Footnote 277:
This translation of _hengivigskarð_ is based on Blom’s interpretation
(_Aarböger for nordisk Oldkyndighed_, 1867, 105-106, note). The
brattices were projecting galleries built along the top of the wall
and were in use before it became customary to build stone parapets.
Cf. Oman, _Art of War_, 534.
The “hedgehog”[278] will be found an effective device in defending a
castle. It is made of large, heavy beams armed along the ridge with a
brush of pointed oak nails; it is hung outside the parapet to be dropped
on anyone who comes too near the wall. Turnpikes made of large heavy
logs armed with sharp teeth of hard oak may be raised on end near the
battlements and kept ready to be dropped upon those who approach the
castle. Another good device is the “briar,”[279] which is made of good
iron and has curved thorns as hard as steel with a barb on every thorn;
and the chain, from which it hangs, as high up as a man can reach must
be made of spiked links, so that it can be neither held nor hewn; higher
up any kind of rope that seems suitable may be used, only, it must be
firm and strong. This briar is thrown down among the enemy in the hope
of catching one or more of them and then it is pulled up again. A
“running wheel”[280] is also a good weapon for those who defend castles:
it is made of two millstones with an axle of tough oak joining them.
Planks sloping downward are laid out through the openings in the wall;
the wheel is rolled out upon these and then down upon the enemy.
Footnote 278:
The hedgehog (_ericius_) in common use was a form of the _cheval de
frise_ and was laid on the earth to impede a hostile advance. I know
of no other mention of the device (_igelkǫttr_) described above.
Footnote 279:
Captain Blom is disposed to look on the _brynklungr_ as an imaginary
device (_Aarböger for nordisk Oldkyndighed_, 1867, 106) but Falk finds
that some such instrument was in use in Italy as early as the tenth
century (_Altnordische Waffenkunde_, 199-200).
Footnote 280:
Devices somewhat similar to the “running wheel” seem to have been used
in medieval warfare, but of this particular form no other mention has
been found. See Falk, _Altnordische Waffenkunde_, 200.
A “shot wagon”[281] is also a good device. This is made like any other
wagon with two or four wheels as one likes and is intended to carry a
load of stones, hot or cold as one may prefer. It must also be provided
with two firm and strong chains, one on each side, which can be depended
on to check the wagon even where it has a long track to run upon. It is
meant to run on planks set with a downward slope, but one must be
careful to keep the wheels from skidding off the planks. When the chains
check the speed, the wagon shoots its load out upon the men below. The
more uneven the stones are, some large and some small, the more
effective the load will be. Canny men, who are set to defend a wall and
wish to throw rocks down upon the attacking line or upon the penthouse,
make these rocks of clay with pebbles, slingstones, and other hard
stones placed inside. The clay is burned hard enough on the outside to
endure the flight while the load is being thrown; but as soon as the
rocks fall they break into fragments and consequently cannot be hurled
back again. To break down stone walls, however, large, hard rocks are
required. Similarly, when one hurls missiles from a stone fortress
against an opposing wooden tower or upon the axletrees which support
siege engines, towers, scaling ladders, cats, or any other engine on
wheels, the larger and harder the rocks that are used, the more
effective they will be.
Footnote 281:
_Ibid._ The “shot wagon” is not mentioned elsewhere.
Boiling water, molten glass, and molten lead are also useful in
defending walls.[282] But if a cat or any other covered engine which
cannot be damaged by hot water is being pushed toward a castle, it is a
good plan, if the engine is lower than the walls, to provide beams
carefully shod with iron underneath and in addition armed with large,
sharp, red-hot plowshares. These are to be thrown down upon the wooden
engine in which the plowshares are likely to stick fast, while the beams
may be hoisted up again. This attack should be followed up with pitch,
sulphur, or boiling tar.[283]
Footnote 282:
See the Sorö edition, 424-425, where the editor cites a number of
references to the use of fire in defensive warfare; these are nearly
all drawn from the sagas.
