or “Hm?” or “What?” but rather speak in this wise: “Yes, my lord, I am
glad to listen!” Also take good heed not to rush away early in the
morning to eat and drink with greedy and unmannerly men. Wait, as custom
demands, till the king’s meal time, and take your seat at the royal
tables, whenever you are present at court. But when the king sits down
to eat with his hirdmen, these ought all to observe good manners and
decent order, and the one should never run in ahead of the other like an
ill-bred man; but each ought to know his right place and table
companion; and the men should sit at the table in the same order as when
they are out walking. The men should go by twos, those who sit together,
to lave their hands, whether the washing is done within the hall or
without, and then to the table, each in the order and to the seat that
he knows was assigned to him in the beginning. The hirdmen ought to
speak in a low tone at the table so that not a single word will be heard
by those who sit on either side of the two who wish to converse; let
each one speak to his partner so softly that none shall hear but those
who are conversing; then there will be good deportment and quiet in the
king’s hall. You may, however, partake freely and quickly of both the
food and the drink on the table according to your needs without
suffering any discredit to your manners; but always take good heed not
to get drunk. You should cast frequent glances toward the king’s seat to
see how his service is going forward, and always note carefully when the
king raises the beaker to his lips, for you must not eat while he is
drinking. If you have a cup in your hand, set it down and do not drink
just then. You must show the queen everywhere the same honor as you show
the king according as I have told you. And if the king has a guest at
his table who ought to be shown the same deference, whether he be a
king, an earl, an archbishop, or a bishop, you should observe these same
customs which I have just taught you. However, if the number of
distinguished people at the royal table should be large, you need not
observe this custom as to drinking unless you wish, except when the king
or the queen drinks, or when there is another king at the table with
them.
Now if the king’s hirdmen happen to be seated together in the royal hall
but with no tables before them and certain lords come in whom the king
is pleased to receive with honor, it is the duty of all men to rise
before them just as before their own lords and to give them such cordial
greetings as they know that the king desires. But this is an honor which
every kingsman owes to his fellows: when one who has been absent comes
in and walks toward the seat where he has his proper place and position,
the two who sit nearest to him on either side should rise, receive him
in a friendly manner, and bid him welcome among them. Wherever the
kingsmen are much in the eyes of other men, whether they sit together at
a feast, or walk in the king’s escort, or go out together to make merry,
they ought always to speak in rather low tones, to be proper in their
actions and elegant in their speech, and to avoid all indecent talk. All
these rules which I have now recounted must be learned and observed by
all kingsmen who wish to be known for good breeding. But no matter how
others behave, be sure that you observe carefully all that I have taught
you, and be willing to teach others who may wish to learn from you.
Now if your comrades are planning to go from the king’s apartments to
some drinking bout or other merrymaking, and you, too, have the king’s
permission to seek diversion, you should prefer the forms of amusement
which I shall now point out to you. If you are sojourning where horses
may be ridden and you have your own horse, put on heavy armor and,
mounting your horse, train yourself in the art of sitting on horseback
in the firmest and most handsome manner. Train yourself to press the
foot firmly into the stirrup; keep your leg stiff and the heel a little
lower than the toes, except when you have to guard against thrusts from
the front; and practice sitting firmly with the thighs pressed close.
Cover your breast and limbs carefully with a curved shield. Train your
left hand to grasp firmly the bridle and the grip of the shield, and
your right hand to direct the spear-thrust so that all your bodily
strength will support it. Train your good steed to veer about when in
full gallop; keep him clean and in good condition; keep him shod firmly
and well, and provide him with a strong and handsome harness.
But if you are in a borough or some such place where horses cannot be
used for recreation, you should take up this form of amusement: go to
your chambers and put on heavy armor; next look up some fellow henchman
(he may be a native or an alien) who likes to drill with you and whom
you know to be well trained to fight behind a shield or a buckler.
Always bring heavy armor to this exercise, either chain mail or a thick
gambison,[248] and carry a heavy sword and a weighty shield or buckler
in your hand. In this game you should strive to learn suitable thrusts
and such counterstrokes as are good, necessary, and convenient. Learn
precisely how to cover yourself with the shield, so that you may be able
to guard well when you have to deal with a foeman. If you feel that it
is important to be well trained in these activities, go through the
exercise twice a day, if it is convenient; but let no day pass, except
holidays, without practicing this drill at least once; for it is counted
proper for all kingsmen to master this art and, moreover, it must be
mastered if it is to be of service. If the drill tires you and makes you
thirsty, drink a little now and then, enough to quench your thirst; but
while the game is on, be careful not to drink till you are drunk or even
merry.
