are principally natives of mild climates of the old world, but many of
them extend farther north into the cold parts of the continent, even
beyond the Arctic Circle in some cases. They have cylindrical, usually
hollow stems; alternate, generally compound leaves the basis of whose
stalks ensheath the branches or stems; and small flowers almost always
arranged in compound terminal umbels. The fruits are composed of two
seedlike dry carpels, each containing a single seed, and usually
separating when ripe. Each carpel bears five longitudinal prominent ribs
and several, often four, lesser intermediate ones, in the intervals
between which numerous oil ducts have their openings from the interior
of the fruit. The oil is generally found in more or less abundance also
in other parts of the plant, but is usually most plentiful in the
fruits.
The members of the Compositæ used as sweet herbs are, with the exception
of tarragon, comparatively unimportant, and except for having their
flowers in close heads "on a common receptacle, surrounded by an
involucre," have few conspicuous characters in common. No further space
except that required for their enumeration need here be devoted to them.
And this remark will apply also to the other two herbs mentioned further
below.
COMPOSITÆ
Marigold, Pot (_Calendula officinalis_, Linn.). Tansy (_Tanacetum
vulgaris_, Linn.). Tarragon (_Artemisia Dracunculus_, Linn.).
Southernwood (_Artemisia Abrotanum_, Linn.).
RUTACEÆ
Rue (_Ruta graveolens_, Linn.).
BORAGINACEÆ
Borage (_Borago officinalis_, Linn.).
RANUNCULACEÆ
Fennel-flower (_Nigella sativa_, Linn.).
Before dismissing this section of the subject, it may be interesting to
glance over the list of names once more. Seven of these plants were
formerly so prominent in medicine that they were designated "official"
and nearly all the others were extensively used by physicians. At the
present day there are very few that have not passed entirely out of
official medicine and even out of domestic practice, at least so far as
their intrinsic qualities are concerned. Some, to be sure, are still
employed because of their pleasant flavors, which disguise the
disagreeable taste of other drugs. But this is a very different matter.
One of the most notable of these is fennel. What wonders could that
plant not perform 300 years ago! In Parkinson's "Theatricum Botanicum"
(1640) its "vertues" are recorded. Apart from its use as food, for
which, then, as now, it was highly esteemed, without the attachment of
any medicinal qualities as an esculent, it was considered efficacious in
cases of gout, jaundice, cramps, shortness of breath, wheezing of the
lungs; for cleansing of the blood and improving the complexion; to use
as an eye-water or to increase the flow of milk; as a remedy for serpent
bites or an antidote for poisonous herbs and mushrooms; and for people
who "are growen fat to abate their unwieldinesse and make them more
gaunt and lanke."
But let us peep into the 19th edition of the United States Dispensatory.
Can this be the same fennel which "is one of our most grateful
aromatics," and which, because of "the absence of any highly excitant
property," is recommended for mixing with unpleasant medicines? Ask any
druggist, and he will say it is used for little else nowadays than for
making a tea to give babies for wind on their stomachs. Strange, but
true it is! Similar statements if not more remarkable ones could be made
about many of the other herbs herein discussed. Many of these are spoken
of as "formerly considered specific" for such and such troubles but "now
known to be inert."
The cause is not far to seek. An imaginative and superstitious people
attached fanciful powers to these and hundreds of other plants which the
intervening centuries have been unable wholly to eradicate, for among
the more ignorant classes, especially of Europe, many of these relics of
a dark age still persist.
But let us not gloat over our superior knowledge. After a similar lapse
of time, may not our vaunted wisdom concerning the properties of plants
look as ridiculous to the delver among our musty volumes? Indeed, it
may, if we may judge by the discoveries and investigations of only the
past fifty years. During this time a surprisingly large number of plants
have been proved to be not merely innocuous instead of poisonous, as
they were reputed, but fit for human food and even of superior
excellence!
THE HERB LIST
=Angelica= (_Archangelica officinalis_, Hoffm.), a biennial or perennial
herb of the natural order Umbelliferæ, so called from its supposed
medicinal qualities. It is believed to be a native of Syria, from
whence it has spread to many cool European climates, especially Lapland
and the Alps, where it has become naturalized.