Footnote 283:
Evidently the purpose would be to crush the engine with the beam, to
set it on fire with the hot plowshares, and to put the assailants to
flight with the pitch, sulphur, or tar; these would also feed the
flames.
Mines dug in the neighborhood of a castle are also an excellent
protection; the deeper and narrower they are, the better it is; and
where men are shoving mounted engines toward the walls, it were well if
there were many mines. All mines should have a number of small openings,
which must be covered so as not to be visible on the surface. They
should be filled with fuel of the most inflammable sort, peat or
anything else that burns readily. When a castle is attacked at night
either from wooden towers or with scaling ladders or any other engine on
wheels, the defenders should steal out and fire the mines.[284]
Footnote 284:
On the subject of mines see Oman, _Art of War_, 549-550.
Now if it should happen that the enemy’s stones come over the
battlements with such violence that the men cannot remain in the open to
defend the wall, it is a good plan to set up strong posts cut from thick
oak and to lay large and tough cross beams upon these, then to roof the
whole over with firm oak timbers, and finally to cover the roofing with
a layer of earth not less than three or four ells in depth, upon which
the rocks may be allowed to drop.[285] In like manner the attack of a
wooden tower that is moving toward a castle may be foiled by setting up
strong, firm posts rising considerably higher than the attacking tower.
But a more effective contrivance than all the engines that I have now
described is a stooping shield-giant which breathes forth flame and
fire.[286] And now we shall close our account of the engines that are
useful in defending castle walls with the reminder that every sort of
weapon with which one can shoot, hurl, hew, or thrust, and every kind
that can be used in attack or defense may be brought into service.
Footnote 285:
The posts were apparently placed on top of the wall, the purpose being
to raise the wall to a greater height as well as to furnish shelter
for the defenders.
Footnote 286:
The shield-giant was probably a mythical device; but it is possible as
has been suggested that its fiery breath may refer to the use of Greek
fire, with which the Norwegians became acquainted during the crusades,
or even to early experiments with gunpowder. Falk, _Altnordische
Waffenkunde_, 200-201. It is not known when gunpowder was invented,
but the earliest known formula for making it is found in the writings
of Roger Bacon, who was a contemporary of the author of the _King’s
Mirror_.
------------------------------------------------------------------------
XL
THE PROPER MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF A ROYAL COURT
_Son._ Since you seem to think that sufficient has been said about
weapons both for attack and defense, how they should be made or built,
and on what occasion each kind should be used (and after your comments
these things are very clear to me), I now wish to ask whether there may
not be other subjects which you think ought to be discussed, such as
pertain to customs that one must observe in the presence of great men or
at royal courts.
_Father._ There still remain a number of things which a man should not
fail to hear discussed and to reflect upon, if he is to attend on kings
or other magnates and wishes to be ranked among them as a worthy man.
But there are three things (which are, however, almost the same in
reality) which one must observe with care: they are wisdom, good
breeding, and courtesy. It is courtesy to be friendly, humble, ready to
serve, and elegant in speech; to know how to behave properly while
conversing or making merry with other men; to know precisely, when a man
is conversing with women, whether they be young or older in years, of
gentle or humble estate, how to select such expressions as are suited to
their rank and are as proper for them to hear as for him to use. In like
manner when one speaks with men, whether they be young or old, gentle or
humble, it is well to know how to employ fitting words and how to
determine what expressions are proper for each one to take note of. Even
when mere pleasantry is intended, it is well to choose fair and decent
words. It is also courtesy to know how to discriminate in language, when
to use plural and when to use singular forms in addressing the men with
whom one is conversing; to know how to select one’s clothes both as to
color and other considerations; and to know when to stand or sit, when
to rise or kneel. It is also courtesy to know when a man ought to let
his hands drop gently and to keep them quiet, or when he ought to move
them about in service for himself or for others; to know in what
direction to turn his face and breast, and how to turn his back and
shoulders. It is courtesy to know precisely when he is free to wear his
cloak, hat, or coif, if he has one, and when these are not to be worn;
also to know, when at the table, whether good breeding demands that one
must watch the great men partake of food, or whether one may eat and
drink freely in any way that seems convenient and proper. It is also
courtesy to refrain from sneers and contemptuous jests, to know clearly
what churlishness is and to avoid it carefully.
