour and filter through paper.
Prepare in the same manner saffron tisane.
=Tisane of Asparagus.= (P. Cod.) Asparagus root, 3/4 oz.; boiling water, 2
pints. Infuse 2 hours, and strain. Tisanes are prepared in the same way
from the roots of elecampane, comfrey, strawberries, rhatany, soap-wort,
spruce-fir buds, Peruvian bark, dulcamara and burdock root.
=Tisane of Bread.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM ALBUM. (P. Cod.) _Prep._ Prepared
hartshorn, 1 oz.; bread crumb, 2 oz.; gum Arabic, 1 oz.; water, sufficient
quantity to yield 5 pints; boil for 1/2 hour, strain through a coarse
sieve, and add white sugar, 6 oz.; orange-flower water, 1 oz.
=Tisane of Cassia.= (P. Cod.) _Prep._ Extract of cassia, 1 oz.; dissolve
in 5 pints of water at 140° F.
=Tisane, Common.= A decoction of pearl-barley and couch-grass, flavoured
with liquorice root.
=Tisane of Couch Grass.= (P. Cod.) _Prep._ Root of couch grass, sliced, 6
dr. Boil for 1/2 hour with water sufficient to yield 2 pints.
=Tisane of Elder Flowers.= (P. Cod.) _Prep._ Elder flowers, 1 dr.; boiling
water, 1-1/4 pint. Macerate for 1/2 hour, and strain.
=Tisane of Gentian.= (P. Cod.) _Prep._ Gentian, sliced, 1/2 oz.; cold
water, 5 pints. Infuse 4 hours, and strain. In the same manner prepare
tisanes of quassia, simaruba, and rhubarb.
=Tisane of Groats.= From groats, as tisane of pearl barley.
=Tisane of Guaiacum Wood.= (P. Cod.) _Prep._ Guaiacum shavings, 1-3/4 oz.
Boil for 1 hour with sufficient water to yield 2 pints, and strain.
=Tisane of Gum.= _Syn._ EAU DE GOMME. _Prep._ Bruised gum Arabic, 1 oz.;
water, 2-1/2 pints. Dissolve without heat, and strain.
=Tisane of Iceland Moss.= (P. Cod.) _Prep._ Just boil 2-1/2 dr. of Iceland
moss in a little water and throw away the first decoction, then wash the
remaining moss with cold water; then add a fresh quantity of water, and
boil for 1/2 hour, so as to obtain 2 pints.
=Tisane of Irish Moss.= (P. Cod.) _Prep._ Wash 90 gr. of carrageen in cold
water; then, after boiling ten minutes, add water in sufficient quantity
so as to yield 2 pints.
=Tisane of Liquorice.= (P. Cod.) _Prep._ Sliced liquorice, 1 oz.; boiling
water, 5 pints. Infuse 2 hours, and strain. Prepare in the same manner
(but infusing for 1/2 hour) tisanes from the dried leaves of borage,
wormwood, holy thistle, chicory, fumitory, ground ivy, pellitory, wild
pansy, soapwort, scabious, from the cones of the hop, aniseed, red-rose
leaves, lesser centaury tops, and linseed.
=Tisane of Mezereon.= (P. Cod.) _Prep._ Mezereon bark, 2 dr.; water, 2-1/2
pints; boil to 1-3/4 pint, and strain.
=Tisane of Orange Leaves.= (P. Cod.) _Prep._ Leaves of the orange tree,
1/2 oz.; boiling water, 5 pints; infuse 1/2 hour, and strain. Prepare in
the same manner tisanes from the leaves of wormwood, maiden-hair, hyssop,
balm, mint, and sage; and from the flowers of white mullein, chamomile,
red poppy, mallow, marshmallow, lime, coltsfoot, and violet.
=Tisane of Pearl Barley.= (P. Cod.) _Prep._ Wash 3/4 oz. of pearl barley
in cold water; strain off water, and boil in a sufficient quantity of
water, so as to yield 2 pints. Tisanes of groats and rice are made in the
same manner.
=Tisane, Pectoral.= An infusion of the roots of liquorice and marshmallow,
Canadian maidenhair, and the flowers of the red poppy and coltsfoot, in a
decoction of rice.
=Tisane of Rice.= (P. Cod.) Prepared in the same manner as tisane of pearl
barley.
=Tisane of Rice, with Lemon.= (Augustin.) _Prep._ Washed rice, 1 oz.;
water, 4 lbs.; boil, strain, add barley sugar, 1/2 dr.; lemon juice, 1 oz.
=Tisane of Roses with Milk.= (P. Cod.) _Prep._ Conserve of roses, 1 oz.;
new milk, 1 pint. Rub together, and strain.
=Tisane, Royal.= From senna, fresh chervil, and sulphate of soda, of each
4 dr.; aniseed and cinnamon, of each 1 dr.; 1 lemon, sliced; cold water,
1-3/4 pint; macerate for 24 hours, stirring occasionally, then press and
filter. Aperient.——_Dose._ A wineglassful, or more, repeated every
half-hour, until it operates.
=Tisane of Salep.= (P. Cod.) _Prep._ Boil 1 dr. of salep in 16 oz. of
water, and strain.
=Tisane of Senega.= (P. Cod.) _Prep._ Senega, 1 oz.; boiling water, 5
pints. Infuse for 2 hours, and strain. Prepare in the same manner tisanes
of the roots of marshmallow and valerian.
=Tisane of Sulphuric Acid.= (P. Cod.) LIMONADE SULFURÏQUE. _Prep._
Sulphuric acid (1·84), 72 minims; water, 4-1/2 pints; syrup, 10 oz. (by
weight); mix s. a. Prepare in the same manner nitric and phosphoric acid
lemonade; the first with acid of sp. gr. 1·42; the second with acid of sp.
gr. 1·45.
=Tisane of Tamarinds.= (P. Cod.) _Prep._ Pulp of tamarind, 1 oz.; boiling
water, 2 pints. Infuse 1/2 hour.
=Tisane, Tartaric.= (P. Cod.) _Prep._ Syrup of tartaric acid, 2 oz.;
water, 18 oz. Prepare in the same manner with their respective syrups,
lemonades of citric acid, gooseberries, cherries, and raspberries.
=TIS′SUE (Blis′tering).= See VESICANTS.
=TITA′NIUM.= A rare metal, discovered by Klaproth in 1794, and examined by
Wollaston in 1822. It is occasionally found at the bottom of the smelting
furnaces of iron works, in combination with nitrogen and cyanogen, under
the form of minute crystals, having a coppery lustre.
=TOAD-IN-THE-HOLE.= One to six ounces of flour, break the contents of one
egg, and stir in by degrees one pint of milk, taking care to keep the
mixture free from lumpiness. Place meat or ox kidney cut in slices in a
greased pie dish or tin; then pour the batter over the meat after adding a
pinch of salt, and let it bake for an hour to an hour and a quarter. The
batter should be allowed to stand before being cooked.
=TOAST (Essence of).= This is liquid burnt sugar or spirit colouring. Used
to make extemporaneous toast-and-water (3 or 4 drops to the glass), and to
flavour soups, gravies, &c.
=TOAST AND WATER.= Toast a crust of bread, taking care not to char it, and
put it into a pint of cold water, in a covered vessel. After standing half
an hour it will be ready for use.
=TOBAC′CO.= _Syn._ TABACUM (Ph. L., E., & D.), L.; TABAC, Fr. The prepared
leaf of _Nicotiana Tabacum_ (Linn.), or other species of the same genus.
The name was given to this herb by the Spaniards, because it was first
seen by them at Tabasco, or Tabaco, a province of Yucatan, in Mexico.
The tobacco of commerce is chiefly obtained from Virginia, and other parts
of the United States, and recently from Japan and California, but the
finest varieties are imported from Havannah and from the East. The plants
are gathered when mature, during hot dry weather, and are hung up in
pairs, in sheds, to dry. When sufficiently dry, the leaves are separated
from the stems, bound up in bundles, and these are formed into bales, or
packed in hogsheads, for exportation.
_Prep._ To impart to the dried leaves the characteristic odour and flavour
of tobacco, and to render them agreeable to smokers and snuffers, it is
necessary that they should undergo a certain preparation, or kind of
fermentation. If a fresh green leaf of tobacco be crushed between the
fingers, it emits merely the herbaceous smell common to most plants; but
if it be triturated in a mortar along with a very small quantity of
quicklime or caustic alkali, it will immediately exhale the peculiar odour
of manufactured tobacco. This arises from the active and volatile
ingredients being liberated from their previous combination, by the
ammonia developed by fermentation, or the action of a stronger base.
Tobacco contains a considerable quantity of chloride of ammonium, and
this substance, as is well known, when placed in contact with lime or
potassa, immediately evolves free ammonia. If we reverse the case, and
saturate the excess of alkali in prepared tobacco by the addition of any
mild acid, its characteristic odour entirely disappears. In the
preparation of tobacco previously to its manufacture for sale, these
changes are effected by a species of fermentation. Pure water, without any
addition, is quite sufficient to promote and maintain the perfect
fermentation of tobacco. The leaves soon become hot and evolve ammonia;
during this time the heaps require to be occasionally opened up and turned
over, lest they become too hot, take fire, or run into the putrefactive
fermentation. The extent to which the process is allowed to proceed
varies, for different kinds of snuff or tobacco, from one to three months.
_Qual., &c._ Tobacco is a powerful narcotic, sedative, and emetic; and is
also cathartic and diuretic; but the last in a weaker degree than either
squills or foxglove. Its action is violently depressing and relaxing,
producing fainting and even death, in comparatively small quantities.
Toxicologists rank it among the more active narcotico-acrid poisons; and
physicians, when they wish to produce sudden physical prostration, in
accidents or spasmodic diseases, order an enema of the infusion or smoke
of tobacco. Its deleterious properties depend on the presence of
narcotine, one of the most frightful vegetable poisons known, of which
ordinary Virginia tobacco contains from 6 to 7%.
“The chief sources of tobacco in Europe are Germany, Holland, Salonica,
Hungary, and Russia; in Asia, the principal are China, Japan, the East
Indies, Latakia, and other parts of Asiatic Turkey, Persia, Java, Syria,
and Manilla; in Africa, Algiers; in South America, Varinas, Brazil,
Uruguay, New Grenada, Paraguay, Cumana, and other fields are most
productive; while the great tobacco districts of North America are the
United States, Mexico, Cuba, Hayti, and Porto Rico. The extent to which
these and others are severally laid under contribution by the
manufacturers of this country is shown by the following partial analysis
of the imports of 1873 and 1874:”[239]
[Footnote 239: ‘British Manufacturing Industries,’ Sandford.]