Footnote 248:
The gambison (_panzari_) was a form of defensive armor made of cloth
padded and quilted. It is described on page 217 as being made “of soft
linen thoroughly blackened.” Usually it was worn under the coat of
mail, but it could also be worn outside. See _Annaler for nordisk
Oldkyndighed_, 1867, 74 ff. (Blom.); Falk, _Altnordische Waffenkunde_,
181-182.
If you should like to try a variety of drills and pastimes, there are
certain sports that one can take up out of doors, if that is thought
more diverting. For one thing, you may have a pole prepared, somewhat
heavier than a spear shaft, and put up a mark some distance away for a
target; with these you can determine how far and how accurately you can
throw a spear and do it effectively. It is also counted rare sport and
pastime to take one’s bow and go with other men to practice archery.
Another pleasant and useful diversion is to practice throwing with a
sling both for distance and for accuracy, and with a staff sling[249] as
well as with a hand sling, and to practice throwing stone missiles.
Formerly the custom was for all who wished to become expert in such arts
and thoroughly proficient in war and chivalry to train both hands alike
to the use of weapons. Strive after the same skill, if you find yourself
gifted for it, inasmuch as those who are trained in that way are the
most perfect in these activities and the most dangerous to their
enemies.
Footnote 249:
The staff sling was a sling fastened to the end of a stick; it was an
earlier form which was not used much in the thirteenth century.
You should abhor and avoid manslaying in every form except as a lawful
punishment or in common warfare. But in ordinary warfare on the lawful
command of your chief, you need to shun manslaying no more than any
other deed which you know to be right and good. Show courage and bravery
in battle; fight with proper and effective blows, such as you have
already learned, as if in the best of humor, though filled with noble
wrath. Never fight with feigned strokes, needless thrusts, or uncertain
shots like a frightened man. Heed these things well that you may be able
to match your opponent’s skill in fighting. Be resolute in combat but
not hot-headed and least of all boastful. Always remember that there may
be those who can give good testimony in your behalf; but never praise
your own deeds, lest after a time it should come to pass that you are
pursued for the slaughter of men whose death is rated a great loss and
the revenge is directed toward you by your own words.
If you are fighting on foot in a land battle and are placed at the point
of a wedge-shaped column,[250] it is very important to watch the closed
shield line in the first onset, lest it become disarranged or broken.
Take heed never to bind the front edge of your shield under that of
another.[251] You must also be specially careful, when in the battle
line, never to throw your spear, unless you have two, for in battle
array on land one spear is more effective than two swords. But if the
fight is on shipboard, select two spears which are not to be thrown, one
with a shaft long enough to reach easily from ship to ship and one with
a shorter shaft, which you will find particularly serviceable when you
try to board the enemy’s ship. Various kinds of darts should be kept on
ships, both heavy javelins and lighter ones. Try to strike your
opponent’s shield with a heavy javelin, and if the shield glides aside,
attack him with a light javelin, unless you are able to reach him with a
long-shafted spear. Fight on sea as on land with an even temper and with
proper strokes only; and never waste your weapons by hurling them to no
purpose.
Footnote 250:
The wedge-shaped column (_svínfylking_, perhaps so named from a
fancied resemblance to a boar’s head) was a common form of battle
array among the Northern peoples as well as among the early Germans
generally.
Footnote 251:
As the shield was born on the left arm, the front edge would be the
right edge.
Weapons of many sorts may be used to advantage on shipboard, which one
has no occasion to use on land, except in a fortress or castle.
Longhandled scythes[252] and long-shafted broadaxes,[253] “war-beams”
and staff slings, darts,[254] and missiles of every sort are serviceable
on ships. Crossbows and longbows are useful as well as all other forms
of shooting weapons; but coal and sulphur[255] are, however, the most
effective munitions of all that I have named. Caltrops[256] cast in lead
and good halberds[257] are also effective weapons on shipboard. A tower
joined to the mast[258] will be serviceable along with these and many
other defenses, as is also a beam cloven into four parts and set with
prongs of hard steel,[259] which is drawn up against the mast. A
“prow-boar”[260] with an ironclad snout is also useful in naval battles.