It is good breeding to be agreeable and never obstinate when one is with
other men, and to be modest in demeanor; to walk a proper gait when on
foot and to watch one’s limbs carefully wherever one goes to make sure
that each will move correctly and yet in a natural way. It is good
breeding, too, when one strolls about in a city among strangers, to keep
silence and use few words, to shun turmoil and disgraceful tippling, to
punish theft and robbery and all other foolish rioting. It is also good
breeding to avoid profanity, cursing, scolding, and all other pernicious
talk. Be careful also never to appear as the advocate of stupid and
dishonest men and especially not to support them in their impudence, but
rather to show hatred for wickedness in every form. It is good breeding
to shun chess and dice, brothels and perjury, false testimony, and other
lasciviousness or filthy behavior. It shows good breeding to be cleanly
in food and clothes; to take good care of the ships, horses, weapons,
and buildings that one may possess; to be cautious and never rash and to
be undismayed in times of stress; never to be ostentatious, domineering,
or envious; and to shun arrogance and affectation in every form. But the
chief point in all conduct is to love God and holy church, to hear mass
regularly, to be diligent in divine service, and to implore mercy for
oneself and all other Christian people.
No one can attain to all these virtues which we have now enumerated as
belonging to courtesy and good breeding, unless he is also endowed with
wisdom. These gifts will accompany wisdom: elegance in speech,
eloquence, insight into proper conduct, and ability to discriminate
between good manners and what passes for such in the sayings of foolish
men, though they are in fact bad manners. It is also wisdom, when one is
present at the law court, or some other place where men congregate, and
hears the speeches and the suits of men, to be able to discern clearly
what suits or what speeches delivered there are based on reason and
which ones are merely glib palaver and senseless verbosity. It is also
wisdom to have a clear appreciation, when decrees are rendered in the
disputes of men, of how these are stated, so that not a word will be
added or taken away, if one should need to know them at some later time.
It is also wisdom to keep faithfully in mind what facts were discussed
and what agreements were reached. It is wisdom to know the law
thoroughly, to have clear perceptions of what is actual law and what is
merely called law, being nothing but quibble and subterfuge. It is also
wisdom, if one has a request to make, to be able to determine what he
may ask for that will prove serviceable and is proper for the other to
grant; also, if one meets a request, to know precisely what he may grant
with propriety and in what matters he must be careful not to bind
himself or those who come after him, such things, namely, as may prove a
disgrace to him rather than a distinction. Finally, it is wisdom not to
be strait-handed about things which one may just as well dispose of,
lest such stint or stinginess bring shame upon him.
There is also great wisdom in moderation and righteousness. All forms of
learning, insight, and good foresight which is necessary to courtesy and
good breeding, to stewardship, government and the enforcement of
law,—these, too, are akin to wisdom. And you will need to learn all this
thoroughly, if you wish to be known among kings and chieftains as an
estimable man, for all who know these things are received with favor
among the great. Furthermore, the lives of men who have mastered this
knowledge may bring great honor to themselves and profit to many others.
But wisdom has many forms, for it springs from roots which have many
branches. And from these roots of wisdom rises the mightiest of all
stems, which again divides into large boughs, many branches, and a
multitude of twigs of different sizes, some small and some large. These
are later distributed among men in such a way that some obtain the
larger and some the smaller ones, and these riches have their value
according as they are loved. He who is sure to appreciate this wealth
and share it freely receives a large amount; for the nature of this
possession is such that it is most attracted to him who loves it most
and uses it most liberally. And if men knew how to value and appreciate
these riches properly, gold and silver would seem to them like rust,
clay, or ashes, when compared with these treasures. But he who wishes to
secure this wealth must begin in this way: he must fear Almighty God and
love Him above all things.
