England and the shelly formation of Bermuda. In this latter community I
have seen it thriving upon cliffs where there seemed to be only a pinch
of soil, and where the rock was so dry and porous that it would crumble
to coarse dust when crushed in the hand. The plant was cultivated by the
ancient Romans for its aromatic fruits and succulent, edible shoots.
Whether cultivated in northern Europe at that time is not certain, but
it is frequently mentioned in Anglo-Saxon cookery prior to the Norman
conquest. Charlemagne ordered its culture upon the imperial farms. At
present it is most popular in Italy, and France. In America it is in
most demand among French and Italians. Like many other plants, fennel
has had a highly interesting career from a medical point of view. But it
no longer plays even a "small part" in the drama. Hints as to its
history may be found on page 54.
_Description._--Common garden or long, sweet fennel is distinguished
from its wild or better relative (_F. vulgare_) by having much stouter,
taller (5 to 6 feet) tubular and larger stems, less divided, more
glaucous leaves. But a still more striking difference is seen in the
leaf stalks which form a curved sheath around the stem even as far up as
the base of the leaf above. Then, too, the green flowers are borne on
more sturdy pedicels in the broader umbels, lastly the seeds are double
the size of the wild fennel seeds, 1/4 or 1/2 inch long. They are convex
on one side, flat on the other, and are marked by five yellowish ribs.
Though a French writer says the seed degenerates "promptly," and
recommends the use of fresh seed annually, it will not be wise to throw
away any where it is not wanted to germinate, unless it is over four
years old, as seed as old even as that is said to be satisfactory for
planting.
_Cultivation._--In usual garden practice fennel is propagated by seeds,
and is grown as an annual instead of as a biennial or a perennial. The
plants will flourish in almost any well-drained soil, but seem to prefer
light loams of a limy nature. It is not particular as to exposure. The
seed may be sown in nursery beds or where the plants are to remain. In
the beds, the drills may be 6 inches apart, and not more than 1-3 inch
deep, or the seed may be scattered broadcast. An ounce will be enough
for a bed 10 feet square. When the plants are about 3 inches tall they
should be transplanted 15 or 18 inches asunder in rows 2 to 2-1/2 feet
apart. Some growers sow in late summer and in autumn so as to have early
crops the following season; they also make several successional sowings
at intervals of one or two weeks, in order to supply the demands of
their customers for fresh fennel stalks from midsummer to December or
even later. The plants will grow more or less in very cold, that is, not
actually freezing weather.
If sown in place, the rows should be the suggested 2 to 2-1/2 feet
apart, and the plants thinned several times until the required distance
is reached. Thinnings may be used for culinary purposes. For family use
half an ounce of seed, if fairly fresh, will produce an ample supply of
plants, and for several years, either from the established roots or by
reseeding. Unless seed is needed for household or sowing purposes, the
flower stems should be cut as soon as they appear.
_Uses._--Fennel is considered indispensable in French and Italian
cookery. The young plants and the tender leaves are often used for
garnishes and to add flavor to salads. They are also minced and added to
sauces usually served with puddings. The tender stems and the leaves are
employed in soups and fish sauces, though more frequently they are eaten
raw as a salad with or without dressing. The famous "Carosella" of
Naples consists of the stems cut when the plant is about to bloom.
These stems are considered a great delicacy served raw with the leaf
stalks still around them. Oil, vinegar and pepper are eaten with them.
By sowing at intervals of a week or 10 days Italian gardeners manage to
have a supply almost all the year.
The seeds are used in cookery, confectionery and for flavoring liquors.
Oil of fennel, a pale yellow liquid, with a sweetish aromatic odor and
flavor, is distilled with water. It is used in perfumery and for
scenting soaps. A pound of oil is the usual yield of 500 pounds of the
plant.
=Finocchio=, or =Florence fennel= (_F. dulce_, D. C.), deserves special
mention here. It appears to be a native of Italy, a distinct dwarf
annual, very thick-set herb. The stem joints are so close together and
their bases so swelled as to suggest malformation. Even when full grown
and producing seed, the plant rarely exceeds 2 feet. The large, finely
cut, light green leaves are borne on very broad, pale green or almost
whitish stalks, which overlap at their bases, somewhat like celery, but
much more swelled at edible maturity, to form a sort of head or
irregular ball, the "apple," as it is called, sometimes as large as a
man's fist. The seeds are a peculiar oblong, much broader than long,
convex on one side and flat on the other, with five conspicuous ribs.
Cultivation is much the same as for common fennel, though owing to the
dwarf nature of the plant the rows and the plants may be closer
together. The seedlings should be 5 or 6 inches asunder. They are very
thirsty things and require water frequently. When the "apple" attains
the size of an egg, earth may be drawn up slightly to the base, which
may be about half covered; cutting may begin about 10 days later.
Florence fennel is generally boiled and served with either a butter or a
cream dressing. It suggests celery in flavor, but is sweeter and is even
more pleasingly fragrant. In Italy it is one of the commonest and most
popular of vegetables. In other European countries it is also well
known, but in America its cultivation is almost confined to Italian
gardens or to such as supply Italian demands in the large cities. In New
York it is commonly sold by greengrocers and pushcart men in the Italian
sections.
=Fennel Flower= (_Nigella sativa_, Linn.), an Asiatic annual, belonging to
the Ranunculaceæ, grown to a limited extent in southern Europe, but
scarcely known in America. Among the Romans it was esteemed in cookery,
hence one of its common names, Roman coriander. The plant has a rather
stiff, erect, branching stem, bears deeply cut grayish-green leaves and
terminal grayish-blue flowers, which precede odd, toothed, seed vessels
filled with small, triangular, black, highly aromatic seeds. For garden
use the seed is sown in spring after the ground gets warm. The drills
may be 15 to 18 inches apart and the plants thinned to 10 or 12 inches
asunder. No special attention is necessary until midsummer, when the
seed ripens. These are easily threshed and cleaned. After drying they
should be stored in sacks in a cool, dry place. They are used just as
they are or like dill in cookery.
=Hoarhound=, or =horehound= (_Marrubium vulgare_, Linn.), a perennial plant
of the natural order Labiatæ, formerly widely esteemed in cookery and
medicine, but now almost out of use except for making candy which some
people still eat in the belief that it relieves tickling in the throat
due to coughing. In many parts of the world hoarhound has become
naturalized on dry, poor soils, and is even a troublesome weed in such
situations. Bees are very partial to hoarhound nectar, and make a
pleasing honey from the flowers where these are abundant. This honey has
been almost as popular as hoarhound candy, and formerly was obtainable
at druggists. Except in isolated sections, it has ceased to be sold in
the drug stores. The generic name _Marrubium_ is derived from a Hebrew
word meaning bitter. The flavor is so strong and lasting that the modern
palate wonders how the ancient mouth could stand such a thing in
cookery.
The numerous branching, erect stems and the almost square, toothed,
grayish-green leaves are covered with a down from which the common name
hoarhound is derived. The white flowers, borne in axillary clusters
forming whorls and spikes, are followed by small, brown, oblong seeds
pointed at one end. These may be sown up to the third year after
ripening with the expectation that they will grow. Spring is the usual
time for sowing. A dry, poor soil, preferably exposed to the south,
should be chosen. The plants may stand 12 to 15 inches apart. After once
becoming established no further attention need be given except to
prevent seed forming, thus giving the plant less chance to become a
nuisance. Often the clumps may be divided or layers or cuttings may be
used for propagation. No protection need be given, as the plants are
hardy.
An old author gives the following recipe for hoarhound candy: To one
pint of a strong decoction of the leaves and stems or the roots add 8 or
10 pounds of sugar. Boil to candy height and pour into molds or small
paper cases previously well dusted with finely powdered lump sugar, or
pour on dusted marble slabs and cut in squares.
=Hyssop= (_Hyssopus officinalis_, Linn.), a perennial evergreen undershrub
of the Labiatæ, native of the Mediterranean region. Though well known in
ancient times, this plant is probably not the one known as hyssop in
Biblical writings. According to the Standard Dictionary the Biblical
"hyssop" is "an unidentified plant ... thought by some to have been a
species of marjoram (_Origanum maru_); by others, the caper-bush
(_Capparis spinosa_); and by the author of the 'History of Bible
Plants,' to have been the name of any common article in the form of a
brush or a broom." In ancient and medieval times hyssop was grown for
its fancied medicinal qualities, for ornament and for cookery. Except
for ornament, it is now very little cultivated. Occasionally it is found
growing wild in other than Mediterranean countries.
_Description._--The smooth, simple stems, which grow about 2 feet tall,
bear lanceolate-linear, entire leaves and small clusters of usually
blue, though sometimes pink or white flowers, crowded in terminal
spikes. The small, brown, glistening three-angled seeds, which have a
little white hilum near their apices, retain their viability three
years. Leaves, stems and flowers possess a highly aromatic odor and a
hot, bitter flavor.
_Cultivation._--Hyssop succeeds best in rather warm, limy soil. It may
be readily propagated by division, cuttings, and seed. In cold climates
the last way is the most common. Seed is sown in early spring, either in
a cold frame or in the open ground, and the seedlings transplanted in
early summer. Even where the plants survive the winters, it is advisable
to renew them every three or four years. When grown in too rich soil,
the growth will be very lush and will lack aroma. Plants should stand
not closer than 6 inches in the rows, which should be at least 18 inches
apart. They do best in partial shade.
_Uses._--Hyssop has almost entirely disappeared from culinary practice
because it is too strong-flavored. Its tender leaves and shoots are,
however, occasionally added to salads, to supply a bitter taste. The
colorless oil distilled from the leaves has a peculiar odor and an
acrid, camphorescent taste. Upon contact with the air it turns yellow
and changes to a resin. From 400 to 500 pounds of the fresh plant yield
a pound of oil. The oil is used to some extent in the preparation of
toilet articles.
=Lavender=, (_Lavendula vera_, D. C.; _L. Angustifolia_, Moench.; _L.
spica_, Linn.), a half-hardy perennial undershrub, native of dry,
calcareous uplands in southern Europe. Its name is derived from the
Latin word _Lavo_, to wash, a distillation of the flowers being
anciently used in perfuming water for washing the body. The plant forms
a compact clump 2 to 2-1/2 feet tall, has numerous erect stems, bearing
small, linear gray leaves, above which the slender, square, flower stems
arise. The small violet-blue flowers are arranged in a short, terminal
spike, and are followed by little brown, oblong, shiny seeds, with white
dots at the ends, attached to the plant. The seeds remain viable for
about five years.
_Cultivation._--Lavender succeeds best on light, limy or chalky soil,
but will do well in any good loam. In gardens it is usually employed as
an edging for flower beds, and is most frequently propagated by division
or cuttings, seed being used only to get a start where plants cannot be
secured in the other ways mentioned. In cold climates the plants must
either be protected or removed to a greenhouse, or at least a cold
frame, which can be covered in severe weather. The seed is sown indoors
during March, and if crowding, pricked out 2 inches asunder. When the
ground has become warm, the plants are set in the open 15 to 20 inches
asunder. It delights in a sunny situation, and is most fragrant on poor
soil. Rich soil makes the plant larger but the flowers poorer in
perfume.
_Uses._--The plant is sometimes grown for a condiment and an addition to
salads, dressings, etc., but its chief use is in perfumery, the flowers
being gathered and either dried for use in sachet bags or distilled for
their content of oil. In former years no girl was supposed to be ready
for marriage until, with her own hands, she had made her own linen and
stored it with lavender. And in some sections the lavender is still
used, though the linen is nowadays purchased.
In southern France and in England considerable areas are devoted to
lavender for the perfumery business. The flower stems are cut in August,
covered at once with bast matting to protect them from the sun and taken
to the stills to obtain the thin, pale yellow, fragrant oil.
Four-year-old plants yield the greatest amount of oil, but the product
is greater from a two-year plantation than from an older one, the plants
then being most vigorous. Two grades of oil are made, the best being
used for lavender water, the poorer for soap making. In a good season
about one pound of oil is obtained from 150 to 200 pounds of the cut
plants.
=Lovage= (_Levisticum officinale_, Koch.), a perennial, native of the
Mediterranean region. The large, dark-green, shining radical leaves are
usually divided into two or three segments. Toward the top the thick,
hollow, erect stems divide to form opposite, whorled branches which bear
umbels of yellow flowers, followed by highly aromatic, hollowed fruits
("seeds") with three prominent ribs. Propagation is by division or by
seeds not over three years old. In late summer when the seed ripens, it
is sown and the seedlings transplanted either in the fall or as early in
spring as possible to their permanent places. Rich, moist soil is
needed. Root division is performed in early spring. With cultivation and
alternation like that given to Angelica, the plants should last for
several years.
Formerly lovage was used for a great variety of purposes, but nowadays
it is restricted almost wholly to confectionery, the young stems being
handled like those of Angelica. So far as I have been able to learn, the
leaf stalks and stem bases, which were formerly blanched like celery,
are no longer used in this way.
=Marigold= (_Calendula officinalis_, Linn.), an annual herb of the natural
order Compositæ, native of southern Europe. Its Latin name, suggestive
of its flowering habit, signifies blooming through the months. Our word
calendar is of the same derivation. Its short stems, about 12 inches
tall, branch near their bases, bear lanceolate, oblong, unpleasantly
scented leaves, and showy yellow or orange flowers in heads. The curved,
gray seeds, which are rough, wrinkled and somewhat spiny, retain their
germinating power for about three years.
_Cultivation._--For the garden the seed is usually started in a hotbed
during March or April and the plants pricked out in flats 2 inches apart
and hardened off in the usual way. When the weather becomes settled they
are set a foot or 15 inches apart in rather poor soil, preferably light
and sandy, with sunny exposure. Often the seed is sown in the open and
the seedlings thinned and transplanted when about 2 inches tall.
_Uses._--The flower heads are sometimes dried and used in broths, soups,
stews, etc., but the flavor is too pronounced for American palates. One
gardener remarked that "only a few plants are needed by a family." I
think that two would produce about twice as much as I would care to use
in a century. For culinary use the flowers are gathered when in full
bloom, dried in the shade and stored in glass jars. The fresh flowers
have often been used to color butter.
The marigold, "homely forgotten flower, under the rose's bower, plain as
a weed," to quote Bayard Taylor, is a general favorite flowering plant,
especially in country gardens. It is so easily grown, is so free a
bloomer, and under ordinary management continues from early summer until
even hard frosts arrive, that busy farmers wives and daughters love it.
Then, too, it is one of the old-fashioned flowers, about which so many
happy thoughts cling. What more beautiful and suggestive lines could one
wish than these:
"The marigold, whose courtier's face
Echoes the sun, and doth unlace
Her at his rise, at his full stop
Packs up and shuts her gaudy shop."
--_John Cleveland_
"_On Phillis Walking before Sunrise_"
"Youth! Youth! how buoyant are thy hopes! They turn
Like marigolds toward the sunny side,"
--_Jean Ingelow_
"_The Four Bridges_"
=Marjoram.=--Two species of marjoram now grown for culinary purposes
(several others were formerly popular) are members of the Labiatæ or
mint family--pot or perennial marjoram (_Origanum vulgare_, Linn.) and
sweet or annual (_O. Marjorana_). Really, both plants are perennials,
but sweet marjoram, because of its liability to be killed by frost, is
so commonly cultivated in cold countries as an annual that it has
acquired this name, which readily distinguishes it from its hardy
relative. Perennial marjoram is a native of Europe, but has become
naturalized in many cool and even cold temperate climates. It is often
found wild in the Atlantic states in the borders of woods.
[Illustration: Sweet Marjoram]
The general name _origanum_, meaning delight of the mountain, is derived
from two Greek words, _oros_, mountain; and _ganos_, joy, some of the
species being found commonly upon mountain sides. Under cultivation it
has developed a few varieties the most popular of which are a variegated
form used for ornamental purposes, and a dwarf variety noted for its
ability to come true to seed. Both varieties are used in cookery. The
perennial species seems to have had the longer association with
civilization; at least it is the one identified in the writings of
Pliny, Albertus Magnus and the English herbalists of the middle ages.
Annual marjoram is thought to be the species considered sacred in India
to Vishnu and Siva.
_Description._--Perennial marjoram rises even 2 feet high, in branchy
clumps, bears numerous short-stemmed, ovate leaves about 1 inch long,
and terminal clusters or short spikes of little, pale lilac or pink
blossoms and purple bracts. The oval, brown seeds are very minute. They
are, however, heavy for their size, since a quart of them weighs about
24 ounces. I am told that an ounce contains more than 340,000, and would
rather believe than be forced to prove it.
Annual marjoram is much more erect, more bush-like, has smaller,
narrower leaves, whiter flowers, green bracts and larger, but lighter
seeds--only 113,000 to the ounce and only 20 ounces to the quart!
_Cultivation._--Perennial marjoram when once established may be readily
propagated by cuttings, division or layers, but it is so easy to grow
from seed that this method is usually employed. There is little danger
of its becoming a weed, because the seedlings are easily destroyed while
small. The seed should be sown during March or April in flats or beds
that can be protected from rain. It is merely dusted on the surface, the
soil being pressed down slightly with a board or a brick. Until the
seedlings appear, the bed should be shaded to check evaporation. When
the plants are 2 or 3 inches tall they may be transplanted to the places
where they are to remain, as they are not so easy to transplant as
lettuce and geraniums. The work should be done while the plants are very
small, and larger numbers should be set than will ultimately be allowed
to grow. I have had no difficulty in transplanting, but some people who
have had prefer to sow the seed where the plants are to stand.
If to be used for edging, the dwarf plants may be set 3 or 6 inches
apart; the larger kinds require a foot or 15 inches in which to develop.
In field cultivation the greater distance is the more desirable. From
the very start the plants must be kept free from weeds and the soil
loose and open. Handwork is essential until they become established. The
plants will last for years.
Annual marjoram is managed in the same kind of way as to seeding and
cultivation; but as the plant is tender, fresh sowings must be made
annually. To be sure, plants may be taken up in the fall and used for
making cuttings or layers towards spring for the following seasons beds.
As annual marjoram is somewhat smaller than the perennial kind (except
the dwarf perennial variety), the distances may be somewhat less, say 9
or 10 inches. Annual marjoram is a quick-growing plant--so quick, in
fact, that leaves may be secured within six or eight weeks of sowing.
The flowers appear in 10 to 12 weeks, and the seed ripens soon after.
When it is desired to cure the leaves for winter use, the stems should
be cut just as the flowers begin to appear, and dried in the usual
manner. (See page 25.) If seed is wanted, they should be cut soon after
the flowers fall or even before all have fallen--when the scales around
the seeds begin to look as if drying. The cut stems must be dried on
sheets of very fine weave, to prevent loss of seed. When the leaves are
thoroughly dry they must be thrashed and rubbed before being placed in
sieves, first of coarse, and then of finer mesh.
_Uses._--The leaves and the flower and tender stem tips of both species
have a pleasant odor, and are used for seasoning soups, stews, dressings
and sauces. They are specially favored in France and Italy, but are
popular also in England and America. In France marjoram is cultivated
commercially for its oil, a thin, light yellow or greenish liquid, with
the concentrated odor of marjoram and peppermint. It has a warm, and
slightly bitter taste. About 200 pounds of stems and leaves are needed
to get a pound of oil. Some distillation is done in England, where 70
pounds of the plant yield about one ounce of oil. This oil is used for
perfuming toilet articles, especially soap, but is perhaps less popular
than the essential oil of thyme.
=Mint= (_Mentha viridis_, Linn.)--Spearmint, a member of the Labiatæ, is a
very hardy perennial, native to Mediterranean countries. Its generic
name is derived from the mythological origin ascribed to it. Poets
declared that Proserpine became jealous of Cocytus's daughter, Minthe,
whom she transformed into the plant. The specific name means green,
hence the common name, green mint, often applied to it. The old Jewish
law did not require that tithes of "mint, anise and cumin" should be
paid in to the treasury, but the Pharisees paid them while omitting the
weightier matters, justice, mercy, and faith (Matthew xxiii, 23). From
this and many other references in old writings it is evident that mint
has been highly esteemed for many centuries. In the seventeenth century
John Gerarde wrote concerning it that "the smelle rejoyceth the heart of
man." Indeed, it has been so universally esteemed that it is found wild
in nearly all countries to which civilization has extended. It has been
known as an escape from American gardens for about 200 years, and is
sometimes troublesome as a weed in moist soil.
[Illustration: Mint, Best Friend of Roast Lamb]
_Description._--From creeping rootstocks erect square stems rise to a
height of about 2 feet, and near their summits bear spreading branches
with very short-stemmed, acute-pointed, lance-shaped, wrinkled leaves
with toothed edges, and cylindrical spikes of small pink or lilac
flowers, followed by very few, roundish, minute, brown seeds.