But it is well for men to be carefully trained in handling these before
they have to use them; for one knows neither the time nor the hour when
he shall have to make use of any particular kind of weapons. But take
good heed to collect as many types of weapons as possible, while you
still have no need of them; for it is always a distinction to have good
weapons, and, furthermore, they are a good possession in times of
necessity when one has to use them. For a ship’s defense the following
arrangement is necessary: it should be fortified strongly with beams and
logs built up into a high rampart, through which there should be four
openings, each so large and wide that one or two men in full armor can
leap through them; but outside and along the rampart on both sides of
the ship there should be laid a level walk of planks to stand upon.[261]
This breastwork must be firmly and carefully braced so that it cannot be
shaken though one leaps violently upon it. Wide shields and chain mail
of every sort are good defensive weapons on shipboard; the chief
protection, however, is the gambison made of soft linen thoroughly
blackened, good helmets, and low caps of steel. There are many other
weapons that can be used in naval fights, but it seems needless to
discuss more than those which I have now enumerated.
Footnote 252:
These scythes were apparently used to catch and hold the hostile ships
and perhaps also to cut the ropes on the ship. See the Sorö edition,
388.
Footnote 253:
The broadax (_skeggöx_) had the blade extended backward somewhat like
that of a halberd, though in the latter case the extension was usually
forward. See Falk, _Altnordische Waffenkunde_, 108-110.
Footnote 254:
_Skeptifletta_: a dart of some sort with a cord attached.
Footnote 255:
Coal and sulphur seem to have been used chiefly to fire the enemy’s
ship.
Footnote 256:
Caltrops were instruments provided with iron prongs and were usually
scattered where the enemy’s horsemen were likely to pass, in the hope
of maiming the horses. It is evident that they were also used in naval
warfare, the purpose being to maim the men on the enemy’s deck. See
the Sorö edition, 392.
Footnote 257:
_Atgeirr._ The translation is doubtful, but it seems clear that some
kind of spear useful for striking as well as for thrusting is meant.
See Falk, _Altnordische Waffenkunde_, 81-82.
Footnote 258:
Probably some sort of a cage placed at the top or near the top of the
mast from which men with bows and slings could fight to better
advantage. See _Aarböger for nordisk Oldkyndighed_, 1872, 242; Falk,
_Altnordische Waffenkunde_, 197.
Footnote 259:
Only one end of the beam was cloven in this way. See the Sorö edition,
394-395. The beam was apparently fastened to the mast and used to
crush the sides of the enemy’s ship in much the same way as the ram
was used against a castle wall. See Falk, _Altnordische Waffenkunde_,
199.
Footnote 260:
The prow-boar (_rôðrgoltr_) was not a beak but apparently some device
fastened to the prow which served much the same purpose, namely to run
down and sink an opposing ship. See the Sorö edition, 395-396; Falk,
_Altnordische Waffenkunde_, 198-199.
Footnote 261:
See the Sorö edition, 397-399; Falk, _Altnordische Waffenkunde_, 196.
This rampart was built of logs and planks and raised on the gunwales.
Sometimes it seems to have been placed along the entire length of the
ship, but often, perhaps, only where the ship was lowest. Inside it
was braced with strong beams. The plank walk on the outside projected
over the edge of the ship and was no doubt in part intended to make it
difficult for the enemy to board it.
------------------------------------------------------------------------
XXXVIII
WEAPONS FOR OFFENSE AND DEFENSE
_Son._ Since we now have before us a discussion which teaches chiefly
how a man must prepare himself to meet his enemies in attack and
defense, it seems to me that it would be well to say something about how
one has to fight on land, on horse or on foot, and in attacking and
defending castles. Therefore, if you feel disposed to say anything about
such matters, I shall be glad to listen.