+------------------------------------------+------------+------------+
| From | 1873. | 1874. |
+------------------------------------------+------------+------------+
| | lb. | lb. |
| Germany | 687,720 | 856,646 |
| Holland | 5,429,511 | 7,356,798 |
| France | 1,436,985 | 1,712,839 |
| Greece | 330,712 | 84,161 |
| Turkey | 1,430,572 | 696,132 |
| British India | 3,068,109 | 2,359,987 |
| Philippine Islands | 171,803 | 780,098 |
| China | 2,136,637 | 1,398,467 |
| Japan | 4,846,892 | 2,948,036 |
| Spanish West India Islands | 295,654 | 242,304 |
| New Grenada (United States of Columbia) | 2,199,885 | 1,617,573 |
| Argentine Republic | 340,787 | 663,940 |
| United States of America | 57,593,826 | 53,567,555 |
| Other countries | 1,404,640 | 1,890,679 |
| +------------+------------+
| | 81,382,733 | 76,175,215 |
+------------------------------------------+------------+------------+
Most of the so-called Havannah cigars which arrive in England are shipped
from German ports. It appears that a higher price is obtainable for dark
than for light-coloured cigars, the demand for the former being about
three times as large as for the latter. Unfortunately, however, owing in a
great measure to the partial failure of the tobacco crops of late years,
light-coloured tobacco is much more common than dark. In order, therefore,
to render the cigars made of light-coloured tobacco saleable at a higher
price, and also to improve the appearance of old and faded cigars, if we
are to believe a pamphlet recently published at Bremen, where there are
several of these manufactories, various infusions have of late been
prepared and largely sold, under the name of “Havanna brown,” “sap brown,”
and “condensed sauce.” All these preparations are now openly advertised,
and directions given for using them. None of these infusions contain
anything particularly injurious, most of them consisting of brown
vegetable dyes; nevertheless, they enable the manufacturer to give to
cigars made of old and faded leaves the appearance of good Havannah
cigars. A German paper states that if a piece of white blotting paper,
saturated with diluted sal ammoniac, is passed a few times lightly over
the cigar, the colouring matter, if any has been used, will come off on
it, whereas the natural brown of the tobacco leaf will remain.
=Tobacco Adulteration.=——The popular belief that bad cigars are made of
cabbage leaves is not justified by the last official report on tobacco
adulteration. This document contains a tabulated account of the seizures
of spurious tobacco made in the United Kingdom since 1864; and in the
whole paper there is no mention whatever of the much-suspected vegetable.
Its place in the black list is supplied by a variety of ingredients large
enough to rejoice the heart of any member of the Anti-Tobacco League. The
dishonest dealer in things smokeable is shown by the report to make use of
three different sorts of materials besides that which he professes to
employ. The first sort is required for the actual substance of the cigar;
the second for improving its outward appearance; and the third for
imparting to it what is supposed to be a better taste. In the former
category the favourite substances seem to be the leaves of the lime tree,
the husks of wheat and oats, cotton, yarn, and tonquin bean. But there are
numerous cases where the ingredients have been much more curiously
selected, and have included cocoa-nut fibre, small seeds, cotton, wood,
and bread. At one establishment 50 lbs. of ‘tobacco dust’ were found and
analysed, when it was shown to contain string, wood, nails, grindings of
tobacco-pipe, dirt, and all sorts of refuse. Another large class of
materials is apparently used for securing the adhesion and consistency of
the cigar when made. Amongst these starch is the most prominent; but it
includes gum and amidine, blue, gum Arabic, glue, glycerin, and essential
oils. The colour of the fabrication is the next thing to be attended to,
and for this purpose resort is had to yellow ochre, red sandalwood,
logwood, lampblack, and Venetian red. As for the flavour of the cigar, it
is varied to suit the most diverse tastes; but the usual object seems to
be to impart to it a pleasing sweetness of tone. Accordingly saccharine
matter, and especially treacle, is very largely pressed into the service.
For those who like a rather more decided taste, liquorice, salt, logwood,
glycerin, and aniseed are used. It is in Dublin where the latter
ingredient is most fashionable, while Edinburgh is fondest of treacle and
sugar, and East London is addicted to liquorice. (‘Pall Mall Gazette.’)
=Tobacco, British.= _Syn._ HERB TOBACCO; TABACUM ANGLICUM, SPECIES
STERNUTORIÆ, L. _Prep._ Take of thyme, marjoram, and hyssop, of each 2
oz.; betony and eyebright, 3 oz.; rosemary and lavender, of each 4 oz.;
coltsfoot, 1 lb.; mix, press them together, and cut the mass in imitation
of manufactured foreign tobacco. Some asthmatic subjects add 5 or 6 oz. of
stramonium or thorn-apple leaves; and others add 1/2 lb. of genuine
tobacco.
=Tobacco, Indian.= See LOBELIA.
=TOD′DY.= Obtained from various species of palms, by cutting off the end
of the flowering bud, and collecting the sap. Used, fresh, as a cooling
beverage; and, after fermentation, as an intoxicating one. Sweetened grog
is so called in Cornwall, and in some other parts of England.
=TOF′FY.= _Syn._ EVERTON TOFFY. A sweetmeat prepared by heating brown
sugar, in a saucepan or skillet, with about one half its weight of fresh
butter, for 15 to 20 minutes, or until a ‘little of it dropped into cold
water forms a lump that breaks crisply,’ it is then poured into a little
buttered tin mould.
=TOM′BAC.= An alloy consisting of copper, 16 lbs.; tin, 1 lb.; zinc, 1 lb.
Red tombac is composed of copper, 10 lbs.; zinc, 1 lb.
=TON′ICS.= Medicines that increase the tone of the muscular fibre, and
impart vigour to the system.
=TON′QUIN REMEDY.= _Syn._ PULVIS TRUNCHINENSIS, P. ALEXIPHARMICUS
SINENSIS, L. _Prep._ From valerian, 20 gr.; musk, 16 gr.; camphor, 6 gr.;
mix. Antispasmodic and alexiterial, in doses of 6 to 12 gr., in
hooping-cough, &c.; 1 dr., in hydrophobia, exanthemata, and mania.
=TOOTH′ACHE.= _Syn._ ODONTALGIA, L. This annoying affection frequently
arises from sympathy with a disordered stomach. In such cases a saline
purgative should be administered, and an emetic, if required. When cold is
the cause, an excellent remedy is a hot embrocation of poppy-heads,
followed by the use of flannel and diaphoretics. When it arises from a
hollow or decayed tooth, the best application is a piece of lint moistened
with creasote, or a strong spirituous solution of creasote, and closely
rammed into the cavity of the tooth. Laudanum, the essential oils of
cloves, caraway, and cajeput, and essence or tincture of pellitory of
Spain, are also used in the same way. To prevent the recurrence of the
latter kind of toothache, the cavity should be filled with an amalgam of
gold, or with mineral marmoratum, or some other good cement. In many
cases, chewing a piece of good ginger, or, still better, a small piece of
pellitory, will afford relief in a few minutes. The celebrated John Wesley
recommended a ‘few whiffs’ at a pipe containing a little caraway seed
mixed with the tobacco. A slight ‘shock’ from a voltaic battery will often
instantly remove the toothache after all other means have failed. See
DROPS, ESSENCE, TINCTURE, &c.
=TOOTH CEMENTS.= See DENTISTRY.
_Obs._ It is absolutely necessary for success that the teeth be well
cleaned out, and wiped dry, before applying any of the above stoppings or
cements.
=TO′PAZ.= See GEMS.
=TOR′MENTIL.= _Syn._ TORMENTILLÆ RADIX; TORMANTILLA (Ph. L. & E.), L. The
root or rhizome of _Potentilla Tormentilla_, It is astringent and
febrifuge, without being stimulant.——_Dose_, 20 to 60 gr.; in agues,
diarrhœa, &c.; also, formerly, in syphilis.
=TORTOISE-SHELL, to Polish.= Dip a soft linen rag into rouge powder, and
rub the tortoise-shell with it, and finish off with the hand.
Tortoise-shell combs will not lose their polish if they are rubbed with
the hand, after removal from the hair.
=TOUCH-NEEDLES.= See ASSAYING.
=TOUCH-WOOD.= See AMADOU.
=TOUS-LES-MOIS.= The fecula of the roots of _Canna edulis_ (Ph. D.);
intended as a substitute for arrow-root. To the naked eye, it closely
resembles the finest quality of potato-starch, but under the microscope
its granules are found to be oblong, oval, with a concentric structure,
and larger than those of the potato tuber.
[Illustration: Microscopic appearance of Tous-les-mois.]
=TOXICOL′OGY.= See POISON.
=TRAG′ACANTH.= See GUM.
=TRANSPA′′RENCIES.= Water-colour pictures on paper, linen, or calico, if
executed in non-opaque or glazing colours, may be converted into
transparencies by simply brushing over their backs with Canada balsam,
thinned down, when necessary, with a little oil of turpentine. For coarse
work, boiled oil may be employed.
=TRAPS, HOUSE.= With few exceptions, the endless varieties of traps
advertised for house-drains are all modifications of the older forms of
the syphon, the midfeather and the ball-trap. The syphon trap consists of
a bent tube with a deep curve, in which the water lies and acts as an
hydraulic valve.
The following conditions are essential for its proper action. The curve
must be of such a depth as to ensure a height of not less than 3/4 inch of
water always standing above the highest level of the water in the curve.
The outlet pipe attached to the trap should not be too small nor have too
sudden a fall as it leaves the trap, otherwise when ‘running full’ of
water, all the water will be sucked out of it by the pipe beyond, owing to
the too narrow bore and too perpendicular inclination of this latter.
The midfeather trap consists of a round or square box or receptacle, into
the upper part of which, on one side, an inlet pipe discharges, whilst at
a corresponding height on the opposite side there is an outlet pipe. The
upper part of the box is divided by a partition, which dips at least 3/4
inch below the surface of the water, always standing in the receptacle, at
the level of the outlet pipe. The principle, therefore, of the midfeather
is similar to the syphon trap. The receptacle is so arranged that any
heavy substances collected at the bottom can from time to time be removed.
A useful variety of the midfeather is ‘Dean’s patent drain-trap,’
manufactured by Edwards, of Ruabon.
The ball-trap is not in very general use. By this arrangement the drain is
trapped by means of a hollow ball, which rises with the water in the drain
until it is carried against and closes an orifice.
The common ball-trap is stated to be inefficient and unsatisfactory. The
facility with which it can be removed or placed out of gear often leads,
in the hands of careless servants, to the untrapping of the drain
altogether. A good description of common sink trap is Antel and Lock’s,
shown in the accompanying engraving, which explains itself.
[Illustration]
Amongst the circumstances that impair the efficiency of house-traps may be
included the neglect to allow the passage of water through them
sufficiently often, and with force enough to flush and cleanse the trap,
and renew the water in it. The results are, that the water becomes
saturated with sewage exhalations, which escape into and contaminate the
air in the house; and that the trap becomes either dry or choked up.
Another contingency to which house-traps are exposed when the drains are
made to form a continuous and disconnected system with the sewers, is that
of the water being sucked out of the trap, owing to the combined effect of
the pressure of sewer air and the aspirating power of the house, into
which the sewer-gas would then pass unchecked.
In our articles DRAINAGE and SINKS, we have pointed out the peril
attaching to the intimate connection between the house-drains and sewers,
and given in the former practical directions for its avoidance.
To rest in the belief that the danger can be removed (although the risk
may be slightly diminished) by the use of traps alone, is to entertain a
very false sense of security.
=TRAUMAT′IC BALSAM.= Compound tincture of benzoin is known by this name.
See TINCTURE.
=TRAUMAT′ICINE.= This article, as manufactured by the Gutta Percha
Company, is simply a solution of white and dry unmanufactured gutta percha
in bisulphuret of carbon. A small portion dropped on a wound, or raw
surface, almost instantly forms a pliable, waterproof, and air-tight
defensive covering to the part. The only objection to the preparation is
the fetid odour of the menstruum, which, however, is lost in a few
seconds, or may be obviated by employing chloroform as the solvent.
=TREA′CLE.= _Syn._ MOLASSES; THERIACA (B. P.), THERIACA, SACCHARI FÆX (Ph.
L. & E.), L. The viscid, brown, uncrystallisable syrup which drains from
moist sugar during its formation (molasses), and from the sugar-refining
moulds (sugar-house molasses). The last, according to Dr Ure, has
generally the sp. gr. 1·4, and contains about 75% of solid matter.
Treacle is more laxative than sugar, and always contains more or less free
acid. It is used as the vehiculum in some of the pill-masses of the Ph. L.
See SUGAR.
=Treacle, German.= _Syn._ THERIACA GERMANIÆ, L. An evaporated infusion or
decoction of juniper berries. It is sweet-tasted, aromatic, and diuretic.
=Treacle, Venice.= _Syn._ LONDON TREACLE; THERIACA, T. ANDROCHI, L. The
theriaca of the Ph. L. 1746 consists of 61 ingredients, and contains 1 gr.
of opium in 75 gr.; that of the Paris Codex consists of 72 ingredients,
and contains 1 gr. of opium in 72 gr.; that of the Ph. E. 1744 consists of
10 ingredients, and contains 1 gr. of opium in every 100 gr. It is
prepared as follows:——Take of serpentary root, 6 oz.; valerian and
contrayerva roots, of each 4 oz.; aromatic powder, 3 oz.; guaiacum resin,
castor, and nutmeg, of each 2 oz.; saffron and opium (dissolved in a
little wine), of each 1 oz.; clarified honey, 75 oz.; reduce all the dry
ingredients to fine powder, then mix them. The confections or electuaries
of catechu and opium are the representatives of the above polypharmic
compounds in the modern British Pharmacopœias.
=TRI-=, TRIS-. See NOMENCLATURE.
=TRIBASIC PHOSPHATE OF LIME.= _Syn._ TRICALCIC PHOSPHATE.
(Ca_{3}(PO_{4})_{2}.) Tricalcic phosphate occurs nearly pure in the
mineral known as OSLEOLITE. See CALCIUM PHOSPHATE for its artificial
preparation.
=TRIMETHYLAMINE.= _Syn._ TRIMETHYLIA.
{ CH_{3} }
C_{3}H_{9}N, or { CH_{3} } n.
{ CH_{3} }
An ammonia found in large quantities in the roe of the herring. It also
occurs in putrefying flour and urine, and is the ingredient which gives to
the _Chenopodium vulvaria_ its peculiar and disagreeable odour. It may
also be obtained by distilling ergot of rye with caustic potash.
Trimethylia is a volatile fluid, with a very pungent and unpleasant fishy
smell. It boils at about 41° F. It is metameric with propylamine.
=TRIPE.= This is the paunch, or first portion of the ruminant stomach of
the ox. It is nutritious and easy of digestion, except when very fat.
Letheby gives the following as its composition:
Nitrogenous matter 13·2
Fat 16·4
Saline matter 2·4
Water 68·0
——————
100·0
=Tripe, Fried in Batter.= “Tripe is cut into pieces about three inches
square, and dipped into a batter made of six ounces of flour, one
tablespoonful of oil, or one ounce of butter, and half a pint of tepid
water. Mix the oil with the flour, add the water by degrees, whip the
whites of two eggs to a stiff froth, stir into the batter, dip the tripe
in, throw it into a saucepan of boiling fat, let it fry three or four
minutes, take it out, and drain.”[240]
[Footnote 240: Tegetmeier’s ‘Scholar’s Handbook of Cookery, &c.,’ Macmillan
& Co.]
=TRIP′OLI.= _Syn._ ROTTEN STONE; ALANA, TERRA CARIOSA, L. A mineral
employed as a polishing powder, originally imported from Tripoli, in
Barbary. It consists almost entirely of silica, and is composed of the
skeletons of minute infusoria, the precise character of which is readily
distinguishable under the microscope.
=TRIS′MUS.= See TETANUS.
=TRITURA′TION.= _Syn._ TRITURA, TRITURATIO, L. The act of rubbing a solid
body to powder. See PULVERISATION.
=TRO′CHES.= See LOZENGES.
=TRO′NA.= A native carbonate of soda, found on the banks of the soda-lakes
of Sokena, in Africa.
=TROPH′AZOME.= A concentrated infusion of minced lean meat mixed with the
fluid obtained from the residuum after being heated for 20 minutes in a
water bath, and flavoured with salt and spices, the whole being, lastly,
simmered for a few minutes. Excellent for convalescents.
=TROUT.= The _Salmo furio_ of Linnæus, a highly-esteemed fish, found in
most of the rivers and lakes of this country. Other members of the genus
_salmo_ are also so called, as, _S. eriox_, the bull or grey trout; _S.
ferox_, the great grey or lake trout; _S. trutta_, the salmon trout, &c.
All of these varieties are in the finest condition from the end of May to
late in September.
The trout contains about 6 per cent. of fat. It is desirable to cook this
fish as soon as convenient after taking it.
=TRUSSING.= This is a well-known operation performed on poultry or game
previous to their being roasted or boiled. It simply consists in _drawing_
or removing the intestines and other objectionable parts. In doing this,
care must be taken to avoid rupturing the gall-vessel, which, if broken,
would impart a very bitter flavour to the poultry, &c., extremely
difficult of removal.
The cook should never take for granted that poultry or game, when it comes
from the dealer, has been thoroughly cleansed inside, out, in order to be
safe in this matter, should always make a point of cleansing it herself.
=TULUOLE.= _Syn._ TULUOL; BENZOENE (C_{7}H_{8}.) One of the hydrocarbons
homologous with benzol, with which it occurs associated with xylol and
isocumole, in the light oil obtained from the distillation of coal tar. It
is also one of the products of distillation of balsam of Tolu, and would
seem to be identical with the _retinaptha_ obtained by Pelletier and
Walter from the distillation of rosin. If oxidised by means of chromic
acid it yields benzoic acid. Its boiling point is 230° F., and its sp. gr.
0·87.
=TUMOURS.= Tumours, of which there are a great variety, are abnormal
growths, occurring in different parts of the body. Sir Jas. Paget
describes them as belonging to the class of overgrowths or hypertrophies,
their most constant distinctive characters being——1. Their deviations,
both in respect to size and shape, from the normal type of the body in
which they are found. 2. Their apparently inherent power and method of
growth. 3. Their development and growth being independent of those of the
rest of the body, and continuing with no evident purpose, when the rest of
the body is only being maintained in its normal type.
Tumours are divided by pathologists into _malignant_ and _innocent_ or
_benign_.
In the former division is included cancer. The most common varieties
belonging to the second division are _cutaneous cysts_, _fatty tumours_,
and _fibro-cellular tumours_. Cutaneous cysts, which may occur under any
part of the skin, are most frequently met with in the scalp. They mostly
arise from “the morbid growth of natural ducts or follicles, or by the
enormous growth of elementary structures, which increase from the form of
cells or nuclei, and become closed sacs with organised walls capable of
producing other growths.”[241]
[Footnote 241: ‘Chambers’ Cyclopædia.’]
The most commonly occurring tumour is the fatty one. It usually develops
itself on the bodies of persons of from forty to fifty years of age. It
seldom occasions inconvenience, and appears to be in no way prejudicial to
health; occasionally, however, these tumours are very unsightly and
unpleasant to look upon. The fat of which they are composed appears to
differ in no respect from ordinary human fat. The uterus is the principal
seat of the fibro-cellular tumour. It occurs also in the scrotum, the
bones and the subcutaneous tissue. These tumours sometimes attain great
size, and grow very rapidly. They are sometimes met with exceeding 40 lbs.
in weight. Certain polypi belong to this class of tumour.
A pseudo tumour is occasionally met within surgical practice, which may
often be mistaken for a real one, by the unwary or inexperienced
practitioner. This, which is known as a _phantom tumour_, appears to be
caused by muscular contraction. Sir Jas. Paget, writing on this subject,
says: “The abdominal muscles of hysterical women are most often affected,
sometimes with intentional fraud. The imitation of a tumour may be so
close as to require great tact for its detection; but chloroform, by
relaxing the muscles, dissipates the swelling. Occasionally the apparent
tumours move.
=TUNG′STEN.= W. _Syn._ TUNGSTENUM. WOLFRAMIUM, L. A heavy, grey, brittle
metal, discovered by Delhuyart.
The word _tungsten_, in Swedish, signifies ‘heavy stone’ (_tung-sten_),
the name being applied to the element because the source from which it is
obtained is a heavy mineral called _Wolfram_. Wolfram may be regarded as a
variable double tungstate of iron and manganese, and the tungsten occurs
in this. A native tungstate of copper has been discovered in Chili.
Tungsten is also found in the mineral _scheelite_, a tungstate of lime.
From this latter compound it may be procured by digesting finely-powdered
scheelite in hydrochloric acid. Chloride of calcium is formed, together
with insoluble tungstic acid. Upon heating the acid to bright redness in a
stream of hydrogen gas, the metal is left behind. When thus procured it is
of a dark-grey colour, but under the burnisher it may be made to assume a
metallic lustre. Metallic tungsten may also be obtained by the reduction
of tungstic acid, by means of charcoal at a white heat. When procured by
this method it is unaffected by hydrochloric or diluted sulphuric acid,
although it becomes reconverted into tungstic by the action of nitric
acid.
When tungsten occurs in the pulverulent form, it burns easily into
tungstic anhydride, when heated in the air; and is oxidised and dissolved
when boiled with the caustic alkalies or their carbonates in solution. An
alloy, possessed of extreme hardness, may be procured when tungsten is
combined with steel, in the proportion of 1 part of tungsten to 10 parts
of steel.
There are two known oxides of tungsten, viz. a dioxide (WO_{2}) and a
trioxide (WO_{3}). According to Wöhler there is a third oxide, having the
composition (WO_{2}WO_{3}).
=Dioxide, or Binoxide of Tungsten.= (WO_{2}.) This is an indifferent
oxide, and is obtained by treating tungstic acid with hydrogen at a low
red heat. It occurs as a brown powder, which absorbs oxygen greedily from
the air, and is dissolved by boiling with solution of caustic potash,
hydrogen being evolved and potassium tungstate being formed.
=Trioxide of Tungsten.= (WO_{3}.) _Syn._ TUNGSTIC ANHYDRIDE. This may be
obtained by decomposing wolfram with aqua regia, and evaporating to
dryness. The resulting tungstic acid is dissolved in ammonia, and the
ammonic tungstate purified by crystallisation. When this ammonic tungstate
is heated in the air, it loses ammonia and water, pure tungstic trioxide
being left behind.
=Tungstic Acid.= (H_{2}WO_{4}.) This compound may be procured by adding an
excess of hydrochloric acid to a boiling solution of the trioxide in any
of the alkalies. It occurs as a yellow powder.
=Tungstic Chloride.= (WCl_{6}.) This may be obtained by heating tungsten
in chlorine, when it sublimes in bronze-coloured needles, which are
decomposed by water. When gently heated in hydrogen, this chloride becomes
converted into tetrachloride (WCl_{4}).
=Bisulphide of Tungsten.= (WS_{2}.) By heating a mixture of bitungstate of
potash with sulphur, and washing the product with hot water, a black
crystalline substance, having the above composition, may be obtained,
resembling plumbago in appearance.
Of the salts of tungsten, tungstate of baryta has been used as a
substitute for white lead in painting; but the most important of these is
the tungstate of soda, described below. See also TUNGSTIC GLUE.
=TUNGSTATE OF SODIUM.= Na_{2}WO_{4}. This salt is used for rendering
linen, cotton, and other fabrics uninflammable; also as a substitute for
stannate of sodium as a mordant in dyeing. It may be prepared by adding 9
parts of finely-powdered tungsten to 8 parts of fused carbonate of sodium,
and continuing the heat for some time; on boiling the cooled and
pulverised mass with water, evaporating the filtrate to dryness, and
treating the residue with luke-warm water, the salt dissolves out. Muslin
steeped in a 20% solution of this salt is perfectly uninflammable when
dry, and the saline film left upon its surface is so smooth that the
muslin may be ironed without difficulty.
=TUNGSTIC GLUE.= Tungstic glue has been suggested as a substitute for hard
india rubber, as it can be used for all the purposes to which this latter
is applied. It is thus prepared:——Mix together a thick solution of glue
with tungstate of soda and hydrochloric acid. A compound of tungstic acid
and glue is precipitated, which, at a temperature of 86° to 104° F., is
sufficiently elastic to be drawn out into very thin sheets.
=TUNNY FISH, a la Parisienne.= As a rule tunny fish is very indigestible,
and may be described as “neither fish, flesh, fowl, nor good red herring;”
nevertheless, some of our readers may come across this fish, and will be
glad to hear of a way in which to make it palatable and digestible. Take
three or four pounds of fresh tunny fish, lard it with bacon as you would
veal; cook it gently in its own gravy for three hours, with salt, pepper,
sweet herbs, little onions, and a small quantity of water. When well
cooked, tunny fish makes a nice dish cold for breakfast.
=TUR′BOT.= The _Rhombus maximus_ (Cuvier), said to be the best, and
excepting the halibut, the largest of our flat fishes. Dutch turbots are
the most esteemed.
_Composition of the turbot_:
Nitrogenous matter 18·1 per cent.
Fat 2·9 ”
Saline matter 1·0 ”
Water 78·0 ”
——————
100·0
=TUR′KEY.= See POULTRY.
=TUR′MERIC.= _Syn._ CURCUMA (Ph. L. & D.), L. The rhizome of _Curcuma
longa_. The best is imported from Ceylon. It is stimulant and carminative,
but is chiefly used in dyeing yellow, and as an ingredient in curry
powder; also as a test for alkalies. It gives a fugitive golden yellow
with wold, and an orange tinge to scarlet. It dies wool and silk,
mordanted with common salt, or sal ammoniac, a fugitive yellow.——_Dose_,
10 to 30 gr. See CURCUMINE.
_Composition of an average sample of Curcuma longa_:
Water 14·249
Curcumin 11·000
Turmeric 12·075
Volatile oil 1·000
Gum 8·113
Starch 3·627
Extractive 3·388
Woody fibre 46·548
Ash, included in above weights [5·463]
————————
100·000
Under the microscope turmeric presents a very characteristic structure,
viz. “a cellular tissue containing large, loose, yellow cells, with here
and there small, but very distinct, starch granules, similar in shape and
size to those of _Curcuma arrowroot_, and some woody fibre and dotted
ducts. The yellow granular cells can readily be identified whenever they
occur.[242]
[Footnote 242: Dr Winter Blyth.]
=TURNBULL’S BLUE.= _Syn._ FERRICYANIDE OF IRON; FERRI FERRICYANIDUM, L.
_Prep._ Precipitate a solution of protosulphate of iron with another of
red prussiate of potash (ferricyanide of potassium.)
_Obs._ This is a variety of Prussian blue, remarkable for its beautiful
colour, and may be distinguished from the ordinary Prussian blue of
commerce by its action on the yellow prussiate of potash. When boiled in a
solution of the latter it is decomposed, a portion is dissolved, and a
grey residue remains.
=TURNER’S YELLOW.= See YELLOW PIGMENTS.
=TURNIP.= The _Brassica napus_. This vegetable possesses but little
nutritive value, as will be inferred from the annexed description of its
composition given by Letheby:
Nitrogenous matter 1·2
Starch 5·1
Sugar 2·1
Salt 0·6
Water 91·0
——————
100·0
Turnips should always be thoroughly cooked, otherwise they are very liable
to produce indigestion.
=TURN′SOLE.= See LITMUS.
=TUR′PENTINE.= _Syn._ TURPENTIN; TEREBINTHINA. (Ph. L., E., D.), L. “An
oleo-resin flowing from the trunk, the bark being removed, of _Pinus
palustris_ (pitch or swamp pine) and _Pinus Tœda_ (loblolly or old field
pine).” (Ph. L.) “From _Pinus sylvestris_ (the Scotch fir).” (Ph. D.)
“From various species of _Pinus_ and _Abies_.” (Ph. E.) It is viscid, of
the consistence of honey, and transparent; by distillation it is resolved
into oil of turpentine, which passes over into the receiver; and into
resin, which remains in the still.
=Turpentine, Bordeaux.= _Syn._ FRENCH TURPENTINE. From the _Pinus
maritima_, or cluster pine. Solidifies with magnesia. (Lindley.)
=Turpentine, Chian.= _Syn._ CHIO TURPENTINE, CYPRUS T., SCIO T.;
TEREBINTHINA CHIA (Ph. L. & E.), L. “An oleo-resin flowing from the
incised trunk of _Pistachia terebinthus_” (Linn.). (Ph. L.) It is pale,
aromatic, fragrant, and has a warm taste, devoid of acrimony or
bitterness. It is much adulterated. A factitious article (terebinthina
Chia factitia), made as follows, is also very generally sold for
it:——Black resin, 7 lbs.; melt, remove the heat, and stir in of balsam of
Canada, 7 lbs.; oils of fennel and juniper, of each 1 fl. dr.
=Turpentine, Venice.= _Syn._ TEREBINTHINA VENETA (Ph. E.), L. Liquid
resinous exudation from the _Abies Larix_, or larch tree. It is sweeter
and less resinous-tasted than common turpentine, but is now scarcely ever
met with in trade. That of the shops is wholly a factitious article, made
as follows:——Black resin, 48 lbs.; melt, remove the heat, and add of oil
of turpentine, 2 galls.
=TUR′PETH MINERAL.= Basic sulphate of mercury.
=TURRET OF CHESTNUTS.= A ‘Turret of Chestnuts’ (_Tourelle de Marrons_) is
the name of a most toothsome dish. Take rather over two pounds of
chestnuts, peel, and cook them in water, with a pinch of salt therein,
then put them, whilst hot, into a colander. Beat into a paste, with a
little milk, sugar, and vanille. Put the mixture into a mould in the form
of a turret, about an inch thick; when quite firm, open the mould and turn
out the contents carefully, glaze with syrup. Fill the middle with
whipped cream, flavoured with chocolate or vanille.
=TUR′TLE.= _Syn._ GREEN TURTLE. The _Testuda midas_ (Linn.), a chelonian
reptile, highly esteemed for its flesh, eggs, and fat.
=TUSSILA′GO.= See COLTSFOOT.
=TU′TENAG.= A name sometimes applied to German silver; at others, to pale
brass and bell metal. “In India zinc sometimes goes under this name.”
(Brande.)
=TUT′TY.= _Syn._ TUTIA, TUTHIA, IMPURE OXIDE OF ZINC. The sublimate that
collects in the chimneys of the furnaces in which the ores of zinc are
smelting. Drying; astringent. Used in eye-waters and ointments.
=TYPE METAL.= An alloy formed of antimony, 1 part; lead, 3 parts; melted
together. Small types are usually made of a harder composition than large
ones. A good stereotype metal is said to be made of lead, 9 parts;
antimony, 2 parts; bismuth, 1 part. This alloy expands as it cools, and,
consequently, brings out a fine impression.
=TYPHOID FEVER.= _Syn._ GASTRIC FEVER, ENTERIC or INTESTINAL FEVER, LOW
FEVER, COMMON CONTINUED FEVER, INFANTILE REMITTENT, ENDEMIC FEVER,
PYTHOGENIC FEVER. Although the term ‘typhoid’ expresses the fact that this
particular form of fever resembles typhus, the researches of later
pathologists, including Perry, Lombard, Stewart, and Jenner, have
satisfactorily demonstrated that the two diseases are altogether distinct.
“Typhus and typhoid fevers differ,” says Sir Thomas Watson, “notably and
constantly in their symptoms and course, in their duration, in their
comparative fatality, in the superficial markings which respectively
belong to them, and which warrant our classing them among the exanthemata,
in the internal organic changes with which they are severally attended,
and (what is the most important and the most conclusive) in their exciting
causes.”
About the beginning of the present century, the French practitioners,
after several _post-mortem_ examinations, were the first to point out that
the specifically distinguishing feature of this disease was an internal
exanthema. This salient characteristic, coupled with the highly infectious
nature of typhoid fever, have caused it to be defined by pathologists as
“a contagious eruptive fever occurring on the mucous membrane of the
intestines, and therefore removed from view.”
The morbid appearance presented by the intestinal mucous membrane, varies
with the time that elapses between the period of seizure and death. If the
patient dies within the week, the follicles on the membrane present a
thickened appearance, and are raised above it, whilst they are seen to be
filled with a yellowish, cheesy-looking substance. The result of these
details is to give the bowels the appearance of being covered with
pustules.
When death has occurred at a later period ulceration more or less
extensive has been observed to have set in.
The influence of age in predisposing to typhoid fever is forcibly
illustrated in the following table extracted from Dr Walter Blyth’s
‘Dictionary of Practical Hygiène’:
Years
of Age. Per cent.
Under 5 0·98
From 5 to 9 9·44
” 10 ” 14 18·16
” 15 ” 19 26·86
” 20 ” 24 19·69
” 25 ” 29 10·15
” 30 ” 34 5·36
” 35 ” 39 3·40
” 40 ” 44 2·09
” 45 ” 49 1·08
” 50 ” 54 0·60
” 55 ” 59 0·33
” 60 ” 64 0·33
” 65 ” 69 0·08
” 70 ” 79 1·33
Dr Murchison asserts that those under thirty are more than four times as
liable to be attacked by typhoid fever as persons over that age. The
practical bearing of the above figures is obvious. Typhoid patients should
only be nursed by the middle aged.
The season of the year also exercises an influence over the development
and spread of this disease. In most countries it prevails with the
greatest violence, and is most general, in Autumn, and much more
frequently follows a very hot and dry summer than a damp one. The carriers
of the typhoid poison are the alvine and possibly the cutaneous and other
excretions. The disease may therefore be conveyed by contact with the
hands or skin of an infected patient, by his urine, by his body linen, the
bed clothes, or by dissemination from these into the surrounding air. But
the most fertile and unquestionable cause of propagation is the
contamination of drinking water by matter derived from the fœcal
discharges of typhoid patients, which having soaked into the soil from the
privy into which they had found their way, filtered from thence into a
neighbouring well, or by means of drains proceeding from a privy or
cesspool, into a stream. We can easily understand that the disease when
traced to potable water, should always assume so virulent and frequently
fatal a character. The fever poison is thus directly conveyed into the
stomach, and hence easily reaches the intestines, whence the disease
originates. This will also account for the very small quantity of infected
water which it has found communicates the disease.
The outbreak of typhoid fever in Marylebone, in 1874, which attacked some
500 persons, was traced to the milk vended by a certain company; this milk
having been placed in cans that had merely been washed out and cooled with
water obtained from a well into which it was discovered the excreta from
a typhoid patient had percolated from an adjoining privy. After the
statement of these facts, the thorough and efficient disinfection of all
the excretions, immediately they leave the body of the patient, as well as
of his body and bed linen, mattresses, &c., and also of the sick
apartment, will be obvious.
The best method of effecting this will be to follow the instructions given
by Dr William Budd, for the prevention of the propagation of this disease,
which are as follows:
“The means by which typhoid fever may be prevented from spreading are very
simple, very sure, and their cost, next to nothing.
“They are founded on the discovery that the poison by which this fever
spreads is almost entirely contained in the discharges from the bowels.
“These discharges infect (1) the air of the sick room; (2) the bed and
body linen of the patient; (3) privy and the cesspool, or the drains
proceeding from them.
“In these various ways, including the contamination of drinking water,
already described, the infection proceeding from the bowel discharges
often spreads the fever far and wide. The one great thing to aim at,
therefore, is to disinfect these discharges on their very escape from the
body, and before they are carried from the sickroom. This may be perfectly
done by the use of disinfectants. One of the best is made of green
copperas.
“This substance, which is used by all shoemakers, is very cheap, and may
be had everywhere. A pound and a half of green copperas to a gallon of
water is the proper strength. A teacupful of this liquid put into the
night-pan every time before it is used by the patient renders the bowel
discharge perfectly harmless. One part of Calvert’s liquid carbolic acid
in fifty parts of water is equally efficacious.
“To disinfect the bed and body linen, and bedding generally, chloride of
lime, or Macdougal’s, or Calvert’s powder is more convenient.
“These powders should be sprinkled by means of a common dredger on soiled
spots on the linen, and about the room to purify the air.
“All articles of bed and body linen should be plunged, immediately on
their removal from the bed, into a bucket of water containing a
tablespoonful of chloride of lime, or Macdougal’s or Calvert’s powder, and
should be boiled before being washed; a yard of thin white gutta percha,
placed beneath the blanket, under the breech of the patient, by
effectually preventing the discharges from soaking into the bed is a great
additional safeguard. The privy or closet, and all drains communicating
with it, should be flushed twice daily with the green copperas liquid, or
with carbolic acid diluted with water.[243]
[Footnote 243: See SPOROKTON.]
“In towns and villages where the fever is already prevalent, the last
rule should be put in force for all the houses, whether there be fever in
them or not, and for all public drains.
“In the event of death, the body should be placed as soon as possible in a
coffin sprinkled with disinfectants. Early burial is on all accounts
desirable.
“As the hands of those attending on the sick often become unavoidably
soiled by the discharges from the bowels, they should be frequently
washed.
“The sick room should be kept well ventilated day and night.
“The greatest possible care should be taken with regard to the drinking
water. When there is the slightest risk of its having become tainted with
fever poison, water should be got from a pure source, or should at least
be boiled before being drunk.
“Immediately after the illness is over, whether ending in death or
recovery, the dresses worn by the nurses should be washed or destroyed,
and the bed and room occupied by the sick should be thoroughly
disinfected. These are golden rules.
“Where they are neglected the fever may become a deadly scourge; where
they are strictly carried out it seldom spreads beyond the person first
attacked.”
No part of the globe appears to be exempt from the visitations of typhoid
fever, since it occurs not only in all the older countries of Europe and
Asia and Africa, but in those also included in the North and South
American Continents, as well as in Australia, Tasmania, and New Zealand.
It would appear also to have prevailed in the earliest ages, since it is
evidently alluded to in the works of Hippocrates, Galen, and others. Later
writers, including Sydenham and Hoffman, also constantly refer to it under
a different name.
Pathologists differ as to the time that this disease lies dormant in the
system before developing itself. Some practitioners contend that the usual
period is from ten to fourteen days, whilst others think it is much less
than this, and, in some instances, that it may not exceed one or two days.
The late Dr Murchison entertained the latter opinion. The symptoms, when
they show themselves, are as follows:——An irritable condition of the
stomach, accompanied by sickness or vomiting; pain, with more or less
tenderness, about the abdomen; sometimes the patient suffers from great
constipation, at others from diarrhœa; he also experiences great
prostration of strength, has a feeble pulse, and a brown furred tongue; he
is extremely restless, and at night frequently delirious; the lower limbs
are frequently cold; he passes but little urine, and that of an offensive
smell; the stools are dark, offensive, and very frequently bloody, this
latter being a very characteristic accompaniment of typhoid fever.
Bleeding from the nose sometimes occurs. The perspiration has a sour and
fetid odour. After seven or eight days, small rose-coloured spots or
_petechiæ_ make their appearance on the skin.
_Treatment._——The abdomen should be leeched, and mustard poultices
applied. If not too prostrated, the patient should be given a hot bath;
but if he be not sufficiently strong to venture upon this, ablution of the
whole of the body with hot water and soap should be had recourse to, the
operation being performed by means either of a sponge or a flannel.
An effervescing draught, consisting of twenty grains of carbonate of
ammonia, dissolved in water, to which a tablespoonful of lemon-juice
should be added, ought to be administered, and drunk whilst effervescing,
every three or four hours. The diet should consist of beef tea, nutritious
broth, milk, and eggs.
The necessity of thorough ventilation of the patient’s apartment, together
with the methods of disinfection of the bodily discharges, the linen, &c.,
have been already emphasised in the directions given by Dr Budd for the
prevention of the propagation of this fever.
It is, perhaps, needless to state that the outline of treatment given
above is intended only for adoption by the emigrant, or of any one so
unfortunately situated with regard to locality as to be unable to secure
the services of a medical practitioner. Where these are obtainable the
patient or his friends should use all speed in procuring them.
_Horses._——Horses are occasionally attacked with typhoid fever, the
symptoms of which bear a general resemblance to those which characterise
the disease in the human subject. The appearances presented after death
are also very similar, particularly in the lesions observable in the
mucous membrane of the intestines. As in man, the disease is greatly
aggravated by insanitary surroundings and depressing external agencies,
and by the animals partaking of water containing decaying organic matters.
Upon the commencement of the attack give a few doses of calomel or
laudanum, or of tincture of aconite, and if the bowels are costive two or
three drachms of aloes, afterwards keeping up the laxative effect by mild
clysters and mashes. Afterwards administer, three or four times a day, a
drachm each of chlorate of potash and chloride of ammonium, adding to
these an ounce of oil of turpentine or ether, or sweet spirit of nitre, if
the animal exhibit dulness or weakness. If there is tenderness or pain
about the abdomen, apply hot fomentations constantly, and should there be
much flatulence give occasional drenches of ammonia, carbonate of ammonia,
or whiskey and water.
The food of the animal must be nutritive and generous. He should be kept
in a loose box, his legs should be bandaged in flannel, and warm rugs
should envelop his body. Rest and quiet are essential. During
convalescence let him have small doses of gentian, chloride of iron, with
ale.[244]
[Footnote 244: Finlay Dun.]
=TYPHUS FEVER.= This fever is known under various names, such as SPOTTED
TYPHUS, JAIL FEVER, SHIP FEVER, CAMP FEVER, MILITARY FEVER, IRISH AGUE,
FAMINE FEVER, BRAIN FEVER, PESTILENTIAL FEVER, MALIGNANT FEVER, OCHLOTIC
FEVER, TYPHO-RUBEOLOID.
“1. Typhus prevails for the most part in great and wide-spread epidemics.
“2. The epidemics appear during seasons of general scarcity and wants, or
amidst hardships and privations arising from local causes, such as
warfare, commercial failures, and strikes among the labouring population.
The statement that they always last for three years and then subside is
erroneous.
“3. During the intervals of epidemics, sporadic cases of typhus occur,
particularly in Ireland, and in the large manufacturing towns of Scotland
and England.
“4. Although some of the great epidemics of this country have commenced in
Ireland, and spread thence to Britain, appearing first in those towns on
the west coast of Britain where there was the freest intercourse with
Ireland, it is wrong to imagine that all epidemics have commenced in
Ireland, or that typhus is a disease essentially Irish. The disease
appears wherever circumstances favorable to its development are present.
“5. In many epidemics typhus has been associated with relapsing fever, and
the relative proportion of the two fevers has varied greatly.
“6. From the earliest times, typhus has been regarded as a disease of
debility, forbidding depletion, and demanding support and stimulation.
“7. The chief exception to the last statement originated in the erroneous
doctrines taught in the early part of this century, according to which the
disease was looked upon as symptomatic of inflammation or congestion of
internal organs.
“8. The success believed at one time to follow the practice of venesection
was only apparent. It was due to the practice, for the most part, having
been resorted to in cases of relapsing fever and acute inflammations, and
to the result having been compared with those of the treatment by
stimulation of the much more mortal typhus.
“9. Although typhus fever varies in its severity and duration at different
times, and under different circumstances, there is no evidence of any
change in its type or essential characters. The typhus of modern times is
the same as that described by Fracastorius and Cordames. The period during
which epidemic fever was said to present an inflammatory type was that in
which relapsing fever was most prevalent, and the times in which the type
has been described as adynamic have been those in which relapsing fever
has been scarce or absent.” (Murchison.)
In the article ‘Typhoid fever’ it has been stated that its propagation was
mainly due, and had been very clearly traced, to the drinking of water
contaminated by the alvine discharges of typhoid patients; in the
dissemination of typhus, on the contrary, the air in the neighbourhood of
the infected person appears to be the great medium for the conveyance of
the disease, the poison, it is conceived, being disseminated into the
surrounding atmosphere from the surface of the body or the lungs of the
patient, or from the cloths, body linen, &c., worn and discarded by him.
Hence it is we find, as we should expect, in the past no less than in the
present, that the spread and degree of virulence of the malady have always
been associated with overcrowding and bad ventilation. Although amongst
the causes that predispose and induce susceptibility to its attacks, as
shown above, are poverty and consequent deficiency of food and clothing,
and squalor, it has been demonstrated that, with all these unfavorable
conditions, patients may often recover from typhus provided they are
supplied with a sufficiency of fresh air.
The fact that of late years typhus has rarely visited the inmates of our
prisons, barracks, or shops, and that their comparative immunity from it
has been coincident with improved ventilation and the avoidance of
overcrowding, can lead to no other deduction than that previous to this
reform these sanitary conditions were altogether neglected. We may narrate
some of these outbreaks of typhus that have taken place previous to the
application of hygienic principles to the treatment of the disease. During
an assize held at Cambridge in 1522, the disease which had broken out
amongst the prisoners, spread to the justices, the bailiffs, and other
officers, as well as to many people frequenting the court-house, with the
result that many of those so seized died.
Another outbreak of a very malignant character occurred at Exeter in 1586.
Some Portuguese were captured at sea, and (the words of the old historian
who records the fact clearly indicate the cause of the virulent nature of
the malady) were “cast into the deep pit and _stinking dungeon_.” When
brought into court they imparted the contagion to those around them. The
judge and eleven out of the twelve jurymen who were thus attacked died,
whilst the disease spread through and devastated the whole country.
A fourth case is recorded by Howard “at the Lent assizes in Taunton in
1730. Some prisoners who were brought there from Ivilchester Jail infected
the court, and Lord Chief Baron Pengelly, Sir James Shepherd, serjeant,
John Pigot, Esq., sheriff, and some hundreds besides, died of the jail
distemper.”
Another eruption, which broke out during an assize held at the Old Bailey
in 1750, resulted in the contraction of the disease by the Judge, the
Lord Mayor, and the Alderman, and caused the death of forty persons who
were present in the close and narrow court-house during the judicial
proceedings. One circumstance recorded in connection with this last attack
needs no comment. It is to the effect that “a hundred prisoners were put
into two rooms measuring fourteen feet by eleven feet, and seven feet
high.” The instances above quoted explain why it was this disease acquired
the name of _jail fever_.
During the present century six different epidemics of typhus have broken
out amongst the convicts on board the Toulon Galleys. They occurred in
1820, 1829, 1833, 1845, 1855, and 1856. Although the above statement of
facts indisputably points to the intimate connection existing between the
prevalence and violent character of typhus and overcrowding, and
consequent contamination and vitiation of the air breathed by the patient,
it is still a moot point with pathologists whether the disease can be
generated _de novo_ by these conditions, or whether they merely assist to
disseminate and intensify it. Dr Parkes, writing on this subject,
says:——“With reference to the particular kind of fever in Metz, it may be
noticed that an important argument against the production of exanthematic
typhus from simple overcrowding has been drawn from the experience both of
Metz and Paris. In both places during the sieges there was overcrowding,
wretchedness, and famine, particularly at Metz; yet, as pointed out by
Professor Chauffard to the Académie de Médicine, there was scarcely any or
no typhus, as there had been in the wars of the first Napoleon. There was
typhus in the German besieging force, but so strict was the blockade that
it was not imported into Metz, and was not generated there.”[245]
[Footnote 245: Blyth.]
The mortality which has been caused in large armies by the ravages of
typhus has been enormous. During the ‘thirty years’ warfare that desolated
Germany from 1619 to 1648, innumerable soldiers fell victims to it, the
Bavarian army alone having lost 20,000 men from this cause. Typhus also
committed appalling havoc among the legions of the first Napoleon, the
Bavarian contingent of the French army in the Campaign in 1812, lost
nearly 26,000 men from this cause; whilst in Mayence 25,000 of Napoleon’s
soldiers in garrison perished from the same cause in six months. More
lately, viz. during the Crimean campaign (in 1856), typhus slew more than
17,000 French soldiers.
It frequently infested the German armies during the Franco German war of
1869-70, and committed great havoc both amongst the hosts of Russia and
Turkey in the late war between those countries.
When we turn to the civil population, we find that typhus has been no
less ruthless, and has slain its myriads of these also. Confining our
attention to our own country, we find it to have especially devastated
Ireland, which has suffered from no less than eleven violent outbreaks of
typhus within the last 130 years.
In one of these visitations, viz. that of 1840, 80,000 people are
estimated to have died from the disease. The largest recorded epidemic of
typhus within our islands during the present century was that of 1846. It
extended over the whole of the British islands, and the number of persons
attacked by it were nearly 1,400,000, out of which 1,000,000 occurred in
Ireland. “The Irish flocked to England in thousands, bringing the
pestilence with them. It therefore was extremely prevalent in Liverpool,
no less than 10,000 persons dying of typhus in that city.”[246] The latest
outbreaks in England have been in 1862 and 1869; they were principally
confined to London.
[Footnote 246: Blyth.]
Dr Murchison says that 14,000 persons were admitted to the London Fever
Hospital during the two epidemics, and that amongst them a small number
only were Irish.
All European countries, as well as North America and some parts of Asia,
suffer from the ravages of this alarming disease. Africa, however, as well
as Australia and New Zealand, are said to be exempt from it.
_Symptoms._——The symptoms of typhus are thus described by Dr
Murchison:——“More or less sudden invasion, marked by rigors or chilliness;
frequent compressible pulse; tongue furred, and ultimately dry and brown;
bowels in most cases constipated; skin warm and dry; a rubeloid rash
appearing between the fourth and seventh days, the spots never appearing
in successive crops, at first slightly elevated, and disappearing on
pressure, but after the second day persistent, and often becoming
converted into true petechiæ; great and early prostration; heavy flushed
countenance; injected conjunctivæ; wakefulness and obtuseness of the
mental faculties, followed, at the end of the first week, by delirium,
which is sometimes acute and noisy, but oftener low and wandering;
tendency to stupor and coma, tremors, subsultus, and involuntary
evacuations, with contracted pupils. Duration of the fever from ten to
twenty-one days, usually fourteen. In the dead body no specific lesion,
but hyperæmia of all the internal organs, softening and disintegration of
the heart and voluntary muscles, hypostatic congestion of the lungs,
atrophy of the brain, and œdema of the pia mater, are common.”
_Treatment._——The following remarks, bearing on this branch of the
subject, are suggested for adoption by the non-medical reader, in the
event of his being precluded by circumstances from calling in the aid of
the medical practitioner. The most important points to be observed are the
isolation of the patient and the thorough ventilation of his apartment by
the continuous admission into it of fresh air without stint or hindrance.
Dr Parkes recommends the patient to be put in the top room of the house or
hospital, since there is strong evidence to show that the contagious virus
is volatile and ascends through the atmosphere.
The forms of disinfection best suited for adoption in this disease,
together with the method of employing them, will be found fully described
in the article ‘DISINFECTANTS,’
The body of the patient should also be frequently sponged with Condy’s
fluid, properly diluted, or covered with olive oil, to which has been
added a small quantity of carbolic acid.
As internal remedies, dilute hydrochloric or nitro-hydrochloric acids have
been highly commended. Chlorate of potash, in large doses, was formerly
much employed.
These remedies may be supplemented by the use of saline medicines,
sudorifics, and moderate purgatives. The diet should consist largely of
milk and water, beef tea, broth, and such like digestible and nutritious
food.
=UDDER, Inflammation of.= _Syn._ GARGET MAMMITIS. Amongst domestic
animals, cows are the most frequently subject to this affection. It is
most common amongst those cows that have lately calved or have been
thoroughly milked. Heifers and even young cows that have never had a calf,
however, are not exempt from it, and occasionally suffer from its attacks.
The inflammation varies in intensity, in some cases only showing itself in
a dryness, tenseness, heat and tenderness of the skin of the udder, whilst
in others it is much more serious, and extends to the interior parts and
vessels; in the latter case, giving rise to hard lumps amongst the softer
texture of the udder.
Inflammation of the udder appears to result from various
causes——indigestion, over driving, the too long retention of the milk in
the udder, and cold; it is also very frequently associated with murrain,
rheumatism, and swelling of the joints.
_Treatment._——If the disease be constitutional, as indicated by the
suddeness of the attack, the best course will be to administer at once a
good dose of Epsom or Glauber salts combined with a little ginger, and to
give copious doses of nitre. A modified form of this treatment should be
kept up for some little time by means of gentle aperients, and smaller
doses of nitre. In the milder form of inflammation, viz. in that confined
to the exterior of the udder, it will be best to have recourse to spirit
lotions or refrigerant applications, such as ice water, or a mixture of
chloride of ammonium and nitre applied immediately after mixing with
water. The udder should be kept constantly cool by means of these. When
the inflammation is deeper seated, as evidenced by the presence of lumps
in the udder, the continuous application of warm water is advisable.
Whether the cold or hot treatment be indicated, it should be diligently
kept up for a day at least. In the adoption of either the cold or hot
local remedies, above specified, they should be combined with some means
of support (by the agency of a proper bandage) to the udder. It is also
important to have the milk removed every three or four hours; if the
milking operation cause pain, a syphon should be used. The hard lumps will
be found to disperse best under gentle friction applied by the hand twice
a day, for an hour each time, the hand being previously anointed with
lard. When the surface pits or becomes soft, and very hot, it may be
assumed that suppuration has set in, in which case the confined pus must
be liberated by means of the lancet.
=ULCERATED SORE THROAT.= This form of sore throat, in which ulcers develop
themselves upon the tonsils, is a very frequent accompaniment of
scarlatina, syphilis, and other diseases, in which cases to prescribe the
method of treatment would be beyond our province. For ordinary ulcerated
sore throat arising from cold, chronic inflammation of the part, or a low
state of health, the best course will be to gargle the throat four or five
times daily with either of the following gargles: 1. Alum, 30 gr.;
infusion of rose, 6 oz. 2. Sulphate of zinc, 30 gr.; distilled water, 6
oz. 3. Hydrochloric acid, 1 dr.; water, 6 oz. Should these fail, touch the
ulcers every morning with a solution of nitrate of silver, containing ten
grains of the nitrate to an ounce of distilled water.
=ULCERS.= These are open sores, mostly accompanied by a discharge of pus,
or serous matter. They differ from ordinary wounds by the edges showing no
disposition to unite. When they extend or deepen, it is by a process of
absorption; while they heal by granulation, whereby they become filled up
with little granular growths of flesh. Ulcers may appear on all parts of
the body, but they most frequently attack the legs and arms.
In enfeebled states of the body, wounds, boils, and abscesses may
degenerate into ulcers; they are also a consequence of enlarged or
varicose veins, or the result of some specific poison in the system.
Ulcers may be classed into simple, irritable, indolent, and specific.
_Treatment._——When an ordinary wound or sore shows a disinclination to
heal, but on the contrary, extends or deepens, it should be poulticed with
bread and water or linseed meal. Should these remedies be ineffectual, an
old fashioned but useful one, viz. a carrot poultice, may be applied. When
the ulceration is irritable or painful, the poultices may be supplemented
by the frequent use of a lotion consisting of four parts of water to one
of tincture of opium, or of a warm decoction of poppy heads applied by
means of a linen rag. Filling the cavity with prepared chalk has been
recommended.
It sometimes happens that during poulticing, _proud flesh_ may form in an
ulcer. When this is the case, a little sugar in powder may be sprinkled
over the unhealthy excrescence, or some red precipitate ointment be
applied to it. Taking care not to use too much of either. When the ulcer
has a bad or fetid odour, it should be washed with a lotion composed of
one part of solution of chlorinated soda to sixteen parts of water; or it
may be sprinkled over with charcoal powder; or with a mixture of starch
and salicylic acid. The best application to bad smelling ulcers caused by
varicose veins is a lotion consisting of nitric acid considerably diluted
with water. Directions are given for the treatment of varicose veins,
under VARIX, further on. If the veins be ulcerated, the ulcers should be
dressed with acetate of lead ointment previous to the application of the
bandage. Very irritable ulcers are often greatly relieved by the gentle
application to them of lunar caustic, and indolent ones by dressing with
yellow basilicon ointment, or by the judicious use of black wash. The
general health should be attended to by the administration of tonics
consisting of the mineral acids, gentle aperients, and a digestible and
nourishing diet. Small ulcers on the mucous membrane of the mouth or on
the gums may be made to disappear instantly upon touching them with a
piece of lunar caustic. Where any difficulty is experienced in the healing
of an ulcer, or if it be at all of a serious nature, the medical
practitioner should be consulted.
=UL′MIN, ULMIC ACID.= By boiling sugar in dilute sulphuric acid for a long
time, a brownish-black substance is produced. Boullay and Malaguti state
that this is a mixture of two distinct bodies——ulmin (sacchulmin——Liebig)
and ulmic acid (sacchulmic acid——Liebig). The first is insoluble in
solutions of the alkalies; the latter dissolves in them freely. A number
of black uncrystallisable substances, produced by the action of powerful
chemical agents upon vegetable matter, have been confounded under these
names.
=ULTRAMARINE′.= _Syn._ LAPIS-LAZULI BLUE, ULTRAMARINE B.; CÆRULEUM
ULTRAMONTANUM, L. This beautiful pigment is obtained from the blue mineral
azure stone, lazulite, or lapis lazuli, the finest specimens of which are
brought from China, Persia, and Great Bucharia.
_Prep._ Pure lapis lazuli (reduced to fragments about the size of a pea,
and the colourless pieces rejected), 1 lb., is heated to redness, quenched
in water, and ground to an impalpable powder; to this is added, of yellow
resin, 6 oz.; turpentine, beeswax, and linseed oil, of each 2 oz.;
previously melted together; the whole is next made into a mass, which is
kneaded in successive portions of warm water, as long as it colours it
blue; from these it is deposited on repose, and is then collected, well
washed with clean water, dried, and sorted according to its qualities. The
first water, which is usually dirty, is thrown away; the second gives a
blue of the first quality; and the third, and following ones, yield
samples of less value. The process is founded on the property which the
colouring matter of azure-stone has of adhering less firmly to the
resinous cement than the foreign matter with which it is associated. When
azure-stone has its colour altered by a moderate heat, it is reckoned bad
or factitious.
_Obs._ Ultramarine is the most costly, but at the same time the most
splendid and permanent, of our blue pigments, and works well in oil.
=Ultramarine, Artificial.= _Syn._ AZURE BLUE, MEISSNER ULTRAMARINE, PARIS
B., VIENNA B.; CÆRULEUM ULTRAMONTANUM FACTITIUM, L. From the researches of
Clement, Desormes, and Robiquet, it has been inferred that the colour of
ultramarine depends on the presence of sulphuret of sodium in a peculiar
state of combination with the silicates of soda and alumina; but,
according to Elsner and Tirnmon, a minute quantity of sulphuret of iron is
also an essential ingredient. It is by heating mixtures of this kind that
the artificial ultramarine of commerce is prepared. The finer specimens,
thus obtained, are quite equal in durability and beauty of colour to those
prepared from lazulite, while they are very much less expensive.
_Prep._ 1. Kaolin, 37 parts; sulphate of soda, 15; carbonate of soda, 22;
sulphur, 18; charcoal, 8; intimately mixed and heated from 24 to 30 hours,
in large crucibles; the product is then heated again in cast-iron boxes,
at a moderate temperature, till the required tint is obtained; it is,
finally, pulverised, washed, and dried.
2. (Gmelin.) Sulphur, 2 parts; dry carbonate of soda, 1 part; mix well;
gradually heat them in a covered crucible to redness, or till the mixture
fuses, then sprinkle in, by degrees, another mixture of silicate of soda
and ‘aluminate of soda’ (containing 72 parts of silica and 70 parts of
alumina), and continue the heat for an hour. The product contains a little
free sulphur, which may be separated by water.
3. (Robiquet.) By exposing to a low red heat, in a covered crucible, as
long as fumes are given off, a mixture of pure kaolin, 2 parts; anhydrous
carbonate of soda and sulphur, of each 3 parts. Some manufacturers who
adopt this process use 1-3rd less carbonate of soda.
4. (Tirnmon.) Take of crystallised carbonate of soda, 1075 gr.; apply a
gentle heat, and, when fused in its water of crystallisation, shake in of
finely pulverised orpiment, 5 gr., and, when partly decomposed, add as
much gelatinous hydrate of alumina as contains 7 gr. of anhydrous
alumina; finely sifted clay, 100 gr., and flowers of sulphur, 221 gr., are
next to be added, and the whole placed in a covered crucible, and at first
gently heated, to drive off the water; but as soon as this is effected,
raised to redness, the heat being so regulated that the ingredients only
‘sinter’ together, without actually fusing; the mass is then to be cooled,
finely pulverised, suspended in river water, and brought upon a filter;
the product has now a very beautiful delicate green or bluish colour, but
on being heated in a covered dish, and stirred about from time to time,
until the temperature reaches that of dull redness, at which it must be
kept for 1 or 2 hours, it changes to a rich blue. If the heat of the first
calcination has been properly regulated, the whole of the mass taken from
the crucible will have uniform colour; but if too little heat has been
used, and the ingredients have not been properly mixed, there will be
colourless parts, which should be rejected; if too much heat has been
used, or the mass allowed to fuse, brown parts will appear, especially if
the crucible is of a bad kind, or easily destroyed; these must also be
rejected. (‘Compt. Rend.,’ 1842.)
=Ultramarine Ashes.= _Syn._ SAUNDER’S BLUE. Obtained from the resinous
mass from making ultramarine, by melting it with fresh oil, and kneading
it in water containing a little potash or soda; or, by burning away the
wax and oil of the mass and well grinding and washing the residue with
water. Very permanent, but much less brilliant than ultramarine.
=Ultramarine, Cobal′tic.= _Syn._ CHINESE BLUE, COBALT B., LOUISA B.,
HÖFFNER’S B., THÉNARD’S B. A very rich blue pigment, with many synonymes,
prepared by slowly drying and heating to dull redness a mixture of freshly
precipitated alumina (freed from water as much as possible), 8 to 10
parts; arseniate or phosphate of cobalt, 1 part. By daylight it is of a
pure blue, but by artificial light the colour turns on the violet. For
other formulæ see BLUE PIGMENTS.
=U′PAS.= The Javan name for several deadly poisons. ‘Bohun upas’ is a
gum-resin obtained from the bark of the _Antiaris toxicaria_. (See
ANTIARINE.) The ‘upas tieuté’ is obtained from the _Strychnos Tieuté_, and
owes its fatal power to strychnine. They are both used to poison arrows
and other deadly weapons.
=URA′′NIUM.= U. A rare metal, discovered by Klaproth in 1789. It occurs in
the pitchblende of Saxony, and the uranite of Cornwall. The chief oxides
of uranium are the protoxide and the sesquioxide, or uranic oxide.
=Uranic Oxide= (U_{2}O_{3}) may be obtained in the anhydrous state by
heating the hydrated sesquioxide to a temperature of 572° Fahr. The
sesquioxide is capable of acting both as an acid and a base. The uranic
salts are yellow.
=Uranous Oxide.= (UO.) This may be procured by igniting uranium oxalate in
a closed vessel, or in a stream of hydrogen gas. Acids are without action
upon this oxide. When, however, it is obtained as an hydrate (which it may
be by treatment of its chloride with ammonia) this latter is easily acted
upon by acids, and gives rise to salts having a green colour, which
rapidly absorb oxygen. Peligot proposed to call this oxide _Uranyl_ (UO.),
from the tendency it showed to follow the deportment of a metal when it
combined with elementary bodies.
=Chlorides of Uranium.= Uranium forms two chlorides, U_{2}Cl_{3} and
UCl_{2}.
_Uses._ Its ores and oxides are occasionally used to colour glass and
enamels.
=U′RATES.= Salts of uric acid.
=U′REA.= COH_{4}N_{2}. _Syn._ CYANATE OF AMMONIUM (Anomalous). A
crystalline, colourless, transparent substance, discovered by Fourcroy and
Vauquelin in urine, and by Wöhler as the first organic compound
artificially produced.
Urea generally occurs in slender, striated, colourless prisms, as shown on
next page. It is slightly deliquescent. It has a neutral reaction and a
bitterish taste. It is extremely soluble in water and in hot alcohol, but
very slightly so in ether. At about 248° Fahr. it melts. At a little
higher temperature it becomes decomposed into ammonia, carbonate, cyanate
of ammonium, and cyanuric acid; this latter being left in the retort.
The ammoniacal odour acquired by urine after a few days is due to the
conversion of the urea into carbonate of ammonia, as shown by the
following equation:
Urea. Water. Carb. Ammonia.
CH_{4}ON_{2} + 2H_{2}O = (NH_{4})_{2}CO_{3}.
This change is effected by the mucus of the bladder present in the urine.
A solution of pure urea may be kept at ordinary temperature, or even
boiled, without undergoing alteration.
Urea occurs as an essential component of the urine of man and animals,
being more particularly abundant in the urinary excretion of the
flesh-eating mammalia; nor is it altogether absent from the urine of birds
and amphibia. According to Bischoff and Voit, urea is the result of tissue
metamorphosis. The greater number of inquirers, however, hold an opposite
opinion, and believe that it is derived from the albuminous constituents
of the food, when these preponderate over the quantity required for the
nutrition of the body. Dr Lionel Beale says his “own researches render it
probable that all pabulum entering the system must, before its elements
can he applied to the nutrition of the tissues, or removed by the organs
of respiration or secretion, be first of all taken up by cells
(chyle-corpuscles, white blood-corpuscles), and become living or
_germinal matter_, which, after passing through certain definite stages of
existence, becomes serum of the blood, and the _formed_ matter of the red
blood-corpuscles.
[Illustration: The whole of the cuts illustrating “Urea,” “Urinary
diseases,” and “Urine” are taken from Dr Beale’s work on ‘Kidney Diseases,
Urinary Deposits, and Calculous Deposits,’ by that gentleman’s kind
permission.]
“The products resulting from the disintegration of this formed matter may
be taken up by the germinal matter of the tissues, and at length become
tissue, or by that of secreting cells, in which case it is removed in the
form of the constituents of various excretions from the body altogether.”
About an ounce and a quarter of urea is daily excreted by a healthy man,
although of course there will be a variation in this amount principally
depending upon the quantity of animal food and active exercise taken
during the twenty-four hours. As might be anticipated a smaller quantity
of urea is excreted by women than by men, since they are unable to indulge
to the same extent in muscular exercise. A diminished quantity also
results from breathing impure air, and from a diseased and unhealthy
condition of the lungs or of the circulation, and also, as might be
expected, from an insufficiency of food.
_Prep._ (Thénard.) Fresh urine, gently evaporated to the consistence of a
syrup, is treated with its own volume of nitric acid of sp. gr. 1·19; the
mixture is shaken and immersed in an ice bath, to solidify the crystals of
nitrate of urea (p. 1689); these are washed with ice-cold water, drained,
and pressed between sheets of blotting paper; they are next dissolved in
water, and the solution is decomposed and precipitated with carbonate of
potassium (or carbonate of barium); the whole is then gently evaporated
nearly to dryness, and the residuum is exhausted with pure alcohol, which
dissolves the urea, which crystallises out as the solution cools.
=Urea, Factitious.= Mix 28 parts of well-dried ferrocyanide of potassium
with 14 of black oxide of manganese (both in fine powder), and heat them
to dull redness on an iron plate. Lixiviate with cold water, add 22-1/2
parts of dry sulphate of ammonia, concentrate by evaporation with a heat
not exceeding 212° F., decant the concentrated liquid, treat it with
rectified spirit, and crystallise. This is intended as a cleanly
substitute for the preceding.
=Urea, Ni′trate of.= _Syn._ UREÆ NITRAS, L. _Prep._ From urine, as
described above; or it may be prepared by saturating artificial urea with
nitric acid. Diuretic.——_Dose_, 2 to 5 gr. twice or thrice daily; in
dropsy.
=U′RIC ACID.= C_{5}H_{4}N_{4}O_{3}. _Syn._ LITHIC ACID; ACIDUM LITHICUM,
A. URICUM, L. A substance discovered by Scheele, and peculiar to the urine
of certain animals, and the excrement of serpents and several birds. The
fæces of the boa constrictor consist of little else than urate of
ammonium. It constitutes one of the commonest varieties of urinary
calculi, and of the red gravel or sand which is voided in certain morbid
states of the urine. Guano derives its principal value as a manure from
the presence of urate of ammonium. The gouty concretions of the joints,
popularly known as chalk-stones, consist chiefly of urate of sodium.
_Prep._ Dissolve the chalk-like excrement of serpents, reduced to fine
powder, in a solution of caustic potassa, by boiling; then add
hydrochloric acid in excess, again boil for 15 minutes, and well wash the
precipitate with water.
_Prop., &c._ Brilliant, very minute, white and silky scales, which are
tasteless, inodorous, slightly soluble in boiling water, and dissolve in
strong sulphuric acid, but are again precipitated by water. It forms salts
with the bases called urates, all of which are very sparingly soluble. The
characteristic reaction of uric acid is, that when moistened with nitric
acid and heated, it dissolves, and by evaporation yields a red compound,
which, upon the addition of a drop or two of solution of ammonia, assumes
a magnificent crimson colour, being converted into murexide.
Uric acid is a constituent of healthy human urine, in which it exists
combined with bases in the form of urates, which, being in small quantity,
are soluble in the urine. 1000 grains of the urine contain from 1/2 grain
to 1 grain of the acid. Drs Beale and Thudichum respectively estimate the
amount of uric acid excreted in twenty-four hours by a healthy adult man
at from 5 to 8 grains. To determine the amount of uric acid in urine
proceed as follows:——To a certain weight of the urine, hydrochloric or
nitric acid is added, and the urine set aside for some hours, at the end
of which time, the insoluble crystals of uric acid which are formed, are
washed, dried, and weighed.
With the exception of the urates, uric acid is one of the deposits most
frequently met with in abnormal urine, wherein it occurs as a small
reddish powder adhering to the bottom or sides of the containing vessel.
As a urinary deposit, uric acid assumes a great variety of forms, that of
most frequent occurrence being the rhombic, modified in many of the
crystals by the rounding of two of the angles, as shown in the engraving
on next page.
[Illustration: Uric acid. (Beale.)]
=URINARY DISEASES.= This class of disorders, which in general terms may be
said to embrace affections of the kidneys, bladder, ureters, &c.,
comprises diseases of these parts varying greatly in character and
pathological importance.
The most serious forms of kidney disease are CONGESTION of the kidney, a
very frequent accompaniment of heart or lung disease; PYELITIS, or
inflammation of the pelvis of the kidney; SUPPURATIVE NEPHRITIS, or
inflammation of the substance of the kidney, which ends in suppuration;
ACUTE NEPHRITIS, or ACUTE BRIGHT’S DISEASE, acute inflammation of the
kidney, frequently arising from scarlatina or cold; CHRONIC NEPHRITIS, or
CHRONIC BRIGHT’S DISEASE, a formidable and incurable variety of kidney
affection, giving rise to dropsy, and, owing to the disintegration of the
organ, to poisoning of the blood by urea. In advanced cases of this
disease the urine contains a large quantity of albumen and casts of the
urinary tubes.
CALCULUS OF THE KIDNEY. The most dangerous diseases of the bladder are
those caused by the deposition in it of earthy and other concretions,
known as URINARY CALCULI, which are described in the present work under
CALCULUS. The presence of these calculi is indicated by acute pain in the
bladder and urinary passages, extending to the adjacent parts, the pain
being excruciating immediately after passing the urine. Sometimes during
the act of excretion the stream of water is suddenly stopped.
Inflammation is another dangerous disease of the bladder, calling for the
prompt summoning of the medical practitioner wherever possible.
The following particulars as to its symptoms and treatment are offered for
adoption to emigrants and others so placed as to be beyond the means of
medical succour.
Inflammation of the bladder commences with pain in the region of that
organ, the pain becoming continuous and increasing in violence, and being
accompanied with a sense of burning heat and of tenderness on pressure.
The urine is frequently voided. The inflammation is sometimes so acute as
to give rise to suppuration and the consequent discharge of pus with the
urine. Sometimes the disease assumes a chronic character.
In the acute form of the disease recourse should be had to leeches, hot
fomentations, and warm baths; a dose of calomel, to be followed by a
brisk dose of castor oil, should likewise be administered. Alcoholic
drinks of any kind must be carefully avoided, the patient being allowed to
drink only cool demulcent beverages. With these should be combined
effervescing draughts, frequently repeated, and small doses of Dover’s
powder. Great relief will also be derived from the use of enemas of gruel
containing laudanum. Where inflammation of the bladder arises from gout or
rheumatism, it must be treated as for these diseases. A suppository,
consisting of two grains of opium, combined with twenty grains of soap, is
frequently of great benefit.
Should the disease become chronic, the best method of treatment will be
the repeated use of mild aperients, the combined employment of uva ursi in
infusion or powder, with either tincture of perchloride of iron, or the
mineral acids. Spirituous liquors of any kind must be avoided. Demulcent
drinks form the best beverage, and a farinaceous or milk diet the most
desirable food.
NEURALGIA OF THE BLADDER. The pain which attends this disease is
unaccompanied either by inflammation or irritation, and is recurrent in
character. It may generally be arrested by tincture of perchloride of
iron, or of iron and quinine, administered three times a day.
IRRITATION OF THE BLADDER. The patient affected with this disorder
gratifies the frequent desire he has to pass his urine, the operation
being accompanied with pain and forcing, the most severe pain being
experienced after the excretion has taken place. The tincture of
perchloride of iron will also be found the best remedy for this disorder.
It should be given in conjunction with the infusions of uva ursi, Pareira
brava, or buchu.
Mucilaginous drinks should also be had recourse to.
CATARRH OF THE BLADDER. The symptoms of this disease are irritation, and
the presence of much mucus in the urine. The same treatment may be adopted
as recommended for irritation of the bladder. If there be an absence of
pain, spirits of nitre and copaiba balsam in moderate doses frequently
afford relief.
STRANGURY. Constant micturition, only a few drops of urine passing at the
time, occasioning burning and cutting pains around the parts. Strangury is
generally due to some irritating cause, which should, if possible, be
discovered and removed. Cantharides taken either internally, or applied
externally, as in the form of a blister, will sometimes give rise to it.
The patient should drink copiously of mucilaginous beverages, such as
linseed tea, slippery elm bark, barley water, with gum Arabic dissolved in
it. An injection consisting of thirty or forty drops of laudanum in a
spoonful of gruel will be found to afford immediate relief. If the above
means fail, a pill containing a grain of camphor in five grains of extract
of henbane should be given, and a warm bath taken. See GRAVEL.