[Illustration: Prophecy of Many Toothsome Dishes]
_Description._ Its roots are long, spindle-shaped, fleshy, and sometimes
weigh three pounds; its stems stout, herbaceous, fluted, often more than
4 feet tall, and hollow; its leaves long-stalked, frequently 3 feet in
length, reddish purple at the clasping bases, and composed, in the
larger ones, of numerous small leaflets, in three principal groups,
which are each subdivided into three lesser groups; its flowers
yellowish or greenish, small and numerous, in large roundish umbels; its
seeds pale yellow, membranous-edged, oblong flattened on one side,
convex on the other, which is marked with three conspicuous ribs.
_Cultivation._ Since the seeds lose their vitality rapidly, rarely being
viable after the first year, they should be sown as soon as ripe in late
summer or early autumn, or not later than the following spring after
having been kept during the winter in a cold storeroom. The soil should
be moderately rich, rather light, deep, well drained, but moist and well
supplied with humus. It should be deeply prepared and kept loose and
open as long as tools can be used among the plants, which may be left to
care for themselves as soon as they shade the ground well.
In the autumn, the seeds may be sown where the plants are to remain or
preferably in a nursery bed, which usually does not need protection
during the winter. In the spring a mild hotbed, a cold frame or a
nursery bed in the garden may be used, according to the earliness of
planting. Half an inch is deep enough to cover the seeds. The seedlings
should be transplanted when still small for their first summer's growth,
a space of about 18 inches being allowed between them. In the autumn
they should be removed to permanent quarters, the plants being set 3
feet apart.
If well grown, the leaves may be cut for use during the summer after
transplanting; the plants may not, however, produce seed until the
following season. Unless seed is desired, the tops should be cut and
destroyed at or before flowering time, because, if this be not done, the
garden is apt to become overrun with angelica seedlings. If the seeds
are wanted, they should be gathered and treated as indicated on page 28.
After producing seed, the plants frequently die; but by cutting down the
tops when the flower heads first appear, and thus preventing the
formation of seed, the plants may continue for several years longer.
_Uses._ The stems and leaf stalks, while still succulent, are eaten as a
salad or are roasted or boiled like potatoes. In Europe, they are
frequently employed as a garnish or as an adjunct to dishes of meat and
fish. They are also largely used for making candied angelica. (See
below.) Formerly the stems were blanched like celery and were very
popular as a vegetable; now they are little used in the United States.
The tender leaves are often boiled and eaten as a substitute for
spinach. Less in America than in Europe, the seeds, which, like other
parts of the plant, are aromatic and bitterish, are used for flavoring
various beverages, cakes, and candies, especially "comfits." Oil of
angelica is obtained from the seeds by distillation with steam or
boiling water, the vapor being condensed and the oil separated by
gravity. It is also obtained in smaller quantity from the roots, 200
pounds of which, it is said, yield only about one pound of the oil. Like
the seeds, the oil is used for flavoring.
_Angelica candied._ Green says: The fresh roots, the tender stems, the
leaf stalks and the midribs of the leaves make a pleasing aromatic
candy. When fresh gathered the plant is rather too bitter for use. This
flavor may be reduced by boiling. The parts should first be sliced
lengthwise, to remove the pith. The length of time will depend somewhat
upon the thickness of the pieces. A few minutes is usually sufficient.
After removal and draining the pieces are put in a syrup of granulated
sugar and boiled till full candy density is reached. The kettle is then
removed from the fire and the contents allowed to cool. When almost cold
the pieces are to be taken out and allowed to dry.
=Anise= (_Pimpinella Anisum_, Linn.), an annual herb of the natural order
Umbelliferæ. It is a native of southwestern Asia, northern Africa and
south-eastern Europe, whence it has been introduced by man throughout
the Mediterranean region, into Germany, and to some extent into other
temperate regions of both hemispheres, but seems not to be known
anywhere in the wild state or as an escape from gardens. To judge from
its mention in the Scriptures (Matthew xxiii, 23), it was highly
valued as a cultivated crop prior to our era, not only in Palestine,
but elsewhere in the East. Many Greek and Roman authors, especially
Dioscorides, Theophrastus, Pliny and Paladius, wrote more or less fully
of its cultivation and uses.
[Illustration: Anise in Flower and in Fruit]
From their days to the present it seems to have enjoyed general
popularity. In the ninth century, Charlemagne commanded that it be grown
upon the imperial farms; in the thirteenth, Albertus Magnus speaks
highly of it; and since then many agricultural writers have devoted
attention to it. But though it has been cultivated for at least two
thousand years and is now extensively grown in Malta, Spain, southern
France, Russia, Germany and India, which mainly supply the market, it
seems not to have developed any improved varieties.
_Description._--Its roots are white, spindle-shaped and rather fibrous;
its stems about 18 inches tall, branchy, erect, slender, cylindrical;
its root leaves lobed somewhat like those of celery; its stem leaves
more and more finely cut toward the upper part of the stem, near the top
of which they resemble fennel leaves in their finely divided segments;
its flowers yellowish white, small, rather large, in loose umbels
consisting of many umbellets; its fruits ("seeds") greenish-gray, small,
ovoid or oblong in outline, longitudinally furrowed and ridged on the
convex side, very aromatic, sweetish and pleasantly piquant.
_Cultivation._--The seeds, which should be as fresh as possible, never
more than two years old, should be sown in permanent quarters as soon as
the weather becomes settled in early spring. They should be planted 1/2
inch deep, about 1/2 inch asunder, in drills 15 or 18 inches apart, and
the plants thinned when about 2 inches tall to stand 6 inches asunder.
An ounce of seed should plant about 150 feet of drill. The plants, which
do not transplant readily, thrive best in well-drained, light, rich,
rather dry, loamy soils well exposed to the sun. A light application of
well-rotted manure, careful preparation of the ground, clean and
frequent cultivation, are the only requisites in the management of this
crop.
In about four months from the sowing of the seed, and in about one month
from the appearance of the flowers, the plants may be pulled, or
preferably cut, for drying. (See page 25.) The climate and the soils in
the warmer parts of the northern states appear to be favorable to the
commercial cultivation of anise, which it seems should prove a
profitable crop under proper management.
_Uses._--The leaves are frequently employed as a garnish, for flavoring
salads, and to a small extent as potherbs. Far more general, however, is
the use of the seeds, which enter as a flavoring into various
condiments, especially curry powders, many kinds of cake, pastry, and
confectionery and into some kinds of cheese and bread. Anise oil is
extensively employed for flavoring many beverages both alcoholic and
non-spirituous and for disguising the unpleasant flavors of various
drugs. The seeds are also ground and compounded with other fragrant
materials for making sachet powders, and the oil mixed with other fluids
for liquid perfumes. Various similar anise combinations are largely used
in perfuming soaps, pomatums and other toilet articles. The very
volatile, nearly colorless oil is usually obtained by distillation with
water, about 50 pounds of seed being required to produce one pound of
oil. At Erfurt, Germany, where much of the commercial oil is made, the
"hay" and the seeds are both used for distilling.
=Balm= (_Melissa officinalis_, Linn.), a perennial herb of the natural
order Labiatæ. The popular name is a contraction of _balsam_, the plant
having formerly been considered a specific for a host of ailments. The
generic name, _Melissa_, is the Greek for _bee_ and is an allusion to
the fondness of bees for the abundant nectar of the flowers.
Balm is a native of southern Europe, where it was cultivated as a source
of honey and as a sweet herb more than 2,000 years ago. It is frequently
mentioned in Greek and Latin poetry and prose. Because of its use for
anointing, Shakespeare referred to it in the glorious lines (King
Richard II., act iii, scene 2):
"Not all the water in the rough, rude sea
Can wash the balm from an anointed king."
As a useful plant it received attention from the pen of Pliny. From its
home it has been introduced by man as a garden plant into nearly all
temperate climates throughout the world, and is often found as an escape
from gardens where introduced--occasionally in this role in the earliest
settled of the United States. Very few well-marked varieties have been
produced. A variegated one, now grown for ornament as well as for
culinary purposes, is probably the same as that mentioned by Mawe in
1778.
_Description._--The roots are small and fibrous; the stems, about 18
inches tall, very numerous, erect or spreading, square; the leaves,
green (except as mentioned), broadly ovate with toothed margins,
opposite, rather succulent, highly scented; the flowers, few, whitish,
or purplish, in small, loose, axillary, one-sided clusters borne from
midsummer until late autumn; the seeds very small--more than 50,000 to
the ounce.
_Cultivation._--Balm is readily propagated by means of divisions,
layers, cuttings, and by its seeds, which germinate fairly well even
when four years old. Owing to its small size, the seed should be planted
in a seedpan or flat in a greenhouse or hotbed, where all conditions can
be controlled. The soil should be made very fine and friable, the thinly
scattered seeds merely pressed upon the surface with a block or a brick,
and water applied preferably through the bottom of the seedpan, which
may be set in a shallow dish of water until the surface of the soil
_begins_ to appear moist.
When an inch tall the seedlings should be pricked out 2 inches apart in
other, deeper flats and when about 4 inches tall set in the garden about
1 foot asunder in rows about 18 inches apart. When once established they
may be increased readily by the artificial means mentioned. (See page
34.) Ordinary clean cultivation throughout the season, the removal of
dead parts, and care to prevent the plants from spreading unduly, are
the only requisites of cultivation. Preferably the soil should be poor,
rather dry, little if at all enriched and in a sunny place. The foliage
of seedling plants or plants newly spring-set should be ready for use by
midsummer; that of established plants from early spring until late
autumn. For home use and market it should be cured as recommended on
page 25, the leaves being very thinly spread and plentifully supplied
with air because of their succulence. The temperature should be rather
low.
_Uses._--The foliage is widely used for flavoring soups, stews, sauces,
and dressings, and, when fresh, to a small extent with salads. Otto or
oil of balm, obtained by aqueous distillation from the "hay," is a pale
yellow, essential and volatile oil highly prized in perfumery for its
lemon-like odor, and is extensively employed for flavoring various
beverages.
=Basil= (_Ocymum basilicum_, Linn.), an annual herb of the order Labiatæ.
The popular name, derived from the specific, signifies royal or kingly,
probably because of the plant's use in feasts. In France it is known as
herb royale, royal herb. The generic name is derived from _Oza_, a Greek
word signifying odor.
The plant is a native of tropical Asia, where for centuries, especially
in India, it has been highly esteemed as a condiment. Probably the early
Greek and Roman writers were well acquainted with it, but commentators
are not decided. They suppose that the _Okimon_ of Hippocrates,
Dioscorides and Theophrastus is the same as _Ocimum hortense_ of
Columella and Varro.
The plant's introduction into England was about 1548, or perhaps a
little earlier, but probably not prior to 1538, because Turner does not
mention it in his "Libellus," published in that year. It seems to have
grown rapidly in popularity, for in 1586 Lyte speaks of it as if well
known. In America it has been cultivated somewhat for about a century
partly because of its fragrant leaves which are employed in bouquets,
but mainly for flavoring culinary concoctions. In Australia it is also
more or less grown, and in countries where French commerce or other
interests have penetrated it is well known.
[Illustration: Sweet Basil]
There are several related species which, in America less than in Europe
or the East, have attracted attention. The most important of these is
dwarf or bush basil (_O. minimum_, Linn.), a small Chilian species also
reported from Cochin China. It was introduced into cultivation in Europe
in 1573. On account of its compact form it is popular in gardens as an
edging as well as a culinary herb, for more than a century it has been
grown in America. Sacred basil (_O. sanctum_), an oriental species, is
cultivated near temples in India and its odoriferous oil extracted for
religious uses. Formerly the common species was considered sacred by the
Brahmins who used it especially in honor of Vishnu and in funeral rites.
An African species, _O. fruticosum_, is highly valued at the Cape of
Good Hope for its perfume.
_Description._--From the small, fibrous roots the square stems stand
erect about 1 foot tall. They are very branching and leafy. The leaves
are green, except as noted below, ovate, pointed, opposite, somewhat
toothed, rather succulent and highly fragrant. The little white flowers
which appear in midsummer are racemed in leafy whorls, followed by small
black fruits, popularly called seeds. These, like flaxseed, emit a
mucilaginous substance when soaked in water. About 23,000 weigh an
ounce, and 10 ounces fill a pint. Their vitality lasts about eight
years.
Like most of the other culinary herbs, basil has varied little in
several centuries; there are no well-marked varieties of modern origin.
Only three varieties of common basil are listed in America; Vilmorin
lists only five French ones. Purple basil has lilac flowers, and when
grown in the sun also purple leaf stems and young branches.
Lettuce-leaved basil has large, pale-green blistered and wrinkled leaves
like those of lettuce. Its closely set clusters of flowers appear
somewhat late. The leaves are larger and fewer than in the common
variety.
The dwarf species is more compact, branching and dainty than the common
species. It has three varieties; one with deep violet foliage and stems
and lilac white flowers, and two with green leaves, one very dense and
compact.
East Indian, or Tree Basil (_O. gratissimum_, Linn.), a well-known
species in the Orient, seems to have a substitute in _O. suave_, also
known by the same popular name, and presumably the species cultivated in
Europe and to some extent in America. It is an upright, branching
annual, which forms a pyramidal bush about 20 inches tall and often 15
inches in diameter. It favors very warm situations and tropical
countries.
_Cultivation._--Basil is propagated by seeds. Because these are very
small, they are best sown in flats under glass, covered lightly with
finely sifted soil and moistened by standing in a shallow pan of water
until the surface shows a wet spot. When about an inch tall, the
seedlings must be pricked out 2 inches apart each way in larger-sized
flats. When 3 inches tall they will be large enough for the garden,
where they should be set 1 foot asunder in rows 15 to 18 inches apart.
Often the seed is sown in the mellow border as early in the spring as
the ground can be worked. This method demands perhaps more attention
than the former, because of weeds and because the rows cannot be easily
seen. When transplanting, preference should be given to a sunny
situation in a mellow, light, fertile, rather dry soil thoroughly well
prepared and as free from weeds as possible. From the start the ground
must be kept loose, open and clean. When the plants meet in the rows
cultivation may stop.
First gatherings of foliage should begin by midsummer when the plants
start to blossom. Then they may be cut to within a few inches of the
ground. The stumps should develop a second and even a third crop if care
is exercised to keep the surface clean and open. A little dressing of
quickly available fertilizer applied at this time is helpful. For seed
some of the best plants should be left uncut. The seed should ripen by
mid-autumn.
For winter use plants may be transplanted from the garden, or seedlings
may be started in September. The seeds should be sown two to the inch
and the seedlings transplanted to pots or boxes. A handy pot is the
4-inch standard; this is large enough for one plant. In flats the plants
should be 5 or 6 inches apart each way.
_Uses._--Basil is one of the most popular herbs in the French cuisine.
It is especially relished in mock turtle soup, which, when correctly
made, derives its peculiar taste chiefly from the clovelike flavor of
basil. In other highly seasoned dishes, such as stews and dressings,
basil is also highly prized. It is less used in salads. A golden yellow
essential oil, which reddens with age, is extracted from the leaves for
uses in perfumery more than in the kitchen.
The original and famous Fetter Lane sausages, formerly popular with
Cockney epicures, owed their reputation mainly to basil. During the
reigns of Queen Mary and Queen Elizabeth farmers grew basil in pots
and presented them with compliments to their landladies when these paid
their visits.
[Illustration: Borage, Famous for "Cool Tankard"]
=Borage= (_Borago officinalis_, Linn.), a coarse, hardy, annual herb of
the natural order Boraginaceæ. Its popular name, derived from the
generic, is supposed by some to have come from a corruption of _cor_,
the heart, and _ago_, to affect, because of its former use as a cordial
or heart-fortifying medicine. _Courage_ is from the same source. The
Standard Dictionary, however, points to _burrago_, rough, and relates it
indirectly by cross references to _birrus_, a thick, coarse woolen cloth
worn by the poor during the thirteenth century. The roughness of the
full-grown leaves suggests flannel. Whichever derivation be correct,
each is interesting as implying qualities, intrinsic or attributed, to
the plant.
The specific name indicates its obsolete use in medicine. It is one of
the numerous plants which have shaken off the superstitions which a
credulous populace wreathed around them. Almost none but the least
enlightened people now attribute any medicinal virtues whatever to it.