_Father._ The man who is to fight on horseback needs to make sure, as we
have already stated, that he is thoroughly trained in all the arts of
mounted warfare. For his horse he will need to provide this
equipment:[262] he must keep him carefully and firmly shod; he must also
make sure that the saddle is strong, made with high bows, and provided
with strong girths and other saddlegear, including a durable surcingle
across the middle and a breast strap in front.[263] The horse should be
protected in such a way both in front of the saddle and behind it that
he will not be exposed to weapons, spear-thrust or stroke, or any other
form of attack. He should also have a good shabrack[264] made like a
gambison of soft and thoroughly blackened linen cloth, for this is a
good protection against all kinds of weapons. It may be decorated as one
likes, and over the shabrack there should be a good harness of mail.
With this equipment every part of the horse should be covered, head,
loins, breast, belly, and the entire beast, so that no man, even if on
foot, shall be able to reach him with deadly weapons. The horse should
have a strong bridle, one that can be gripped firmly and used to rein
him in or throw him when necessary. Over the bridle and about the entire
head of the horse and around the neck back to the saddle, there should
be a harness made like a gambison of firm linen cloth, so that no man
shall be able to take away the bridle or the horse by stealth.[265]
Footnote 262:
On the equipment of the horse in medieval warfare, see _Aarböger for
nordisk Oldkyndighed_, 1867, 90-97.
Footnote 263:
In the thirteenth century the saddle was made with high bows before
and behind so as to provide a firmer seat for the rider. The surcingle
was a girth drawn over the saddle; the breast strap served to keep the
saddle from slipping backwards. _Aarböger for nordisk Oldkyndighed_,
91.
Footnote 264:
_Kovertur_, from medieval French _couverture_. But the _couverture_
was not a covering worn underneath the mail; it was probably the mail
itself or an outer covering for the horse. See Falk, _Altnordische
Waffenkunde_, 191.
Footnote 265:
Falk believes that this description is in some respects inaccurate. No
such elaborate equipment could have been used in the North where
cavalry was not an important part of the host in the thirteenth
century. He also doubts that an equipment just like the one described
was in use anywhere in Europe at the time. _Ibid._, 190-191. The
medieval _couverture_ was not placed beneath the covering of mail as
the _Speculum Regale_ states; and Falk can see no reason why a
gambison placed beneath the mail should be ornamented. It seems clear
that the author is somewhat confused as to these various coverings.
The rider himself should be equipped in this wise: he should wear good
soft breeches made of soft and thoroughly blackened linen cloth, which
should reach up to the belt; outside these, good mail hose[266] which
should come up high enough to be girded on with a double strap; over
these he must have good trousers made of linen cloth of the sort that I
have already described; finally, over these he should have good
kneepieces made of thick iron and rivets hard as steel.[267] Above and
next to the body he should wear a soft gambison, which need not come
lower than to the middle of the thigh. Over this he must have a strong
breastplate[268] made of good iron covering the body from the nipples to
the trousers belt; outside this, a well-made hauberk and over the
hauberk a firm gambison made in the manner which I have already
described but without sleeves. He must have a dirk[269] and two swords,
one girded on and another hanging from the pommel of the saddle. On his
head he must have a dependable helmet made of good steel and provided
with a visor.[270] He must also have a strong, thick shield fastened to
a durable shoulder belt and, in addition, a good sharp spear with a firm
shaft and pointed with fine steel. Now it seems needless to speak
further about the equipment of men who fight on horseback; there are,
however, other weapons which a mounted warrior may use, if he wishes;
among these are the “horn bow”[271] and the weaker crossbow, which a man
can easily draw even when on horseback, and certain other weapons, too,
if he should want them.
Footnote 266:
The mail hose were made of chain mail. _Aarböger for nordisk
Oldkyndighed_, 1867, 73-74.
Footnote 267:
The kneepieces, or _genouillères_ were pieces of armor worn to protect
the knees.
Footnote 268:
Blom thinks that the breastplate was a new thing in the thirteenth
century (_ibid._, 76), but Falk believes that it was used quite
generally (_Altnordische Waffenkunde_, 182).
Footnote 269:
The dirk (_brynknifr_) was probably a poniard-like weapon used to
pierce the chain mail at the joints. Falk, _Altnordische Waffenkunde_,
124.
Footnote 270:
The helmet with the visor appears in the illustrations of the closing
years of the twelfth century; the earlier helmet was a steel cap with
a nose guard. _Aarböger for nordisk Oldkyndighed_, 83-84.