------------------------------------------------------------------------
XLI
THE SAME SUBJECT CONTINUED
_Son._ It was clearly well-advised to continue this inquiry, for now I
have gotten both useful and precise information; and this speech will
surely help every man who is at least somewhat intelligent to more
definite ideas than he had before. Moreover, those who have received
only slender wands from the boughs of wisdom are more numerous than
those who have received large branches, some getting but the tiniest
twigs, and some a mere leaf, while those who get nothing must indeed be
few. Therefore I wish to ask you to instruct me further in the art of
choosing and laying hold on those branches which may prove useful to
myself and others.
_Father._ The virtues that I have just enumerated grow especially on the
boughs of wisdom, but they ramify into a great many good branches and
twigs. Now these are the branches which are most useful: a rational
outlook, a temperate mind, and the capacity to determine judiciously
what one owes to every other man. If you are angry with any man because
of a law suit or some evil deed, take careful thought before seeking
revenge, as to how important the matter really is and how great a
retribution it is worth. When you hear things in the speech of other men
which offend you much, be sure to investigate with reasonable care
whether the tales be true or false; but if they prove to be true and it
is proper for you to seek revenge, take it with reason and moderation
and never when heated or irritated. Even though you hear tidings which
seem damaging to yourself or your business, such as loss of property or
men, always bear it with a calm and undaunted temper. Let the loss of
wealth seem least to you, for you must bear in mind that it is sinful to
worship wealth or to love it too highly, even though it returns a man’s
love and comes abundantly into his keeping. And to love wealth much,
when it seems inclined to turn away from a man and does not return his
love, is surely sinful and will lead to grief. Remember, too, that all
come destitute into the world; and our mode of departure from this life
is such that wealth cannot follow us out of the world. Nevertheless, you
must take heed that nothing is lost through your neglect or
indifference. And never grieve so deeply over a loss that you cannot be
hopeful and cheerful as before.
If you suffer loss of men, bear that loss, too, with a calm spirit; for
remember that every man in departing this life fulfils a law in human
nature, inasmuch as no one is created to live forever in this world. Let
it grieve you more, if an acquaintance of yours who has not lived as he
ought here on earth, should die in that state and leave the world in
disgrace; but most of all if you fear that his soul is in peril; for
such things are rather to be lamented than that in dying he pays a debt
to nature. But if he lived uprightly while on earth and made proper
provision for his soul before he died, then you may take comfort in the
good repute that lives after him, and even more in the blissful
happiness which you believe he will enjoy with God in the other world.
In the same way you must keep your spirit calm and in good control when
such events come to pass as may seem profitable to you and stir your
heart to joy and gladness, whether it be the death of men whom you have
hated, or other happenings in which you might seem to find pleasure. But
if you should happen to hear of the death of a man whom you counted an
enemy and to whom you had planned to do evil, if opportunity should be
found, rejoice much more in that God has saved you from a threefold sin
than in the death of him who has departed. For you should be glad that
God has prevented your hands from committing the sinful deed that was in
your purpose, and has relieved your mind of the long-continued wrath and
bitterness which you cherished against your enemy while he lived.
Likewise, if high honors and dignities should come to you from a king or
from other magnates, it is important that you should know how to receive
them with modesty, lest what befalls so many an indiscreet man should
also happen to you. For it is often the case that when one who is
lacking in good sense receives any preferment from great men, he will
rate himself so high in his pride and avarice that he counts no other
man his equal. But such pretension leads to the downfall of everyone who
behaves in this way; inasmuch as it is God’s purpose to strike down
immoderate pride with sacred humility; and everyone who is too proud and
greedy in his behavior will surely find God a constant opponent. Now if
you should be so fortunate as to receive preferments from a king or
other princes, remember it is God’s method and purpose, by prompting
them (for He holds the minds and hearts of chiefs in His hand), to
elevate such men as He wishes to honor and dignity. On the other hand,
it is also the duty of every man to assist all those who have less
strength than he. Keep in mind, then, if God should raise you up to any
place of honor, that it must be to the profit of all who are less
capable than yourself, except such as hate morality and right counsel;
to them it should be a hindrance for a just man to be given power and
authority. If God gives you wisdom and clear insight and you have also
the good fortune to be awarded honors by great men, there are certain
vices which you need especially to guard against: arrogant self-esteem,
avarice that yearns for bribes, and forgetful neglect of the needs of
men who are less capable than yourself. Keep constantly before your eyes
as a warning the misfortunes of those who have fallen into disgrace
because of immoderate pride. Also keep in mind, as a comforting hope,
the careers of men who have received constant honors because of their
steadfast justice and humility.
------------------------------------------------------------------------
XLII
A DISCUSSION OF HOW GOD REWARDS RIGHTEOUSNESS,
HUMILITY, AND FIDELITY, ILLUSTRATED BY EXAMPLES
DRAWN FROM SACRED AND PROFANE HISTORY
_Son._ I see clearly that God creates men unequal in power and wisdom
because He wishes to see how each one is going to use what He has
endowed him with, whether in high living for the glorification of self,
or in bountiful kindness toward those who have need of him and have not
received such gifts from God. And now I want to ask you to cite a few
examples both of men whose good sense and humility have brought them
honor and of such as have suffered destruction through vain pride.
_Father._ There have been so many cases of that sort, that we should
have to extend our talk to a great length, if we were to mention all
those of either class which we know could serve as examples to show how
these things have worked out. I shall therefore name a few only, though
some of each kind, for in that way a long discourse may be the sooner
finished. The following instances are ancient and easily remembered.
When Joseph was sold into Egypt,[287] a mighty lord bought him; but
after he had purchased him he found that Joseph was a discreet man, and
he preferred and honored him above all his other servants, not only
above those whom he kept in bondage, but even above his freeborn
kinsmen; and he gave into his hands the oversight of his wealth and
property, house and home, and all his welfare. But because Joseph was a
handsome man, kind and courteous in behavior, and sensible in speech, he
won the love and friendship of all who knew him and were subject to the
same lord who was Joseph’s master.
Footnote 287:
_Genesis_, cc. xxxix-xli. The author treats the Biblical narratives
with great freedom.
The wife of this mighty man loved Joseph more than was proper, and
impelled by evil desire, she sought to commit a vile sin against her
husband, because of the love that she bore for Joseph; and she was not
ashamed in her bold passion to intimate to him what she had in mind. But
when he learned her purpose, he replied in this wise: “We cannot deal
with each other as equals, for you are my lady and I am your thrall; and
it would be a very great disgrace for you to submit yourself to me and
too bold and rash in me to bring such dishonor upon you. But even worse
is the unfaithfulness toward my lord which I should be guilty of, if I
were to reward his kindness in this way like a treacherous thrall. For
he has trusted me, his servant, so far as to give all his wealth and
riches into my hands and keeping, and I must not deceive my lawful
master with shameful treachery, unless I should wish to prove the saying
in daily use that it is ill to have a thrall as a chosen friend.” But
when the woman saw that Joseph was a good man and wished to be faithful,
she thought it a shame that he should know her faithlessness, and,
prompted by enmity and not by justice, she became anxious to work his
ruin, if possible. So she told her husband that Joseph had made an
unseemly request and added that it showed great audacity in a thrall to
make such bold remarks to his lady. She was believed as a good wife, and
Joseph was cast into prison strongly fettered and heavily chained, the
purpose being to let him end his days by rotting alive because of his
pride and faithlessness. But when God, Who always loves justice and
humility, saw the faithfulness of Joseph whom He knew to be innocent, He
shaped the outcome so that Joseph profited by the condemnation that he
had suffered though innocent. For God saved him from prison under such
circumstances that he was elevated to far greater prominence than
before; and God prompted King Pharaoh to make Joseph master and judge of
all Egypt next to the king himself; and this office he held into his old
age and as long as he lived.