Footnote 271:
Little seems to be known about the hornbow. Captain Blom finds it
mentioned in the Latin sources as _balista cornea_ or _balista cum
cornu_. _Aarböger for nordisk Oldkyndighed_, 1867, 100-101. Falk
believes that it was a bow which was reinforced on the inner side with
horn. _Altnordische Waffenkunde_, 91-92.
------------------------------------------------------------------------
XXXIX
MILITARY ENGINES
_Son._ Inasmuch as you seem to think that you have described most of the
weapons which are convenient to have in naval warfare or in fighting on
horseback, I will now ask you to say something about those which you
think are most effective in besieging or defending castles.
_Father._ All the weapons that we have just discussed as useful on ships
or on horseback can also be used in attacking and defending castles; but
there are many other kinds. If one is to attack a castle with the
weapons which I have enumerated, he will also have need of
trebuckets:[272] a few powerful ones with which to throw large rocks
against stone walls to determine whether they are able to resist such
violent blows, and weaker trebuckets for throwing missiles over the
walls to demolish the houses within the castle. But if one is unable to
break down or shatter a stone wall with trebuckets, he will have to try
another engine, namely the iron-headed ram,[273] for very few stone
walls can withstand its attack. If this engine fails to batter down or
shake the wall, it may be advisable to set the cat[274] to work. A tower
raised on wheels[275] is useful in besieging castles, if it is
constructed so that it rises above the wall which is to be stormed, even
though the difference in height be only seven ells; but the higher it
is, the more effective it will be in attacking another tower. Scaling
ladders on wheels which may be moved backward and forward are also
useful for this purpose, if they are boarded up underneath and have good
ropes on both sides. And we may say briefly about this craft, that in
besieging castles use will be found for all sorts of military engines.
But whoever wishes to join in this must be sure that he knows precisely
even to the very hour when he shall have need for each device.
Footnote 272:
The trebucket (French _trébuchet_) was a siege engine which came into
use in the twelfth century; it was worked by counterpoises. For a
description see Oman, _Art of War_, 143-144; _Aarböger for nordisk
Oldkyndighed_, 1867, 103-104; Falk, _Altnordische Waffenkunde_,
193-194.
Footnote 273:
The ram was a massive beam used to batter down walls; it was an
inheritance from antiquity and was much in use. See Oman, _Art of
War_, 132; _Aarböger for nordisk Oldkyndighed_, 1867, 104; Falk,
_Altnordische Waffenkunde_, 198.
Footnote 274:
_Grafsvin._ Falk translates this with “badger” and seems to believe
that it was a shelter on wheels under which the attackers might work
in comparative safety. _Altnordische Waffenkunde_, 196. It is more
likely, however, that a “cat” is meant. The cat was a long pointed
pole used to loosen the stones in a wall and thus to make a breach. It
is also called a “sow” and the Old Norse term _grafsvin_, “digging
boar,” was evidently an attempt to translate the Latin term _scrofa_
or _sus_, “hog” or “sow.” For a description of the cat, see Oman, _Art
of War_, 132.
Footnote 275:
On the subject of the movable tower see Oman, _Art of War_, 134-135,
549.
Those who have to defend a castle may also make use of these weapons
which I have now enumerated and many more: trebuckets both large and
small, hand slings and staff slings. They will find crossbows and other
bows, too, very effective, as well as every other type of shooting
weapons, such as spears and javelins both light and heavy. But to resist
the trebuckets, the cat, and the engine called the ram, it is well to
strengthen the entire stone wall on the inside with large oaken timbers;
though if earth and clay are plentiful, these materials had better be
used. Those who have to defend castles are also in the habit of making
curtains of large oak boughs, three or even five deep, to cover the
entire wall;[276] and the curtain should be thoroughly plastered with
good sticky clay. To defeat the attacks of the ram, men have sometimes
filled large bags with hay or straw and lowered them with light iron
chains in front of the ram where it sought to pierce the wall. It
sometimes happens that the shots fall so rapidly upon a fortress that
the defenders are unable to remain at the battlements; it is then
advisable to hang out brattices made of light planks and built high
enough to reach two ells above the openings in the parapet and three
ells below them. They should be wide enough to enable the men to fight
with any sort of weapons between the parapet and the brattice wall, and
they should be hung from slender beams in such a way that they may be
readily drawn in and hung out again later, as one may wish.[277]
Footnote 276: